Weeping: Associations with personality, coping, and subjective health status

Person. indiuid. Dt$ Vol. 14,No. 1,pp. 185-190, 1993 Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved

WEEPING:

Copyright

ASSOCIATIONS WITH PERSONALITY, AND SUBJECTIVE HEALTH STATUS

0191-8869/93 %5.00+0.00 0 1992 Pergamon Press Ltd

COPING,

AD J . J . M . VINGERHOETS,‘*MAR@LLE P. VAN DEN BERG,’ ROBERT TH. J. KORTEKAAS,’ Guus L. VAN HECK’ and MARCEL A. CROON’ ‘Department of Medical Psychology/Institute for Research in Extramural Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, and 2Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Psychology, Tilburg University, Tilburg, The Netherlands (Received 6 January 1992)

Sunnnnry-Two studies on weeping are reported. Study 1, with 131 females as subjects, shows that weeping frequency is associated with alexithymia and coping strategies, in particular Distancing, Self-blame, Daydreams and Fantasies, and Expression of Emotion. The correlation with self-rated health was 0.00. In a regression analysis, Alexithymia and Distancing were found to be significant predictors. In Study 2, personality data were obtained from 55 males and 149 females. For males, weeping frequency was correlated positively with neuroticism and negatively with alexithymia. These links were also obtained for females. In addition, females showed negative correlations between weeping frequency and strength of excitation and inhibition. So, the pattern of significant associations differed slightly between males and females. However, both groups had in common that self-esteem operated as a suppressor variable and thus was a significant predictor in regression analysis.

INTRODUCTION

Weeping is a typically human emotional expression that, unfortunately, has received little attention from behavioural scientists. It is true that there are a number of theories on the nature and function of crying (Efran & Spangler, 1979; Frey, 1985; Koestler, 1964; Labott & Martin, 1988; Sadoff, 1966). However, until now, these theories have hardly resulted in hypothesis testing (Van den Berg, Kortekaas & Vingerhoets, 1992). In addition, little is known about the context and the antecedents of weeping. Most strongly established are the gender differences in weeping frequency (Bindra, 1972; Choti, Marston, Holston & Hart, 1987; Crtpeau, 1981; Frey, 1985; Frey, Hoffman-Ahern, Johnson, Lykken & Tuason, 1983; Kraemer & Hastrup, 1986; Lombardo, Cretser, Lombard0 & Mathis, 1983; Ross & Mirowsky, 1984; Williams, 1982). Women cry more frequently and, when they do so, often longer. This observation, however, raises the question of the precise nature of these differences. Are they determined by biological factors (e.g. differences in plasma prolactin levels; CJ Frey, 1985; Vingerhoets, Poppelaars & Assies, submitted) or socializing influences (Ross & Mirowsky, 1984)? Or, alternatively, are they associated with gender differences in personality (which, of course, also may be dependent on biological or social factors) (Choti et al., 1987; Williams, 1982)? For males, previous studies (Choti et al., 1987; Williams, 1982) have shown associations with the extent of identification with feminine and rejection of masculine sex-role stereotypes, levels of emotional empathy, and neuroticism. For women, only significant positive correlations between ‘weeping reactivity’ and femininity and empathy were found. Choti et al. (1987) studied the relationships among film-induced sadness, crying, and personality measures. This study confirmed the just mentioned association between empathy and film-induced crying. In addition, extraversion was significantly positively associated with weeping. For men, empathy and extraversion were not significantly related to crying. Ego strength, however, was significantly related to crying. It has often been suggested in the lay and popular literature that weeping is healthy. However, the precise meaning of this statement is rather unclear (cf. Van den Berg et al., 1992). Moreover, there are hardly any empirical data available either to support or to refute such a hypothesis. On the other hand, there is evidence showing that disclosure and expression of emotions has *To whom correspondence should be addressed at: Helen Dowling Institute for Biopsychosocial Medicine, Mathenesserlaan 183, 3014 HA Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 185

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AD J.J. M. VINGERHOETS et al.

positive health effects (e.g. Pennebaker & Susman, 1988). Therefore, it is important to gain more insight into the relationships between weeping, on the one hand, and coping and personality attributes that have been shown to be associated with mental and physical well-being, on the other hand (cf. Vingerhoets & Van Heck, 1990). In the present studies, we focus on the links between self-reported weeping frequency and personality attributes, coping, and subjective health status. In the choice of our variables we were led by the notion that crying may be considered as serving adaptive functions of stress relief. Therefore, special attention was given to those coping and personality features that are substantially associated with stress-resistance or vulnerability. Moreover, we have studied temperament attributes, which are assumed to be more biologically based, as well as personality variables in which socializing factors are presumed to dominate. STUDY

1

Method Subjects Participants were 131 Dutch and Belgian females who responded to an announcement in a women’s magazine, in which we called for volunteers for a questionnaire study on weeping. Their age ranged from 16 to 59 years (M = 27.9). Measures The questionnaires used in this study were the following. Weeping frequency was measured, utilizing a revised and extended version of the Weeping Frequency Scale (WFS; Labott 8c Martin, 1987). The adapted version consists of 30 items describing situations (‘I sometimes cry when reading poems’) and psychological states (‘I sometimes weep when I am angry’) that may induce crying. The extension involved the addition of items describing emotional states as anger, helplessness, shame, guilt, anxiety, and disgust. The response alternatives are ‘True-?-Not true’. In the present study, Cronbach’s alpha is 0.96, indicating a high internal consistency. Individual coping styles were assessed by the Ways of Coping Checklist (WCC; Aldwin, Folkman, Schaefer, Coyne & Lazarus, 1980; Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Dutch version by Van Heck & Vingerhoets, 1989). This inventory contains the following 7 dimensions: (1) Planful and rational actions; (2) Self-blame; (3) Distancing; (4) Day-dreams and Fantasies; (5) Expression of Emotion/Seeking Social Support; (6) Positive Thinking, Personal Growth, Humour; and (7) Wishful Thinking/Emotionality. In contrast to the original WCC, two major revisions were made. First, Ss were instructed to indicate how they respond to stressful situations, in general, rather than to a specific stressful encounter. Second, the response format was changed from of me” (1) to “Very ‘Yes-No’ to a 6-point scale ranging from “Not at all characteristic characteristic of me” (6). Alexithymia was measured by the Amsterdam Alexithymia Scale (AAS; Bermond, 1991). The 20 items of this questionnaire refer to the following 5 elements of alexithymia: (1) insight into one’s own emotional experiences (e.g. ‘I often do not know why I am angry’; (2) fantasies/ day-dreaming (e.g. ‘I daydream rarely’); (3) verbalizing emotional experiences (e.g. ‘It is difficult for me to find the right words for my feelings’); (4) emotional excitability (e.g. ‘When I see someone crying, I remain unconcerned’); and (5) ‘pense operatoir’ (e.g. ‘Being in touch with emotions is essential’). In the present study, the internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) was moderate (0.70) but sufficient for research purposes to consider it as measuring a single dimension. The response format was a 5-point scale ranging from “Very much applicable” (1) to “Not applicable at all” (5). Each S was asked to rate her subjective health status on a scale ranging from 1 (Very poor health) to 10 (Excellent health). A general questionnaire was designed to obtain information about demographic variables such as age and educational level and medical consumption. These variables will not be dealt with in this report.

Weeping Table

Mean SD WFS

I. Means, standard

and deviations,

and correlations

187

between WFS and the personality

and coping measures

(Study

I)

Subjective health

Alexithymia

WCC-I

WCC-2

WCC-3

WCC-4

WCC-5

WCC-6

WCC-7

WFS

7.1 1.6 0.00

44.5 9.2 -0.35***

56.5 8.3 0.02

34.9 7.4 0.18’

32.2 8.9 -0.26”

25. I 6.4 0.178

30.0 6.8 0.27**

34.9 6.0 -0.01

42.5 6.6 0.05

64.0 10.3

WCC-I = Planful and Rational Actions; WCC-2 = Self-blame; WCC-3 = Distancing; WCC-4 = Day-dreams and Fantasies; WCC-5 = Expression of Emotion/Seeking Social Support; WCC-6 = Positive Thinking, Personal Growth, Humour; and WCC-7 = Wishful ThinkingiEmotionality. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001.

Results Table 1 summarizes the Pearson correlations between the AAS score, the WCC-subscales scores, the health rating, and the self-reported weeping frequency (WFS). The correlation between WFS and subjective health was 0.00. Significant negative correlations were found between WFS, on the one hand, and Alexithymia and Distancing (WCC-3) on the other. Furthermore, Self-blame (WCC-2) Day-dreams and Fantasies (WCC-4) and Expression of Emotion/Seeking Social Support (WCC-5) were significantly positively related to weeping frequency. The other variables showed no significant associations with weeping tendency. Subsequently, a regression analysis with WFS as the dependent measure and the other variables as predictors was performed. The amount of variance explained was 22%. Only alexithymia (p = -0.23, t = -2.25, P < 0.05) and Distancing (WCC-3) (/3 = -0.20, t = 2.02, P = 0.05) were found to predict weeping tendency significantly. Females with high scores on the AAS and on WCC-3 (Distancing) were less inclined to weep compared with low-scorers on these two scales. Discussion The aim of Study 1 was to establish the relationship between weeping frequency and coping, alexithymia, and subjective health status. Self-rated health was not correlated with weeping. Although we realize that there may be discrepancies between self-rated health scores and objective clinical data, this finding nevertheless does not support the often heard saying that weeping is healthy. This seems the more important given recent findings showing that subjective health status is an important, independent predictor of future morbidity and mortality (Mossey & Shapiro, 1982). The finding that alexithymia was negatively related to crying is not surprising. Weeping may be considered as an expression of an (often negative) emotional state. As alexithymic persons are not expected to be conscious of their emotions, they probably also will have less reason to let their tears flow. The same holds for individuals inclined to use distancing as a coping mechanism. If successfully applied, the impact of potentially stressful situations will be dampened resulting in less emotional arousal. In contrast, weeping may be regarded as a form of expression of emotions and seeking emotional support. The positive correlation between these two variables is thus according to expectations. The significant, but relatively weak positive correlation between self-blame and crying may be explained, if one realizes that self-blame as a coping mechanism is in particular utilized by people under stress (Vingerhoets & Van Heck, 1990). In general, distressed people can be characterized by a high level of symptom reporting and much self-blame. To summarize, this study has provided evidence that there are significant associations between coping strategies and alexithymia and weeping. In addition, the observation that there is no relationship between subjective health and weeping proneness is remarkable. STUDY

2

Method Subjects Participants range between

were 206 volunteers (55 males and 149 females; 2 Ss did not indicate their sex; age 18 and 73 years). Mean ages were 45.3 (SD = 14.6) and 40.0 (SD = 14.5) for men

AD J. J. M. VINGERHOETS et al.

188

and women, respectively. a regional radio station, adaptational processes.

The Ss reacted to announcements in local newspapers in which persons were asked to take part in a study

and a call by on stress and

Measures

In addition to the above described WFS and AAS (see Study 1), the following questionnaires were utilized: The Dutch Personality Inventory (DPI; Nederlandse Persoonlijkheidsvragenlijst, NPV; Luteijn, 1974; Luteijn, Starren & Van Dijk, 1985). This 133-item questionnaire is based on the California Psychological Inventory (CPI; Gough, 1964) and contains 7 scales: (1) Neuroticism; (2) Social Inadequacy; (3) Rigidity; (4) Hostility; (5) Self-sufficiency; (6) Dominance; and (7) Self-esteem. The Pavlov Temperament Survey (PTS; Strelau, Angleitner, Bantelmann & Ruth, 1990; originally published as the Strelau Temperament Inventory-Revised; STI-R). The Dutch version of the PTS (Van Heck, De Raad & Vingerhoets, submitted) contains three 20-item scales for measuring the Pavlovian conceptualization of central nervous system (CNS) properties: Strength of Excitation (SI), Strength of Inhibition (SE), and (3) Mobility of nervous processes (MO). SE reflects the ability to endure intense or long-lasting stimulation. SI reflects the ability to sustain a state of conditioned inhibition such as extinction, differentiation, or delay. MO is the ability of the CNS to respond adequately to continuous changes in the environment. In addition, information was collected on sociodemographic characteristics, including sex, age, education, and profession. Results

Table 2 shows the Pearson r correlations between WFS and the various personality variables. For males, the results can be summarized as follows: significant correlations were only found for Alexithymia (negative) and Neuroticism (positive). Corresponding findings were obtained for the female group. In addition, in females, significant negative correlations were found for the temperament variables SE and SI. Subsequent regression analyses yielded that, for men, the significant predictors were Neuroticism (B = 0.73, t = 2.98, P < 0.01) and Self-esteem (fi = 0.55, t = 2.60, P = 0.01). For women, the picture was somewhat different: weeping frequency was predicted by Self-esteem (/I = 0.33, t = 2.34, P < O.OS), Alexithymia (/I = -0.27, t = -2.87. P < 0.01) and SI (/3 = -0.23, t = 2.14, P < 0.05). The proportion of variance explained also differed considerably between the sexes: 0.37 for males and 0.17 for females. Discussion

The present findings emphasize different interrelationships for males and females between personality and temperament variables, on the one hand, and weeping frequency, on the other hand. Confirming earlier studies (Choti et al., 1987; Williams, 1982) we also found that neurotic people are generally more prone to weep. The negative relationship with alexithymia is in correspondence with the results from Study 1. Table 2. Means,

standard

deviations,

and correlations between WFS and personality separately for males and females (Study 2) Males (n = 5.5)

SE Sl MO Alexithymla Neuroticism Social Inadequacy Rigidity HostlIlly Self-sufficiency DOIllillUlCe Self-esteem Weeping Frequency Significant

(WFS)

~-values indicate

variables.

Females 01 = 149)

MeXl

SD

rwir

51.5 53.4 57.2 52. I 10.3 8.4 26. I 18.7 1I.8 19.7 28.2 48.8

8.5 1.5 9.2 9.1 6.8 6.3 8.6 7.9 4.2 6.3 6.2 I I.1

-0.16 -0.12 -0.09 -0.35** 0.36** -0.01 0.01 0.10 -0.07 0.13 0.04

sex differences.

and temperament

Mean 46.3 50.3 54.0 45.2 14.7 IO..5 24.9 17.5 10.4 16.4 27.0 62.3

‘P < 0.05; **P i 0.01; ***?’ < 0.001.

SD ~----~x.3 7.0 9.4 9.9 X.8 7.7 1.4 6.4 4.5 6.3 6.5 11.5

rur,

-0.17’ -0.26”’ -0.13 -0.24** 0.21” 0.08 0.01 0.10 - 0.04 0.05 0.08

f 3.x8*** 2.81” 2.18’ 4.36*** -3.31”; -1.83 0.97 I.11 2.01* 3 24*** 1.26 7.3g***

Weeping

189

Most remarkable is the fact that self-esteem appears to be an important predictor of crying for both males and females. In contrast, the Pearson correlations between this variable and WFS are not significant for both sexes. For males, and for females to a lesser extent, the pattern of intercorrelations thus strongly suggests that self-esteem acts as a suppressor variable. Neurotic males, in particular those with high self-esteem weep more frequently, or, at least, are more willing to admit that they cry in several situations. For females, we found that alexithymic Ss and those with a low strength of inhibition cry more often, again especially if their self-esteem is relatively high. It is interesting to speculate on the nature of this relation. Do persons with high self-esteem cry more frequently because they feel self-assured and do not consider weeping as a sign of weakness and ego threatening? Previous research with male Ss (Ross & Mirowsky, 1984) has shown that education and income (variables positively associated with self-esteem, but also with nontraditional sex-roles) are positively linked to the tendency towards crying. However, in the same study it was shown that Ss with higher education and higher incomes generally have fewer reasons for crying than lower class Ss. In contrast, when taking into account educational level in the present study, we failed to find support for such an association. A further finding of interest is that SI is only predictive of weeping in females. An important facet of SI is the ability to withhold socially less accepted behaviours (cf. Strelau, 1983; Strelau et al., 1990). It could be speculated that the current finding has to do with a stronger weeping tendency in females. Since crying may not be considered to be a typically male behavioural expression, the association with SI in males, by consequence, is weaker.

GENERAL

CONCLUSIONS

The present studies have shown that there are significant associations between weeping frequency and several personality features. Those who weep frequently and those who seldom or never weep differ in several aspects. These differences are not the same for males and females. It is remarkable, that, on the one hand, there is evidence of an association with emotional lability, while, on the other hand and at the same time, significant relations were found with personality factors shown to be indicators of stress-resistance, such as self-esteem. This pattern of findings is the more remarkable because neuroticism and self-esteem are rather strongly negatively (!) associated with each other, whereas both are positively related to crying. Attempts to explain these observations, following Ross and Mirowsky (1984) proved to be unsuccessful. Plausible alternative explanations are hard to find. Assuming that the neuroticism scale does not reflect a more stable personality trait, but rather a more transient state of distress, could maybe appear an attractive alternative that may more easily and logically explain the present data. Future studies have to focus on these intriguing issues. Psychophysiological and psychoendocrinological measurements may be of great help to clarify some of these most interesting questions. It would be most welcome if more researchers spent interdisciplinary efforts to increase our insights into this typical human, but, in a scientific sense, only poorly understood behavioural expression. Acknowledgemenrs-We are grateful collection and data entry.

to Karen

Haasdijk,

Hannie

Thijs, Aafke Pot, and Irma Gruijters

for their help in data

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