- Email: [email protected]
Water-Energy-Food Nexus in the Asia-Pacific Region
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ejrh
Editorial
Water-Energy-Food Nexus in the Asia-Pacific Region
MARK
AB S T R A CT Water, energy, and food are among the most important and fundamental resources for human beings and society. Despite the large potential for efficiency and reduction of losses, the demand for these resources is likely to increase due to population growth, changes in lifestyles, climate change, and other aspect of global change. The strong interconnectedness of these three vital resources has been termed the “Nexus” in the scientific literature in recent years. While many papers claim its fundamental importance, few provide specific ideas on how to deal with this Nexus in practice. This paper introduces twenty case-studies that are highlighted in this special issue that explore the practice of the Nexus and its scientific basis with particular focus on the Water-Energy-Food Nexus in the Asia-Pacific Region.
1. Introduction The nexus between water, food and energy has received broad attention recently in the scientific literature (Bazilian et al., 2011; Beisheim, 2013; FAO, 2014; Lawford et al., 2013a; Rahaman and Varis, 2005; United Nations ESCAP, 2013; Vogt et al., 2010) and been the focus of conferences, such as Nexus 2011 in Bonn, Nexus 2014 in North Carolina, Nexus 2014 in Bonn, and World Water Week 2014 in Stockholm. As a result, the Water-Energy-Food Nexus has become a standalone technical term. While such a strong conceptual framing can have its drawbacks, e.g. preventing the link to other important resources, such as minerals, the Nexus has the merit of drawing specific scientific attention to a central problem area for future human existence. Numerous articles in the scientific literature have emphasized the importance and theoretical framing of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus. However, the literature is in its infancy regarding the practical aspects of policy and management approaches and methods to address the Nexus. Disciplinary and broad interdisciplinary science is still needed to advance both the theoretical and applied aspects of the Nexus, largely because of the inherent synergies and trade-offs that define the Nexus. In particular, managing the trade-offs require not only observations and data about the biophysical and natural systems of the Nexus, but also appropriate understanding of the decision-making and human systems of the Nexus. Thus, the Nexus conceptual framework requires collaborative advances from the natural and social sciences. The purpose of this paper is to provide some key insights into this Nexus transfer of knowledge between theory and practice, policy and management, and natural and social sciences as an introduction and outline for this special issue on the Water-EnergyFood Nexus of the Asia-Pacific Region. The twenty papers in this special issue will further elucidate key principles and practical tools to address the Nexus in the Asia-Pacific Region and more broadly to other regions of the world. 1.1. Three Stages of Optimal Policies for the Water-Energy-Food Nexus The establishment of optimal policies for water, energy, and food that is described in the literature can be characterized in three general stages. The first stage is “integrated management”, which includes integrated water resources management (Rahaman and Varis, 2005) to govern the various water sectors such as agriculture, industry, domestic and others, and to integrate the governance of different water bodies such as rivers, groundwater, and lakes. The integrated energy policy also includes the governance of the production and management of the different type of energy including gas, oil, coal, hydro-power, nuclear energy, and renewable energy, and also integration of the consumption governance in different sectors. Aspects of integrated management has also been http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.06.004
2214-5818/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
applied to sustainable food and agroecological systems (Gliessman, 2015). The integrated management of water, energy, and food includes spatial integration across various scales and systems, such as integrated coastal zone management (Thia-Eng, 2006). The second stage for the establishment of optimal policies is characterized as “security”, which includes security of the nation, human health, livelihood, and ecosystem service. Water security (Arnell, 2004, 1999; Bakker, 2012; Cook and Bakker, 2012; Huntjens et al., 2012; Lawford et al., 2013b; Pahl-Wostl et al., 2013), energy security (International Energy Agency, 2014), and food security (Lake et al., 2012) are treated separately, including self-production rate depending on the natural, social and political factors, diversity of the alternative resources including natural and social factors, and stability of the resources depending on the natural and economic factors that are important for the security. The third stage for the establishment of optimal policies will be the “nexus” of the water, energy, and food systems. The nexus framework considers the integrated and interconnected nature of the water, energy, and food systems, including the associated synergies and tradeoffs that are created through the use and management of these connected resources (Bazilian et al., 2011; Beisheim, 2013; FAO, 2014; Lawford et al., 2013a; United Nations ESCAP, 2013; Vogt et al., 2010). 1.2. Why is Nexus the Key for Global Sustainability? There are several nexus platforms that regard the nexus as a key factor in global sustainability. The Bonn 2011 Conference emphasizes the water, energy, and food nexus (Hoff, 2011); the World Economic Forum treats water, energy, food, and climate change as the nexus (World Economic Forum Water Initiative, 2011); and the Transatlantic Academy deals with water, energy, food, land, and minerals as the nexus (Andrews-Speed et al., 2012). Recent and forthcoming Nexus platforms include those at United Nations Climate Change Conference COP22 in Marrakech, Morocco, the Dresden 2017 Nexus Conference, and several others. These platforms have illustrated distinct methods of evaluation and analysis within the Nexus framework. For example, the commonly use “two at one time” analysis describes evaluating the two-way interactions between the water-food, water-energy, and food-energy nexus. The water and energy nexus (Byers et al., 2014; Hussey and Pittock, 2012; King et al., 2008; Rothausen and Conway, 2011) includes energy consumption for water allocation and pumping (Fig. 1 ①), water consumption for the cooling of power plant systems, and water use for hydro power generation (Fig. 1 ②). The water and food nexus (Hoekstra and Mekonnen, 2012) consists of water consumption for agriculture and aquaculture (Fig. 1 ④). The energy and food nexus (Tilman et al., 2009) includes biomass for energy (Fig. 1 ⑤) and energy consumption for food production (Fig. 1 ⑥). More finer scales of interconnections between water, energy and food are energy-food to water security (Fig. 1 ⑦), water-food to energy security (Fig. 1 ⑧) and the water-energy to food security (Fig. 1 ⑨), which are related to land use and climate change (Hoekstra and Mekonnen, 2012). Water-energy-food nexus security is threatened by both climate and social changes (Fig. 1). The three pyramids (economy, social, and environment) of sustainable development can be classified in terms of nexus security as 1) efficiency, including saving consumptions and efficient productivities, 2) equity, including accessibility and affordability, 3) diversity, including alternative resources, 4) stability, including temporal resources variability, and 5) autonomy, including self-sufficiency. Optimal governance of the nexus security is necessary for the global sustainability and human well-being. 1.3. Water-Food Nexus Security as Optimal Governance An example where the establishment of optimal policies between the water and food nexus is needed occurs at the linkages between land and ocean through water (including groundwater) and dissolved nutrient transports. The water-food nexus at the landocean interface incorporates such processes as freshwater coming from springs in the seabed and nutrient transport from land to the ocean that may be important for coastal fisheries and ecosystem health. Conversely, the flow and transport of seawater into coastal aquifers due to over-pumping may have negative consequences agriculture and food systems. Better understanding and managing types of land-ocean interactions within the water-food nexus are necessary to maximize human-environmental security and optimize the water-food connections. Therefore, coordinating governance among freshwater-food systems and coastal fisheries, which are vertically and sectorally divided, should be promoted in an integrated manner since the challenges of land-ocean interactions are complexly interconnected and interdependent. The integrated management between land and coastal areas should be integrated within inter-agency and multisectoral policy tools. As an illustration of the Water-Food Nexus of the Asia-Pacific Region, the freshwater policy in Japan, the Basic Act on Water Cycle was newly enacted in April 2014. The act says the water is highly recognized as a public good and the Secretariat of Headquarters for Water Policy in Cabinet Secretariat as an inter-agency and a multi-sector coordinating body will be set up under the new Act. The seven different ministries and agencies are currently involved in the Japanese water management. Moreover, the groundwater and spring water, which were not previously covered by the national legislation, will now be included management target under the new Act. On the other hand, the coastal policy in Japan, called the Basic Act on Ocean policy was enacted in 2007. Article 25 stipulates for the first time the need for integrated management of land and coastal areas. In 2008, the Basic Plan on Ocean Policy was formulated and the Secretariat of the Headquarters for Ocean Policy in Cabinet Secretariat as an inter-agency and a multi-sector coordinating body was established. Japanese coastal management includes approximately 35,000 km of coastline, and the coastlines are classified as coastal conservation areas, general public coast areas, and others. The coastal conservation areas are defined by the Coast Act as areas where shore protection facilities are located to protect a coastline from damage from sea or land movement. In addition, the coastal conservation areas are subdivided into five classifications: “Former Ministry of Construction coast”, “commercial port”, “fishing port” and “coast for agricultural land” and “co-management coast”. Although each entity entrusts the management activities 2
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Fig. 1. Schematic of the water-energy-food nexus (There is no ③ in the nexus).
to local government such as governors or mayors, each area is managed by different bodies who manage different targets. That is, integrated coastal management in Japanese coastal areas has not yet been implemented. Integrations of the water managements based on Basic Act on Water Cycle, integrated coastal management, and integration of the management between land and the ocean are the issues of the first stage (integrated management) for the establishment of optimal policies. Subsequent integration of the water (and dissolved nutrient transport) for the fishery resources is the second stage (security) in terms of environmental flow, and the third stage (Nexus) in terms of interconnectivity for the establishment of optimal policies. 1.4. Water-Energy Nexus Security as Optimal Governance Another example from Japan is the water-energy nexus between hot spring spa and geothermal power plant development after the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011. Development of geothermal power plants was encouraged from the perspective of renewable energy and reduction of carbon emission, but also over concerns from the Fukushima nuclear power plant incident. As a result, a conflict developed between the use of geothermal water for hot spring spas and geothermal power plants for energy development. Hot spring spas are regulated by prefectural-level law in Japan because over exploitation of the hot springs may cause the reduction of discharge rates of geothermal water and decrease of hot spring temperatures. Presently, there is no regulation of the development of geothermal or hot spring power generations in hot spring area. The developers of the thermal power plants must ask the hot spring spa commission in each prefecture for permission to make production boreholes to extract hot water or vapor for generating the power. There is currently no platform between water sectors and energy sectors in the hot spring areas of Japan. Geothermal and hot spring power development after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Fukushima Incident represents issues within the second stage as “security” in terms of alternative energy resources for optimal policies. The conflict between hot spring spas and new development of geothermal power plant represents the third stage as “nexus” for the optimal policies. 1.5. Challenges for Water-Energy-Food Nexus Research There are many pressing questions and challenges for Water-Energy-Food Nexus research. Among the biggest challenges is addressing the complexity of the water-energy-food nexus. Successful advances in Water-Energy-Food Nexus research will address the complexity through integration of the following (i-iv). (i). Integration of multiple issues and sectors for production and consumption A transition from conventional resource management and policy in which water, energy, and food are treated separately to a more integrated approach is necessary, but challenging to implement in practice. Policies regarding the production and consumption of water, energy, and food must be integrated within a framework that optimizes associated economic, social, and environment factors. (ii). Integration of local scale to global scale 3
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Integration of the governances of the water-energy-food nexus between local, national, and global scale are challenging, but important for global sustainability. The scale of the governance usually depends on economic and social factors such as efficiency, accessibility, equity, and others. However, the environmental impacts and concerns for the different scale are not studied well yet. (iii). Security of the nexus Water security, energy security, and food security have been treated separately. However, these three concepts of security are interconnected and thus create a nexus. Therefore, the nexus security including risk and resilience assessments should be studied for both human and environmental perspectives. (iv). Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach for the nexus research Because of the nexus complexity and limitations of disciplinary solutions, water-energy-food nexus issues related to climate change and land-use policies should be studied using an interdisciplinary approach that includes the natural, social, and human sciences. Understanding the nexus requires a co-construction and integration of different types of knowledge. Thus, a transdisciplinary approach to nexus research is necessary to engage the full spectrum of stakeholders to identify optimal policy (Taniguchi et al., 2013). The security of the water, energy, and food nexus is one of the most challenging research topics for the global sustainability. The security of the nexus can be evaluated through the interrelationships between issues of materials, sectors, production and consumption, scales, and interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches with stakeholder engagements. Additionally, research is needed to address the security of the water-energy-food nexus at local scales that are connected to national, regional, and global level nexus. 2. Special Issues Layout: Asia-Pacific Studies of the Water-Energy and Water-Food nexus This special issue has twenty studies on water-energy, water-food, and food-energy nexus including water for energy, water for food, energy for water and energy for food across the Asia-Pacific region. In an overview evaluation of the water, energy, and food resources for thirty-two countries in the Asia Pacific region, Taniguchi et al. (2015) analyzed security measures based on the amount of resource, self-production, and diversity of sources of each resource. Diversity for all the three resources is also analyzed using surface water and groundwater for water sources; hydro power, geothermal power, solar, and biomass for energy; and cereals, vegetable, fruit, meat, and fish for food. They find a high diversity of sources of water in the US and the Philippines, and a low diversity of sources of food in the US, Canada, and Indonesia. These security measures including water security show new hydrological insight for Asia-Pacific region. Endo et al. (2015) review the current state of research on the water-energy-food nexus by evaluating 37 selected projects in Asia, Europe, Oceania, North America, South America, Middle East, and Africa. They identify four distinct types of nexus research topics, including water–food, water–energy–food, water–energy, and climate related. Among them, six projects (16%) had a close linkage with water–food, 11 (30%) with water–energy–food, 12 (32%) with water–energy, and eight (22%) with climate. They also identified spatial patterns in nexus studies. North America and Oceania had a tendency to focus on a specific nexus type, water–energy (46%) and climate (43%), while Africa had less focus on water–energy (7%). Regarding keywords, out of 37 nexus projects, there were 84 keywords in total, which were categorized by relevance to water, food, energy, climate, and combination of water–food–energy–climate. As for stakeholders, 77 out of 137 organizations were related to research and only two organizations had a role in media. Several papers in this special issue outline new methods of evaluating and quantifying the water-energy-food nexus. Among these papers is Kumazawa et al. (2016) that contributes a transdisciplinary approach to the water-energy-food nexus by using ontology engineering, which is a type of Semantic Web technology that provides common terms, concepts, and semantic. They use a combination of ontology engineering with a text-mining and network analysis approach. Kumazawa et al. (2016) discuss the effectiveness of ontology engineering in the process of collaborative research, including a method to identify and design a research question and metamodel framework to share the knowledge structures among researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders. Second, they reviewed ontology as a domain-neutral metamodel and represent through illustration a construction process in a domain-neutral manner. Third, they proposed an ontology method that contributes to interdisciplinary research through experimental workshops of research development. Burnett et al. (2015) performed choice-based analysis and created a dynamic framework capable of assessing tradeoffs between the various water uses as scarcity increases or decreases in the future. Identifying and understanding the tradeoffs is the first step in developing efficient groundwater management policy. The dynamic optimization approach incorporates those tradeoffs when determining the allocation of the water resource to maximize value to society in aggregate. Although necessarily more complex, models that include a temporal component are often desirable when addressing long term resource allocation problems. Nevertheless, static approaches such as choice-based analysis are often useful for establishing a baseline for the dynamic model. Their study concludes that synergistic interdisciplinary integration of research approaches may prove to be particularly effective when tackling waterenergy-food nexus issues. Using a socio-ecological network model approach, Spiegelberg et al. (2015) explore the connectivity of upland farmers and downstream fishers through interlinkages of water, energy and food within the Dampalit sub-watershed of Laguna Lake, Philippines. The aim of the study is to yield policy relevant results to improve the status of the water resources and food products and to reduce possible user conflicts. Surveying 176 households mainly in the mid- and downstream areas elements and interlinkages of the local 4
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Water-Energy-Food Nexus (WEF-Nexus) were identified by the five capitals of the sustainable livelihood approach through a socioecological network analysis. Besides the innovative methodology, this research adds to the underserved local perspective in the WEFNexus research. The survey shows different livelihood profiles for the two groups and a lack of direct social links between them in the WEF-Nexus context. Also indirect links through consumption of the other group's food products could not be identified. However, a large fraction of the population share the use of char coal for cooking, the Makiling groundwater for drinking and various household purposes and the Central Market in Los Banos for their food supply. Several articles evaluated the energy-food and water-energy nexus. In a water-energy-food nexus study in southeastern Japan, Yamada et al. (2016) evaluated the impact of the hot spring drainage on estuarine fish communities. Factor analysis of water-quality data shows that the scale of the hot spring drainage influence on rivers differs among rivers. The inflow of hot spring drainage into the rivers affects phytoplankton more than the inflow of domestic drainage, which increases the number of phytoplankton. Furthermore, hot spring drainage creates a better habitat for Nile tilapia, a foreign species, by increasing food availability and water temperature. Nishijima and Naritomi (2015) explore gravity data from the Beppu, Japan geothermal field to delineate underground faults and basement structures. The Beppu geothermal field is one of the largest hot-spring resorts in Japan and represents an important waterenergy nexus with cultural significance. Findings from this study provide a better understanding of the underground structures of the Beppu hydrothermal systems that is necessary to manage the long-term sustainability of the hot springs. In a similar water-energy nexus study, Jago-on et al. (2015) evaluated hot springs resorts and spas in the Philippines. Hot spring water resorts and spas in Calamba and Los Baños, Laguna are estimated to consume a large volume of groundwater which could result to over-extraction and decrease in groundwater quantity. However, monitoring of actual usage is difficult as most of these resorts do not have water use permits. The Water Code of the Philippines requires water users to register and apply for permits for water allocation, but still many resorts have not yet registered with the NWRB. If groundwater extraction is left unregulated, water availability for the resorts industry and for other uses in the future, will be negatively affected. The decrease in groundwater supply can lead to competition and conflicts among different users. They conclude that it is necessary to strengthen the implementation of water regulations and enhance partnerships among the national and local government agencies, private sector groups, civil society and communities in the regular monitoring of groundwater resources to promote sustainable use. In another water-energy nexus study in Japan, Fujii et al. (2015) provide quantitative guidelines for capacity building among stakeholders to minimize conflicts in developing mini/micro hydropower (MHP). Results from the study indicate that MHP facilities provide stable electricity for tens to hundreds of residents, assuming that necessary infrastructure exists. However, current river laws and irrigation regulations in Japan restrict new infrastructure to rivers. Solutions may be found by reevaluating existing laws, providing incentives for MHP facilities, and protecting riverine ecosystems. The following eleven articles evaluate the water-energy-food nexus and linkages between land and ocean processes in Japan, Hawaii, California, and Canada by addressing studies of coastal watersheds and aquifers, submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) and associated nutrient flows, vulnerabilities to expected sea level rise and climate variability, and security of rapid shale gas development. Sugimoto and Tsuboi (2016) explore the water-energy-food nexus of seasonal and annual flux of atmospheric nitrogen deposition and subsequent riverine nitrogen export to the Sea of Japan. The study findings illustrate that reactive nitrogen from fossil fuels combustion and agricultural practices has resulted in nitrogen saturation in some forested watersheds in central Japan than is more serious than previously reported. Additionally, the study finds that increasing trends in riverine nitrogen may have caused shifts in the limiting nutrient for coastal primary production from nitrogen to phosphorous. In a study of groundwater from the Coastal California basin aquifer system, Gurdak et al. (2016) identify the scale-dependent relations among source, transport, and attenuation factors the control non-point source nitrate contamination. They use a statistical model to develop vulnerability maps that illustrate the spatial patterns of predicted probability of detecting elevated nitrate in groundwater. The models and maps presented in this article can be used to identify best management practices and policies that advance sustainable water and food systems in California. Utsunomiya et al. (2015) used physical and biological surveys to test the hypothesis that high levels of SGD enhances species richness, abundance and biomass of fish and invertebrates in coastal waters of Obama Bay, Japan. Surveys of radon-222 (222Rn) concentration showed high levels of SGD in the west part of the study area. Species richness, abundance and biomass of fishes and abundance and biomass of turban snail and hermit crab were significantly higher in the area with high 222Rn concentration. Abundance of gammarids, the most major prey item of the fishes, was 18 times higher in the area with high 222Rn concentration. Since the turban snail, hermit crab and gammarids feed on producers (phytoplankton and benthic microalgae), the study concludes that SGD increases species richness and production of fishes and invertebrates by providing nutrients and enhancing primary production. The study by Swarzenski et al. (2016) was on the west coast of Maui, just north of Lahaina, where SGD is constantly discharging into nearshore coastal waters from a series of vents and springs. Estimates of SGD were derived for a primary vent site and the surrounding coastal waters using an excess 222Rn mass-balance model, and complemented with a novel thoron (220Rn, t1/2 = 56 s) groundwater discharge tracer application, as well as oceanographic time series and thermal infrared imagery analyses. In combination, this suite of techniques provides new insight into the connectivity of the coastal aquifer with the near-shore ocean and examines the physical drivers of SGD. Lastly, SGD derived constituent concentrations were tabulated and compared to surrounding seawater concentrations. Such work has implications for the management of coastal aquifers and downstream nearshore ecosystems that respond to sustained constituent loadings via this submarine route. The study by Prouty et al. (2016) on the Kona coast of the Big Island of Hawaii also investigated the SGD contribution to coastal biogeochemical trace element and nutrient cycles. However, here a two end-member salinity-and phase partitioning-based mixing 5
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
experiment was conducted using contrasting groundwater endmember samples and open seawater to resolve fine-scale estuarine biogeochemical and physicochemical processes. For example, results from the mixing experiment illustrate how the availability of P changes with salinity, affecting the mobility of phosphate in the environment. Another submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) study in Hawai’i by Richardson et al. (2015) examined groundwater and nearshore marine water quality in two adjacent coastal aquifers (Waialae East and Waialae West) in Maunalua Bay, Oʻahu, Hawai’i. These aquifers exhibit contrasting land-use and hydrogeologic characteristics to develop a more robust understanding the sources and spatial variability of SGD-conveyed nutrients to nearshore waters. Changes in nutrient concentrations and NO3− stable isotope ratios were measured and integrated with SGD flux, land-use, and recharge data to assess SGD nutrient loads and potential sources in each aquifer. SGD emanating from Waialae West Aquifer was primarily influenced by two-component mixing of a wastewater source with low nutrient groundwater as wastewater effluent accounted for more than 4% of total recharge and 54–95% of total N and P loads in the aquifer. The Bishop et al. (2015) study further examined the connectivity between land use and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) derived nutrient fluxes to the coastal waters of Maui, Hawai'i. Nutrient contributions from agricultural lands, wastewater injection, and septic-cesspool systems were quantified by combining a numerical groundwater model with stable isotope data to identify groundwater pathways, recharge elevations, and nitrate sources. Fresh and total SGD rates and associated nutrient fluxes were derived using 222Rn mass-balance modelling. This study demonstrates that integrated numerical groundwater modelling and geochemical modeling can be very effective in developing a framework to study the effects of land use and its impacts on the nutrient delivery regime to coastal waters. Dimova et al. (2016) studied the exchange of surface water and groundwater through Malibu Lagoon, California into the nearshore coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean. Malibu lagoon surface water is seasonally separated from the ocean by a wave-built sand berm that is only sporadically breached during the rainy season. Using 222Rn as a naturally occurring groundwater tracer, they were able to estimate groundwater inputs to the lagoon and nearshore waters. By measuring nutrient concentrations in the discharging groundwater and surface water, they were able to estimate nutrient loadings during different flow regimes, and were able to thus assess biogeochemical transport in this dynamic, urban lagoon system. Hoover et al. (2016) examined the likely influence of expected sea level rise (SLR) scenarios on coastal groundwater levels at contrasting sites along the California coast. Separate and combined inundation scenarios for SLR and groundwater emergence were developed using digital elevation models of study site topography and groundwater surfaces constructed from well data or published groundwater level contours. The selected field sites provide respective insight into the vulnerability of Northern California coastal plains, coastal developments built on beach sand or sand spits, and developed areas around coastal lagoons associated with seasonal streams and berms. Improved understanding of the extent and response of California coastal aquifers to SLR will help prepare for mitigation and adaptation to future impacts. The study by Velasco et al. (2016) explore groundwater response along the US West Coast to interannual to multidecadal climate variability and highlight important implications for security within the water-energy-food nexus. The study finds that low frequency climate variability signals tend to be preserved better in groundwater fluctuations than high frequency signals, which is a function of the degree of damping of surface variable fluxes related to soil texture, depth to water, mean and period of the infiltration flux. An important finding is that the teleconnection patterns that exist in surface hydrologic processes are not necessarily the same as those preserved in subsurface processes. In the final paper of this special issue, Holding et al. (2015) evaluate activities to strengthen resilience to the risks posed by rapid shale gas development in Northeast British Columbia, Canada. The study highlights data and knowledge gaps that pose challenges for effective regulations of the shale gas activities and management of water resources. Resilience building activities and a vulnerability mapping framework approach are presented to address the knowledge gaps and provide a tool for more effective decision-making surrounding the risk to local and regional water resources from various hazards associated with shale gas development. Acknowledgement The guest editors would like to thank all the authors of the papers in this collection for their thought-provoking contributions. This research was financially supported by the R-08-Init Project, entitled "Human-Environmental Security in Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire: Water-Energy-Food Nexus" the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan. We acknowledge Dr. Jacob Ryner (UNUEHS) for his useful comments to improve this paper. The IAEA is grateful for the support provided to its Environment Laboratories by the Government of the Principality of Monaco. We would also like to thank all the reviewers for their constructive feedback on the papers in this collection. References Andrews-Speed, P., Bleischwitz, R., Boersma, T., Johnson, C., Kemp, G., VanDeveer, S.D., 2012. The global resource nexus. Transatlantic Academy, Washington, D. C. Arnell, N.W., 2004. Climate change and global water resources: SRES emissions and socio-economic scenarios. Glob. Environ. Change 14, 31–52. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.006. Arnell, N.W., 1999. Climate change and global water resources. Glob. Environ. Change 9, S31–S49. Bakker, K., 2012. Water security: research challenges and opportunities. Science 337, 914–915. Bazilian, M., Rogner, H., Howells, M., Hermann, S., Arent, D., Gielen, D., Steduto, P., Mueller, A., Komor, P., Tol, R.S.J., Yumkella, K.K., 2011. Considering the energy, water and food nexus: Towards an integrated modelling approach. Energy Policy 39, 7896–7906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.09.039. Beisheim, M., 2013. The water, energy & food security nexus: How to govern complex risks to sustainable supply? SWP Comments 32, 1–8.
6
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Bishop, J.M., Glenn, C.R., Amato, D.W., Dulai, H., 2015. Effect of land use and groundwater flow path on submarine groundwater discharge nutrient flux. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10.008. Burnett, K., Wada, C., Endo, A., Taniguchi, M., 2015. The economic value of groundwater in Obama. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10. 002. Byers, E.A., Hall, J.W., Amezaga, J.M., 2014. Electricity generation and cooling water use: UK pathways to 2050. Glob. Environ. Change 25, 16–30. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.01.005. Cook, C., Bakker, K., 2012. Water security: Debating an emerging paradigm. Glob. Environ. Change 22, 94–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.011. Dimova, N., Ganguli, P.M., Swarzenski, P.W., Izbicki, J.A., O’Leary, D., 2016. Hydrogeologic controls on chemical transport at Malibu Lagoon, CA: Implications for land to sea exchange in coastal lagoon systems. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2016.08.003. Endo, A., Tsurita, I., Burnett, K., Orencio, P.M., 2015. A review of the current state of research on the water, energy, and food nexus. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.010. FAO, 2014. The Water-Energy-Food Nexus: A new approach in support of food security and sustainable agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Fujii, M., Tanabe, S., Yamada, M., Mishima, T., Sawadate, T., Ohsawa, S., 2015. Assessment of the potential for developing mini/micro hydropower: A case study in Beppu City, Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10.007. Gliessman, S.R., 2015. Agroecology: The ecology of sustainable food systems, Third Edition. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, Fla. Gurdak, J.J., Geyer, G.E., Nanus, L., Taniguchi, M., Corona, C.R., 2016. Scale dependence of controls on groundwater vulnerability in the water–energy–food nexus, California Coastal Basin aquifer system. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2016.01.002. Hoekstra, A.Y., Mekonnen, M.M., 2012. The water footprint of humanity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 109, 3232–3237. Hoff, H., 2011. Understanding the nexus (Background paper for the Bonn2011 conference: The water, energy, food security nexus). Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI). Holding, S., Allen, D.M., Notte, C., Olewiler, N., 2015. Enhancing water security in a rapidly developing shale gas region. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.ejrh.2015.09.005. Hoover, D.J., Odigie, K.O., Swarzenski, P.W., Barnard, P., 2016. Sea-level rise and coastal groundwater inundation and shoaling at select sites in California, USA. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.055. Huntjens, P., Lebel, L., Pahl-Wostl, C., Camkin, J., Schulze, R., Kranz, N., 2012. Institutional design propositions for the governance of adaptation to climate change in the water sector. Glob. Environ. Change 22, 67–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.09.015. Hussey, K., Pittock, J., 2012. The Energy–Water Nexus: Managing the Links between Energy and Water for a Sustainable Future. Ecol. Soc. 17. http://dx.doi.org/10. 5751/ES-04641-170131. International Energy Agency, 2014. Energy supply security: Emergency response of IEA countries, 2014. International Energy Agency, Paris, France. Jago-on, K.A.B., Siringan, F.P., Balangue-Tarriela, R., Taniguchi, M., Reyes, Y.K., Lloren, R., Peña, M.A., Bagalihog, E., 2015. Hot spring resort development in Laguna Province, Philippines: Challenges in water use regulation. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.020. King, C., Holman, A., Webber, M., 2008. CleanTX Analysis on Water: The Thirst for Power. Austin, TX. Kumazawa, T., Hara, K., Endo, A., Taniguchi, M., 2016. Supporting collaboration in interdisciplinary research of water–energy–food nexus by means of ontology engineering. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.021. Lake, I.R., Hooper, L., Abdelhamid, A., Bentham, G., Boxall, A.B.A., Draper, A., Fairweather-Tait, S., Hulme, M., Hunter, P.R., Nichols, G., Waldron, K.W., 2012. Climate Change and Food Security: Health Impacts in Developed Countries. Environ. Health Perspect. 120, 1520–1526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104424. Lawford, R., Bogardi, J., Marx, S., Jain, S., Wostl, C.P., Knüppe, K., Ringler, C., Lansigan, F., Meza, F., 2013a. Basin perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Security Nexus. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 5, 607–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.005. Lawford, R., Strauch, A., Toll, D., Fekete, B., Cripe, D., 2013b. Earth observations for global water security. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 5, 633–643. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.009. Nishijima, J., Naritomi, K., 2015. Interpretation of gravity data to delineate underground structure in the Beppu geothermal field, central Kyushu, Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.022. Pahl-Wostl, C., Palmer, M., Richards, K., 2013. Enhancing water security for the benefits of humans and nature—the role of governance. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 5, 676–684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.10.018. Prouty, N.G., Swarzenski, P.W., Fackrell, J.K., Johannesson, K., Palmore, C.D., 2016. Groundwater-derived nutrient and trace element transport to a nearshore Kona coral ecosystem: Experimental mixing model results. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.058. Rahaman, M.M., Varis, O., 2005. Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges. Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy 1. Richardson, C.M., Dulai, H., Whittier, R.B., 2015. Sources and spatial variability of groundwater-delivered nutrients in Maunalua Bay, Oʻahu, Hawai‘i. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.006. Rothausen, S.G.S.A., Conway, D., 2011. Greenhouse-gas emissions from energy use in the water sector. Nat. Clim. Change 1, 210–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ nclimate1147. Spiegelberg, M., Baltazar, D.E., Sarigumba, M.P.E., Orencio, P.M., Hoshino, S., Hashimoto, S., Taniguchi, M., Endo, A., 2015. Unfolding livelihood aspects of the Water–Energy–Food Nexus in the Dampalit Watershed, Philippines. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10.009. Sugimoto, R., Tsuboi, T., 2016. Seasonal and annual fluxes of atmospheric nitrogen deposition and riverine nitrogen export in two adjacent contrasting rivers in central Japan facing the Sea of Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.019. Swarzenski, P.W., Dulai, H., Kroeger, K.D., Smith, C.G., Dimova, N., Storlazzi, C.D., Prouty, N.G., Gingerich, S.B., Glenn, C.R., 2016. Observations of nearshore groundwater discharge: Kahekili Beach Park submarine springs, Maui, Hawaii. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.056. Taniguchi, M., Allen, D.M., Gurdak, J.J., 2013. Optimizing the water-energy-food nexus in the Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire. Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 94, 435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013EO470005. Taniguchi, M., Masuhara, N., Burnett, K., 2015. Water, energy, and food security in the Asia Pacific region. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh. 2015.11.005. Thia-Eng, C., 2006. The dynamics of integrated coastal management: Practical applications in the sustainble coastal development in East Asia. PEMSEA, Quezon City, Philippines. Tilman, D., Socolow, R., Foley, J.A., Hill, J., Larson, E., Lynd, L., Pacala, S., Searchinger, T., Somerville, C., Williams, R., 2009. Beneficial biofuels - The food, energy, and environment trilemma. Science 325, 270–271. United Nations ESCAP, 2013. The status of the water-energy-food nexus in Asia and the Pacific. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. Utsunomiya, T., Hata, M., Sugimoto, R., Honda, H., Kobayashi, S., Miyata, Y., Yamada, M., Tominaga, O., Shoji, J., Taniguchi, M., 2015. Higher species richness and abundance of fish and benthic invertebrates around submarine groundwater discharge in Obama Bay, Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. ejrh.2015.11.012. Velasco, E.M., Gurdak, J.J., Dickinson, J.E., Ferré, T.P.A., Corona, C.R., 2016. Interannual to multidecadal climate forcings on groundwater resources of the U.S. West Coast. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.018. Vogt, K.A., Patel-Weynand, T., Shelton, M., Vogt, D.J., Gordon, J.C., Mukumoto, C.T., Suntana, A.S., Roads, P.A., 2010. Unpacked: Food, energy and water for resilient environments and societies. Earthscan, New York, NY. World Economic Forum Water Initiative, 2011. Water security: The water-Food-Energy-Climate Nexus. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Yamada, M., Shoji, J., Ohsawa, S., Mishima, T., Hata, M., Honda, H., Fujii, M., Taniguchi, M., 2016. Hot spring drainage impact on fish communities around temperate estuaries in southwestern Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.060.
7
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
⁎
Makoto Taniguchi , Aiko Endo Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, 457-4, Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047, Japan Jason J. Gurdak San Francisco State University, Department of Earth & Climate Sciences, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94010, United States Peter Swarzenski International Atomic Energy Agency, 4a, Quai Antoine 1er Monaco, 98000, Principality of Monaco E-mail address: [email protected]
8
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ejrh
Editorial
Water-Energy-Food Nexus in the Asia-Pacific Region
MARK
AB S T R A CT Water, energy, and food are among the most important and fundamental resources for human beings and society. Despite the large potential for efficiency and reduction of losses, the demand for these resources is likely to increase due to population growth, changes in lifestyles, climate change, and other aspect of global change. The strong interconnectedness of these three vital resources has been termed the “Nexus” in the scientific literature in recent years. While many papers claim its fundamental importance, few provide specific ideas on how to deal with this Nexus in practice. This paper introduces twenty case-studies that are highlighted in this special issue that explore the practice of the Nexus and its scientific basis with particular focus on the Water-Energy-Food Nexus in the Asia-Pacific Region.
1. Introduction The nexus between water, food and energy has received broad attention recently in the scientific literature (Bazilian et al., 2011; Beisheim, 2013; FAO, 2014; Lawford et al., 2013a; Rahaman and Varis, 2005; United Nations ESCAP, 2013; Vogt et al., 2010) and been the focus of conferences, such as Nexus 2011 in Bonn, Nexus 2014 in North Carolina, Nexus 2014 in Bonn, and World Water Week 2014 in Stockholm. As a result, the Water-Energy-Food Nexus has become a standalone technical term. While such a strong conceptual framing can have its drawbacks, e.g. preventing the link to other important resources, such as minerals, the Nexus has the merit of drawing specific scientific attention to a central problem area for future human existence. Numerous articles in the scientific literature have emphasized the importance and theoretical framing of the Water-Energy-Food Nexus. However, the literature is in its infancy regarding the practical aspects of policy and management approaches and methods to address the Nexus. Disciplinary and broad interdisciplinary science is still needed to advance both the theoretical and applied aspects of the Nexus, largely because of the inherent synergies and trade-offs that define the Nexus. In particular, managing the trade-offs require not only observations and data about the biophysical and natural systems of the Nexus, but also appropriate understanding of the decision-making and human systems of the Nexus. Thus, the Nexus conceptual framework requires collaborative advances from the natural and social sciences. The purpose of this paper is to provide some key insights into this Nexus transfer of knowledge between theory and practice, policy and management, and natural and social sciences as an introduction and outline for this special issue on the Water-EnergyFood Nexus of the Asia-Pacific Region. The twenty papers in this special issue will further elucidate key principles and practical tools to address the Nexus in the Asia-Pacific Region and more broadly to other regions of the world. 1.1. Three Stages of Optimal Policies for the Water-Energy-Food Nexus The establishment of optimal policies for water, energy, and food that is described in the literature can be characterized in three general stages. The first stage is “integrated management”, which includes integrated water resources management (Rahaman and Varis, 2005) to govern the various water sectors such as agriculture, industry, domestic and others, and to integrate the governance of different water bodies such as rivers, groundwater, and lakes. The integrated energy policy also includes the governance of the production and management of the different type of energy including gas, oil, coal, hydro-power, nuclear energy, and renewable energy, and also integration of the consumption governance in different sectors. Aspects of integrated management has also been http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2017.06.004
2214-5818/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
applied to sustainable food and agroecological systems (Gliessman, 2015). The integrated management of water, energy, and food includes spatial integration across various scales and systems, such as integrated coastal zone management (Thia-Eng, 2006). The second stage for the establishment of optimal policies is characterized as “security”, which includes security of the nation, human health, livelihood, and ecosystem service. Water security (Arnell, 2004, 1999; Bakker, 2012; Cook and Bakker, 2012; Huntjens et al., 2012; Lawford et al., 2013b; Pahl-Wostl et al., 2013), energy security (International Energy Agency, 2014), and food security (Lake et al., 2012) are treated separately, including self-production rate depending on the natural, social and political factors, diversity of the alternative resources including natural and social factors, and stability of the resources depending on the natural and economic factors that are important for the security. The third stage for the establishment of optimal policies will be the “nexus” of the water, energy, and food systems. The nexus framework considers the integrated and interconnected nature of the water, energy, and food systems, including the associated synergies and tradeoffs that are created through the use and management of these connected resources (Bazilian et al., 2011; Beisheim, 2013; FAO, 2014; Lawford et al., 2013a; United Nations ESCAP, 2013; Vogt et al., 2010). 1.2. Why is Nexus the Key for Global Sustainability? There are several nexus platforms that regard the nexus as a key factor in global sustainability. The Bonn 2011 Conference emphasizes the water, energy, and food nexus (Hoff, 2011); the World Economic Forum treats water, energy, food, and climate change as the nexus (World Economic Forum Water Initiative, 2011); and the Transatlantic Academy deals with water, energy, food, land, and minerals as the nexus (Andrews-Speed et al., 2012). Recent and forthcoming Nexus platforms include those at United Nations Climate Change Conference COP22 in Marrakech, Morocco, the Dresden 2017 Nexus Conference, and several others. These platforms have illustrated distinct methods of evaluation and analysis within the Nexus framework. For example, the commonly use “two at one time” analysis describes evaluating the two-way interactions between the water-food, water-energy, and food-energy nexus. The water and energy nexus (Byers et al., 2014; Hussey and Pittock, 2012; King et al., 2008; Rothausen and Conway, 2011) includes energy consumption for water allocation and pumping (Fig. 1 ①), water consumption for the cooling of power plant systems, and water use for hydro power generation (Fig. 1 ②). The water and food nexus (Hoekstra and Mekonnen, 2012) consists of water consumption for agriculture and aquaculture (Fig. 1 ④). The energy and food nexus (Tilman et al., 2009) includes biomass for energy (Fig. 1 ⑤) and energy consumption for food production (Fig. 1 ⑥). More finer scales of interconnections between water, energy and food are energy-food to water security (Fig. 1 ⑦), water-food to energy security (Fig. 1 ⑧) and the water-energy to food security (Fig. 1 ⑨), which are related to land use and climate change (Hoekstra and Mekonnen, 2012). Water-energy-food nexus security is threatened by both climate and social changes (Fig. 1). The three pyramids (economy, social, and environment) of sustainable development can be classified in terms of nexus security as 1) efficiency, including saving consumptions and efficient productivities, 2) equity, including accessibility and affordability, 3) diversity, including alternative resources, 4) stability, including temporal resources variability, and 5) autonomy, including self-sufficiency. Optimal governance of the nexus security is necessary for the global sustainability and human well-being. 1.3. Water-Food Nexus Security as Optimal Governance An example where the establishment of optimal policies between the water and food nexus is needed occurs at the linkages between land and ocean through water (including groundwater) and dissolved nutrient transports. The water-food nexus at the landocean interface incorporates such processes as freshwater coming from springs in the seabed and nutrient transport from land to the ocean that may be important for coastal fisheries and ecosystem health. Conversely, the flow and transport of seawater into coastal aquifers due to over-pumping may have negative consequences agriculture and food systems. Better understanding and managing types of land-ocean interactions within the water-food nexus are necessary to maximize human-environmental security and optimize the water-food connections. Therefore, coordinating governance among freshwater-food systems and coastal fisheries, which are vertically and sectorally divided, should be promoted in an integrated manner since the challenges of land-ocean interactions are complexly interconnected and interdependent. The integrated management between land and coastal areas should be integrated within inter-agency and multisectoral policy tools. As an illustration of the Water-Food Nexus of the Asia-Pacific Region, the freshwater policy in Japan, the Basic Act on Water Cycle was newly enacted in April 2014. The act says the water is highly recognized as a public good and the Secretariat of Headquarters for Water Policy in Cabinet Secretariat as an inter-agency and a multi-sector coordinating body will be set up under the new Act. The seven different ministries and agencies are currently involved in the Japanese water management. Moreover, the groundwater and spring water, which were not previously covered by the national legislation, will now be included management target under the new Act. On the other hand, the coastal policy in Japan, called the Basic Act on Ocean policy was enacted in 2007. Article 25 stipulates for the first time the need for integrated management of land and coastal areas. In 2008, the Basic Plan on Ocean Policy was formulated and the Secretariat of the Headquarters for Ocean Policy in Cabinet Secretariat as an inter-agency and a multi-sector coordinating body was established. Japanese coastal management includes approximately 35,000 km of coastline, and the coastlines are classified as coastal conservation areas, general public coast areas, and others. The coastal conservation areas are defined by the Coast Act as areas where shore protection facilities are located to protect a coastline from damage from sea or land movement. In addition, the coastal conservation areas are subdivided into five classifications: “Former Ministry of Construction coast”, “commercial port”, “fishing port” and “coast for agricultural land” and “co-management coast”. Although each entity entrusts the management activities 2
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Fig. 1. Schematic of the water-energy-food nexus (There is no ③ in the nexus).
to local government such as governors or mayors, each area is managed by different bodies who manage different targets. That is, integrated coastal management in Japanese coastal areas has not yet been implemented. Integrations of the water managements based on Basic Act on Water Cycle, integrated coastal management, and integration of the management between land and the ocean are the issues of the first stage (integrated management) for the establishment of optimal policies. Subsequent integration of the water (and dissolved nutrient transport) for the fishery resources is the second stage (security) in terms of environmental flow, and the third stage (Nexus) in terms of interconnectivity for the establishment of optimal policies. 1.4. Water-Energy Nexus Security as Optimal Governance Another example from Japan is the water-energy nexus between hot spring spa and geothermal power plant development after the Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011. Development of geothermal power plants was encouraged from the perspective of renewable energy and reduction of carbon emission, but also over concerns from the Fukushima nuclear power plant incident. As a result, a conflict developed between the use of geothermal water for hot spring spas and geothermal power plants for energy development. Hot spring spas are regulated by prefectural-level law in Japan because over exploitation of the hot springs may cause the reduction of discharge rates of geothermal water and decrease of hot spring temperatures. Presently, there is no regulation of the development of geothermal or hot spring power generations in hot spring area. The developers of the thermal power plants must ask the hot spring spa commission in each prefecture for permission to make production boreholes to extract hot water or vapor for generating the power. There is currently no platform between water sectors and energy sectors in the hot spring areas of Japan. Geothermal and hot spring power development after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Fukushima Incident represents issues within the second stage as “security” in terms of alternative energy resources for optimal policies. The conflict between hot spring spas and new development of geothermal power plant represents the third stage as “nexus” for the optimal policies. 1.5. Challenges for Water-Energy-Food Nexus Research There are many pressing questions and challenges for Water-Energy-Food Nexus research. Among the biggest challenges is addressing the complexity of the water-energy-food nexus. Successful advances in Water-Energy-Food Nexus research will address the complexity through integration of the following (i-iv). (i). Integration of multiple issues and sectors for production and consumption A transition from conventional resource management and policy in which water, energy, and food are treated separately to a more integrated approach is necessary, but challenging to implement in practice. Policies regarding the production and consumption of water, energy, and food must be integrated within a framework that optimizes associated economic, social, and environment factors. (ii). Integration of local scale to global scale 3
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Integration of the governances of the water-energy-food nexus between local, national, and global scale are challenging, but important for global sustainability. The scale of the governance usually depends on economic and social factors such as efficiency, accessibility, equity, and others. However, the environmental impacts and concerns for the different scale are not studied well yet. (iii). Security of the nexus Water security, energy security, and food security have been treated separately. However, these three concepts of security are interconnected and thus create a nexus. Therefore, the nexus security including risk and resilience assessments should be studied for both human and environmental perspectives. (iv). Interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approach for the nexus research Because of the nexus complexity and limitations of disciplinary solutions, water-energy-food nexus issues related to climate change and land-use policies should be studied using an interdisciplinary approach that includes the natural, social, and human sciences. Understanding the nexus requires a co-construction and integration of different types of knowledge. Thus, a transdisciplinary approach to nexus research is necessary to engage the full spectrum of stakeholders to identify optimal policy (Taniguchi et al., 2013). The security of the water, energy, and food nexus is one of the most challenging research topics for the global sustainability. The security of the nexus can be evaluated through the interrelationships between issues of materials, sectors, production and consumption, scales, and interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches with stakeholder engagements. Additionally, research is needed to address the security of the water-energy-food nexus at local scales that are connected to national, regional, and global level nexus. 2. Special Issues Layout: Asia-Pacific Studies of the Water-Energy and Water-Food nexus This special issue has twenty studies on water-energy, water-food, and food-energy nexus including water for energy, water for food, energy for water and energy for food across the Asia-Pacific region. In an overview evaluation of the water, energy, and food resources for thirty-two countries in the Asia Pacific region, Taniguchi et al. (2015) analyzed security measures based on the amount of resource, self-production, and diversity of sources of each resource. Diversity for all the three resources is also analyzed using surface water and groundwater for water sources; hydro power, geothermal power, solar, and biomass for energy; and cereals, vegetable, fruit, meat, and fish for food. They find a high diversity of sources of water in the US and the Philippines, and a low diversity of sources of food in the US, Canada, and Indonesia. These security measures including water security show new hydrological insight for Asia-Pacific region. Endo et al. (2015) review the current state of research on the water-energy-food nexus by evaluating 37 selected projects in Asia, Europe, Oceania, North America, South America, Middle East, and Africa. They identify four distinct types of nexus research topics, including water–food, water–energy–food, water–energy, and climate related. Among them, six projects (16%) had a close linkage with water–food, 11 (30%) with water–energy–food, 12 (32%) with water–energy, and eight (22%) with climate. They also identified spatial patterns in nexus studies. North America and Oceania had a tendency to focus on a specific nexus type, water–energy (46%) and climate (43%), while Africa had less focus on water–energy (7%). Regarding keywords, out of 37 nexus projects, there were 84 keywords in total, which were categorized by relevance to water, food, energy, climate, and combination of water–food–energy–climate. As for stakeholders, 77 out of 137 organizations were related to research and only two organizations had a role in media. Several papers in this special issue outline new methods of evaluating and quantifying the water-energy-food nexus. Among these papers is Kumazawa et al. (2016) that contributes a transdisciplinary approach to the water-energy-food nexus by using ontology engineering, which is a type of Semantic Web technology that provides common terms, concepts, and semantic. They use a combination of ontology engineering with a text-mining and network analysis approach. Kumazawa et al. (2016) discuss the effectiveness of ontology engineering in the process of collaborative research, including a method to identify and design a research question and metamodel framework to share the knowledge structures among researchers, practitioners, and other stakeholders. Second, they reviewed ontology as a domain-neutral metamodel and represent through illustration a construction process in a domain-neutral manner. Third, they proposed an ontology method that contributes to interdisciplinary research through experimental workshops of research development. Burnett et al. (2015) performed choice-based analysis and created a dynamic framework capable of assessing tradeoffs between the various water uses as scarcity increases or decreases in the future. Identifying and understanding the tradeoffs is the first step in developing efficient groundwater management policy. The dynamic optimization approach incorporates those tradeoffs when determining the allocation of the water resource to maximize value to society in aggregate. Although necessarily more complex, models that include a temporal component are often desirable when addressing long term resource allocation problems. Nevertheless, static approaches such as choice-based analysis are often useful for establishing a baseline for the dynamic model. Their study concludes that synergistic interdisciplinary integration of research approaches may prove to be particularly effective when tackling waterenergy-food nexus issues. Using a socio-ecological network model approach, Spiegelberg et al. (2015) explore the connectivity of upland farmers and downstream fishers through interlinkages of water, energy and food within the Dampalit sub-watershed of Laguna Lake, Philippines. The aim of the study is to yield policy relevant results to improve the status of the water resources and food products and to reduce possible user conflicts. Surveying 176 households mainly in the mid- and downstream areas elements and interlinkages of the local 4
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Water-Energy-Food Nexus (WEF-Nexus) were identified by the five capitals of the sustainable livelihood approach through a socioecological network analysis. Besides the innovative methodology, this research adds to the underserved local perspective in the WEFNexus research. The survey shows different livelihood profiles for the two groups and a lack of direct social links between them in the WEF-Nexus context. Also indirect links through consumption of the other group's food products could not be identified. However, a large fraction of the population share the use of char coal for cooking, the Makiling groundwater for drinking and various household purposes and the Central Market in Los Banos for their food supply. Several articles evaluated the energy-food and water-energy nexus. In a water-energy-food nexus study in southeastern Japan, Yamada et al. (2016) evaluated the impact of the hot spring drainage on estuarine fish communities. Factor analysis of water-quality data shows that the scale of the hot spring drainage influence on rivers differs among rivers. The inflow of hot spring drainage into the rivers affects phytoplankton more than the inflow of domestic drainage, which increases the number of phytoplankton. Furthermore, hot spring drainage creates a better habitat for Nile tilapia, a foreign species, by increasing food availability and water temperature. Nishijima and Naritomi (2015) explore gravity data from the Beppu, Japan geothermal field to delineate underground faults and basement structures. The Beppu geothermal field is one of the largest hot-spring resorts in Japan and represents an important waterenergy nexus with cultural significance. Findings from this study provide a better understanding of the underground structures of the Beppu hydrothermal systems that is necessary to manage the long-term sustainability of the hot springs. In a similar water-energy nexus study, Jago-on et al. (2015) evaluated hot springs resorts and spas in the Philippines. Hot spring water resorts and spas in Calamba and Los Baños, Laguna are estimated to consume a large volume of groundwater which could result to over-extraction and decrease in groundwater quantity. However, monitoring of actual usage is difficult as most of these resorts do not have water use permits. The Water Code of the Philippines requires water users to register and apply for permits for water allocation, but still many resorts have not yet registered with the NWRB. If groundwater extraction is left unregulated, water availability for the resorts industry and for other uses in the future, will be negatively affected. The decrease in groundwater supply can lead to competition and conflicts among different users. They conclude that it is necessary to strengthen the implementation of water regulations and enhance partnerships among the national and local government agencies, private sector groups, civil society and communities in the regular monitoring of groundwater resources to promote sustainable use. In another water-energy nexus study in Japan, Fujii et al. (2015) provide quantitative guidelines for capacity building among stakeholders to minimize conflicts in developing mini/micro hydropower (MHP). Results from the study indicate that MHP facilities provide stable electricity for tens to hundreds of residents, assuming that necessary infrastructure exists. However, current river laws and irrigation regulations in Japan restrict new infrastructure to rivers. Solutions may be found by reevaluating existing laws, providing incentives for MHP facilities, and protecting riverine ecosystems. The following eleven articles evaluate the water-energy-food nexus and linkages between land and ocean processes in Japan, Hawaii, California, and Canada by addressing studies of coastal watersheds and aquifers, submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) and associated nutrient flows, vulnerabilities to expected sea level rise and climate variability, and security of rapid shale gas development. Sugimoto and Tsuboi (2016) explore the water-energy-food nexus of seasonal and annual flux of atmospheric nitrogen deposition and subsequent riverine nitrogen export to the Sea of Japan. The study findings illustrate that reactive nitrogen from fossil fuels combustion and agricultural practices has resulted in nitrogen saturation in some forested watersheds in central Japan than is more serious than previously reported. Additionally, the study finds that increasing trends in riverine nitrogen may have caused shifts in the limiting nutrient for coastal primary production from nitrogen to phosphorous. In a study of groundwater from the Coastal California basin aquifer system, Gurdak et al. (2016) identify the scale-dependent relations among source, transport, and attenuation factors the control non-point source nitrate contamination. They use a statistical model to develop vulnerability maps that illustrate the spatial patterns of predicted probability of detecting elevated nitrate in groundwater. The models and maps presented in this article can be used to identify best management practices and policies that advance sustainable water and food systems in California. Utsunomiya et al. (2015) used physical and biological surveys to test the hypothesis that high levels of SGD enhances species richness, abundance and biomass of fish and invertebrates in coastal waters of Obama Bay, Japan. Surveys of radon-222 (222Rn) concentration showed high levels of SGD in the west part of the study area. Species richness, abundance and biomass of fishes and abundance and biomass of turban snail and hermit crab were significantly higher in the area with high 222Rn concentration. Abundance of gammarids, the most major prey item of the fishes, was 18 times higher in the area with high 222Rn concentration. Since the turban snail, hermit crab and gammarids feed on producers (phytoplankton and benthic microalgae), the study concludes that SGD increases species richness and production of fishes and invertebrates by providing nutrients and enhancing primary production. The study by Swarzenski et al. (2016) was on the west coast of Maui, just north of Lahaina, where SGD is constantly discharging into nearshore coastal waters from a series of vents and springs. Estimates of SGD were derived for a primary vent site and the surrounding coastal waters using an excess 222Rn mass-balance model, and complemented with a novel thoron (220Rn, t1/2 = 56 s) groundwater discharge tracer application, as well as oceanographic time series and thermal infrared imagery analyses. In combination, this suite of techniques provides new insight into the connectivity of the coastal aquifer with the near-shore ocean and examines the physical drivers of SGD. Lastly, SGD derived constituent concentrations were tabulated and compared to surrounding seawater concentrations. Such work has implications for the management of coastal aquifers and downstream nearshore ecosystems that respond to sustained constituent loadings via this submarine route. The study by Prouty et al. (2016) on the Kona coast of the Big Island of Hawaii also investigated the SGD contribution to coastal biogeochemical trace element and nutrient cycles. However, here a two end-member salinity-and phase partitioning-based mixing 5
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
experiment was conducted using contrasting groundwater endmember samples and open seawater to resolve fine-scale estuarine biogeochemical and physicochemical processes. For example, results from the mixing experiment illustrate how the availability of P changes with salinity, affecting the mobility of phosphate in the environment. Another submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) study in Hawai’i by Richardson et al. (2015) examined groundwater and nearshore marine water quality in two adjacent coastal aquifers (Waialae East and Waialae West) in Maunalua Bay, Oʻahu, Hawai’i. These aquifers exhibit contrasting land-use and hydrogeologic characteristics to develop a more robust understanding the sources and spatial variability of SGD-conveyed nutrients to nearshore waters. Changes in nutrient concentrations and NO3− stable isotope ratios were measured and integrated with SGD flux, land-use, and recharge data to assess SGD nutrient loads and potential sources in each aquifer. SGD emanating from Waialae West Aquifer was primarily influenced by two-component mixing of a wastewater source with low nutrient groundwater as wastewater effluent accounted for more than 4% of total recharge and 54–95% of total N and P loads in the aquifer. The Bishop et al. (2015) study further examined the connectivity between land use and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) derived nutrient fluxes to the coastal waters of Maui, Hawai'i. Nutrient contributions from agricultural lands, wastewater injection, and septic-cesspool systems were quantified by combining a numerical groundwater model with stable isotope data to identify groundwater pathways, recharge elevations, and nitrate sources. Fresh and total SGD rates and associated nutrient fluxes were derived using 222Rn mass-balance modelling. This study demonstrates that integrated numerical groundwater modelling and geochemical modeling can be very effective in developing a framework to study the effects of land use and its impacts on the nutrient delivery regime to coastal waters. Dimova et al. (2016) studied the exchange of surface water and groundwater through Malibu Lagoon, California into the nearshore coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean. Malibu lagoon surface water is seasonally separated from the ocean by a wave-built sand berm that is only sporadically breached during the rainy season. Using 222Rn as a naturally occurring groundwater tracer, they were able to estimate groundwater inputs to the lagoon and nearshore waters. By measuring nutrient concentrations in the discharging groundwater and surface water, they were able to estimate nutrient loadings during different flow regimes, and were able to thus assess biogeochemical transport in this dynamic, urban lagoon system. Hoover et al. (2016) examined the likely influence of expected sea level rise (SLR) scenarios on coastal groundwater levels at contrasting sites along the California coast. Separate and combined inundation scenarios for SLR and groundwater emergence were developed using digital elevation models of study site topography and groundwater surfaces constructed from well data or published groundwater level contours. The selected field sites provide respective insight into the vulnerability of Northern California coastal plains, coastal developments built on beach sand or sand spits, and developed areas around coastal lagoons associated with seasonal streams and berms. Improved understanding of the extent and response of California coastal aquifers to SLR will help prepare for mitigation and adaptation to future impacts. The study by Velasco et al. (2016) explore groundwater response along the US West Coast to interannual to multidecadal climate variability and highlight important implications for security within the water-energy-food nexus. The study finds that low frequency climate variability signals tend to be preserved better in groundwater fluctuations than high frequency signals, which is a function of the degree of damping of surface variable fluxes related to soil texture, depth to water, mean and period of the infiltration flux. An important finding is that the teleconnection patterns that exist in surface hydrologic processes are not necessarily the same as those preserved in subsurface processes. In the final paper of this special issue, Holding et al. (2015) evaluate activities to strengthen resilience to the risks posed by rapid shale gas development in Northeast British Columbia, Canada. The study highlights data and knowledge gaps that pose challenges for effective regulations of the shale gas activities and management of water resources. Resilience building activities and a vulnerability mapping framework approach are presented to address the knowledge gaps and provide a tool for more effective decision-making surrounding the risk to local and regional water resources from various hazards associated with shale gas development. Acknowledgement The guest editors would like to thank all the authors of the papers in this collection for their thought-provoking contributions. This research was financially supported by the R-08-Init Project, entitled "Human-Environmental Security in Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire: Water-Energy-Food Nexus" the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan. We acknowledge Dr. Jacob Ryner (UNUEHS) for his useful comments to improve this paper. The IAEA is grateful for the support provided to its Environment Laboratories by the Government of the Principality of Monaco. We would also like to thank all the reviewers for their constructive feedback on the papers in this collection. References Andrews-Speed, P., Bleischwitz, R., Boersma, T., Johnson, C., Kemp, G., VanDeveer, S.D., 2012. The global resource nexus. Transatlantic Academy, Washington, D. C. Arnell, N.W., 2004. Climate change and global water resources: SRES emissions and socio-economic scenarios. Glob. Environ. Change 14, 31–52. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.gloenvcha.2003.10.006. Arnell, N.W., 1999. Climate change and global water resources. Glob. Environ. Change 9, S31–S49. Bakker, K., 2012. Water security: research challenges and opportunities. Science 337, 914–915. Bazilian, M., Rogner, H., Howells, M., Hermann, S., Arent, D., Gielen, D., Steduto, P., Mueller, A., Komor, P., Tol, R.S.J., Yumkella, K.K., 2011. Considering the energy, water and food nexus: Towards an integrated modelling approach. Energy Policy 39, 7896–7906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.09.039. Beisheim, M., 2013. The water, energy & food security nexus: How to govern complex risks to sustainable supply? SWP Comments 32, 1–8.
6
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
Bishop, J.M., Glenn, C.R., Amato, D.W., Dulai, H., 2015. Effect of land use and groundwater flow path on submarine groundwater discharge nutrient flux. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10.008. Burnett, K., Wada, C., Endo, A., Taniguchi, M., 2015. The economic value of groundwater in Obama. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10. 002. Byers, E.A., Hall, J.W., Amezaga, J.M., 2014. Electricity generation and cooling water use: UK pathways to 2050. Glob. Environ. Change 25, 16–30. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.01.005. Cook, C., Bakker, K., 2012. Water security: Debating an emerging paradigm. Glob. Environ. Change 22, 94–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.10.011. Dimova, N., Ganguli, P.M., Swarzenski, P.W., Izbicki, J.A., O’Leary, D., 2016. Hydrogeologic controls on chemical transport at Malibu Lagoon, CA: Implications for land to sea exchange in coastal lagoon systems. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2016.08.003. Endo, A., Tsurita, I., Burnett, K., Orencio, P.M., 2015. A review of the current state of research on the water, energy, and food nexus. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.010. FAO, 2014. The Water-Energy-Food Nexus: A new approach in support of food security and sustainable agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Fujii, M., Tanabe, S., Yamada, M., Mishima, T., Sawadate, T., Ohsawa, S., 2015. Assessment of the potential for developing mini/micro hydropower: A case study in Beppu City, Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10.007. Gliessman, S.R., 2015. Agroecology: The ecology of sustainable food systems, Third Edition. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, Fla. Gurdak, J.J., Geyer, G.E., Nanus, L., Taniguchi, M., Corona, C.R., 2016. Scale dependence of controls on groundwater vulnerability in the water–energy–food nexus, California Coastal Basin aquifer system. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2016.01.002. Hoekstra, A.Y., Mekonnen, M.M., 2012. The water footprint of humanity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 109, 3232–3237. Hoff, H., 2011. Understanding the nexus (Background paper for the Bonn2011 conference: The water, energy, food security nexus). Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI). Holding, S., Allen, D.M., Notte, C., Olewiler, N., 2015. Enhancing water security in a rapidly developing shale gas region. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10. 1016/j.ejrh.2015.09.005. Hoover, D.J., Odigie, K.O., Swarzenski, P.W., Barnard, P., 2016. Sea-level rise and coastal groundwater inundation and shoaling at select sites in California, USA. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.055. Huntjens, P., Lebel, L., Pahl-Wostl, C., Camkin, J., Schulze, R., Kranz, N., 2012. Institutional design propositions for the governance of adaptation to climate change in the water sector. Glob. Environ. Change 22, 67–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2011.09.015. Hussey, K., Pittock, J., 2012. The Energy–Water Nexus: Managing the Links between Energy and Water for a Sustainable Future. Ecol. Soc. 17. http://dx.doi.org/10. 5751/ES-04641-170131. International Energy Agency, 2014. Energy supply security: Emergency response of IEA countries, 2014. International Energy Agency, Paris, France. Jago-on, K.A.B., Siringan, F.P., Balangue-Tarriela, R., Taniguchi, M., Reyes, Y.K., Lloren, R., Peña, M.A., Bagalihog, E., 2015. Hot spring resort development in Laguna Province, Philippines: Challenges in water use regulation. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.020. King, C., Holman, A., Webber, M., 2008. CleanTX Analysis on Water: The Thirst for Power. Austin, TX. Kumazawa, T., Hara, K., Endo, A., Taniguchi, M., 2016. Supporting collaboration in interdisciplinary research of water–energy–food nexus by means of ontology engineering. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.021. Lake, I.R., Hooper, L., Abdelhamid, A., Bentham, G., Boxall, A.B.A., Draper, A., Fairweather-Tait, S., Hulme, M., Hunter, P.R., Nichols, G., Waldron, K.W., 2012. Climate Change and Food Security: Health Impacts in Developed Countries. Environ. Health Perspect. 120, 1520–1526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1104424. Lawford, R., Bogardi, J., Marx, S., Jain, S., Wostl, C.P., Knüppe, K., Ringler, C., Lansigan, F., Meza, F., 2013a. Basin perspectives on the Water–Energy–Food Security Nexus. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 5, 607–616. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.005. Lawford, R., Strauch, A., Toll, D., Fekete, B., Cripe, D., 2013b. Earth observations for global water security. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 5, 633–643. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.009. Nishijima, J., Naritomi, K., 2015. Interpretation of gravity data to delineate underground structure in the Beppu geothermal field, central Kyushu, Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.022. Pahl-Wostl, C., Palmer, M., Richards, K., 2013. Enhancing water security for the benefits of humans and nature—the role of governance. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sustain. 5, 676–684. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.10.018. Prouty, N.G., Swarzenski, P.W., Fackrell, J.K., Johannesson, K., Palmore, C.D., 2016. Groundwater-derived nutrient and trace element transport to a nearshore Kona coral ecosystem: Experimental mixing model results. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.058. Rahaman, M.M., Varis, O., 2005. Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges. Sustain. Sci. Pract. Policy 1. Richardson, C.M., Dulai, H., Whittier, R.B., 2015. Sources and spatial variability of groundwater-delivered nutrients in Maunalua Bay, Oʻahu, Hawai‘i. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.006. Rothausen, S.G.S.A., Conway, D., 2011. Greenhouse-gas emissions from energy use in the water sector. Nat. Clim. Change 1, 210–219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ nclimate1147. Spiegelberg, M., Baltazar, D.E., Sarigumba, M.P.E., Orencio, P.M., Hoshino, S., Hashimoto, S., Taniguchi, M., Endo, A., 2015. Unfolding livelihood aspects of the Water–Energy–Food Nexus in the Dampalit Watershed, Philippines. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.10.009. Sugimoto, R., Tsuboi, T., 2016. Seasonal and annual fluxes of atmospheric nitrogen deposition and riverine nitrogen export in two adjacent contrasting rivers in central Japan facing the Sea of Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.019. Swarzenski, P.W., Dulai, H., Kroeger, K.D., Smith, C.G., Dimova, N., Storlazzi, C.D., Prouty, N.G., Gingerich, S.B., Glenn, C.R., 2016. Observations of nearshore groundwater discharge: Kahekili Beach Park submarine springs, Maui, Hawaii. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.056. Taniguchi, M., Allen, D.M., Gurdak, J.J., 2013. Optimizing the water-energy-food nexus in the Asia-Pacific Ring of Fire. Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 94, 435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013EO470005. Taniguchi, M., Masuhara, N., Burnett, K., 2015. Water, energy, and food security in the Asia Pacific region. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh. 2015.11.005. Thia-Eng, C., 2006. The dynamics of integrated coastal management: Practical applications in the sustainble coastal development in East Asia. PEMSEA, Quezon City, Philippines. Tilman, D., Socolow, R., Foley, J.A., Hill, J., Larson, E., Lynd, L., Pacala, S., Searchinger, T., Somerville, C., Williams, R., 2009. Beneficial biofuels - The food, energy, and environment trilemma. Science 325, 270–271. United Nations ESCAP, 2013. The status of the water-energy-food nexus in Asia and the Pacific. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. Utsunomiya, T., Hata, M., Sugimoto, R., Honda, H., Kobayashi, S., Miyata, Y., Yamada, M., Tominaga, O., Shoji, J., Taniguchi, M., 2015. Higher species richness and abundance of fish and benthic invertebrates around submarine groundwater discharge in Obama Bay, Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. ejrh.2015.11.012. Velasco, E.M., Gurdak, J.J., Dickinson, J.E., Ferré, T.P.A., Corona, C.R., 2016. Interannual to multidecadal climate forcings on groundwater resources of the U.S. West Coast. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.11.018. Vogt, K.A., Patel-Weynand, T., Shelton, M., Vogt, D.J., Gordon, J.C., Mukumoto, C.T., Suntana, A.S., Roads, P.A., 2010. Unpacked: Food, energy and water for resilient environments and societies. Earthscan, New York, NY. World Economic Forum Water Initiative, 2011. Water security: The water-Food-Energy-Climate Nexus. Island Press, Washington, D.C. Yamada, M., Shoji, J., Ohsawa, S., Mishima, T., Hata, M., Honda, H., Fujii, M., Taniguchi, M., 2016. Hot spring drainage impact on fish communities around temperate estuaries in southwestern Japan. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2015.12.060.
7
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies 11 (2017) 1–8
Editorial
⁎
Makoto Taniguchi , Aiko Endo Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, 457-4, Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047, Japan Jason J. Gurdak San Francisco State University, Department of Earth & Climate Sciences, 1600 Holloway Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94010, United States Peter Swarzenski International Atomic Energy Agency, 4a, Quai Antoine 1er Monaco, 98000, Principality of Monaco E-mail address: [email protected]
8