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Weights of Selected Organs and Glands from S. C. White Leghorn Males Bred and Reared at Three Altitudes1,2
Weights of Selected Organs and Glands from S. C. White Leghorn Males Bred and Reared at Three Altitudes1'2 D. W. FRANCIS, R. S. HANSEN, 3 D. C. HUTTO 4 AND R. H. ROBERSON5 New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico 88001 (Received for publication August 3, 1967)
' A portion of this study was conducted in cooperation with the W-50 Western Regional Project entitled "Atmospheric Stresses on the Performance of Chickens." 2 Journal Article No. 290, Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico 88001. 3 Western Washington Research and Extension Center, Puyallup, Washington 98371. 4 Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyoming 82070. 5 New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, Las Cruces, N.M. 88001.
of organs from turkeys reared at sea level and 3,201 meters (10,500 feet), found a significant difference only in the heart. Other organs examined were lung, kidney, spleen, liver, pancreas, proventriculus, gizzard and adrenals. Francis and Roberson (1963) examined a number of organs from three strains of White Leghorn pullets after they had completed one laying year and found the only organ which exhibited a significant difference between the strains was the heart. In this work, as in previous work, the chicks were all hatched and reared at New Mexico. In a preliminary report Francis et al. (1966) reported there was a significant location effect for heart growth in chicks from three strains when all strains were reared at each of three locations. Timiras (1964) has reported that a profound alteration of growth in rats was observed along with changes in organ weights and cardiovascular alterations at a moderately high altitude (3,802 meters) which became progressively more accentuated in successive generations. Vaughan and Pace (1956), Moore and Price (1948), and Timiras et al. (1957) have reported the organ changes that occur due to short or prolonged exposure of rats to 3,802 meters (12,470 feet). The objective of the work reported here was to determine whether any changes occurred in several glands or organs of three strains of White Leghorn males each adapted to a specific elevation. However,
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AN examination of various glands and -**- organs from several strains of White Leghorn males, each bred at a different altitude but hatched and reared at one place, has indicated that strains may change physiologically in adapting to an altitude (Francis and Roberson, 1961). The fact there was a high embryonic mortality may have clouded the results. Buss (19S6) first reported a high embryonic mortality between strains during hatching at high elevations. There is little data on physiological changes of chickens kept at various altitudes. Smith et al. (1959) found that poults grew normally, and that chickens could adapt and resume normal production at 3,049 meters (10,000 feet). However, at 3,811 meters (12,500 feet) mortality amounted to 84% the first year and growth was better than that of a comparable group at sea level. Death was attributed to chronic heart insufficiency. Smith et al. (1954), comparing mean relative weights
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WEIGHTS OF GLANDS AND ORGANS
all strains were hatched at one location and shipped to each of the three original locations where they were reared.
T A B L E 2.—The means for body weight and various glands from three strains of S. C. White Leghorn males (1966) Strain
PROCEDURE
T A B L E 1.—The average weights of body and various glands from S. C. White Leghorn males reared at three locations (1966)
Body Weight1 Thyroid* Heart Spleen Testes Adrenals Bursa Liver
Washington
New Mexico
Wyoming
509.9a» 9.48a 640.8a 167.7a 45.1a 16.1a 348.9a 2,811a
530.9a 9.69a 636.9a 189.3b 85.8b 16.4a 352.8a 2,820a
507.6a 9.01a 657.1b 154.6a 103.4b 15.3a 367.7a 2,723a
1 2
Body weight in grams. Weights of organs and glands expressed in mgms. per 100 grams body weight. 3 Any two means in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05).
can's multiple range test (1955) was used to test differences where appropriate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There were two hatches, three strains, three locations, four individuals, and four ages, or 288 individuals, from which the thyroids, hearts, spleens, testes, adrenals, bursae of Fabricius, and livers were removed and weighed. The data for strain, location, and age are summarized in Tables 1, 2, and 3. A significant difference for body weight was noted among the locations. The mean weight at New Mexico was less than at Washington and Wyoming, perhaps partly because of higher temperature in New Mexico. Although the elevation is midway between Washington (IS m.) and WyoT A B L E 3.—The means for body weight and various glands from S. C. White Leghorn males taken at four ages (1966)
Locations and Elevations Washington 15 m. Body Weight1 Thyroid' Heart Spleen Testes Adrenals Bursa Liver 1 2
587.7 c3 9.20a 653.3a 189.5a 94.3a 15.6a 350.7a 2,614a
New Mexico 1,182 m. 442.5a 9.78a 668.0a 169.2a 78.4a 16.2a 347.5a 2,890a
Wyoming 2,215 m. 518.4b 9.19a 613.5b 153.0a 61.7a 15.9a 371.2a 2,850a
Body weight in grams. Weights of organs and glands expressed in mgms. per 100 grams body weight. » Any two location means not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05).
Age (weeks) 0 Body Weight1 Thyroid2 Heart Spleen Testes Adrenals Bursa Liver 1 2
4
8
12
34.0a3 248.3b 672.5c l,109.8d 17.29a 7.18b 6.23c 6.47c 746.7a 710.1a 592.9b 529.9c 49.0a 157.4b 251.3c 224.4c 20.8a 25.3a 45.1b 221.2c 22.8a 17.5b 13.0c 10.4d 133.1a 497.9c 497.3c 297.5b 3,408c 2,678b 2,593ab 2,459a
Body weight in grams. Weights of organs and glands expressed in mgms. per 100 grams body weight. 3 Any two means in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05).
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Two separate settings of eggs each from the Agricultural Experiment Stations of Western Washington (IS m.), Wyoming (2215 m.), and New Mexico (1182 m.) were shipped by air to the Utah Experiment Station in the spring of 1966. Each strain was incubated, hatched, and sexed and the resulting males and females were divided into three groups and returned to each of the stations from which the eggs originated. At each station, all three strains of chicks were reared together, by standard management practices. At each station, four males from each strain were weighed, killed, and frozen on the day the chicks were received and again at the 4th, 8th, and 12 th week. The frozen birds were packed in dry ice and shipped to New Mexico by air. All the dissections were done by one person (DWF) using techniques described by Francis and Roberson (1963). All organ weights were related and expressed as milligrams per 100 grams of body weight, for statistical analysis. Analysis of variance was used to determine significance. Dun-
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a ration which was nutritionally adequate was used. Thus, it was felt that temperature and altitude were the primary factors Age (weeks) causing the weight differences. Location 0 4 8 12 The relative thyroid weights showed a d c b significant age difference (Table 3), which 32.4A Wyoming 272.9A 710.4B 1,057.4B d c b a might be expected. They also exhibited a New Mexico 34.9 A 186.8B 531.2C 1,016.9B d c b a significant strain X location interaction Washington 34.6A 285. OA 775.8A 1,255.1A (Table 5). This occurred in the Wyoming 1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital strain at New Mexico. A strain X age inletters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P-C05). teraction was also significant for the thyroid (Table 6). This may be attributed to the large age differences. ming (2215 m.), the mean maximum JulyHeart size was significantly smaller at August temperature at New Mexico (1182 Wyoming than at Washington and New m.) was 33.8°C. (92.8°F.), which was Mexico (Table 1). This is contrary to what 8.3°C. above Washington and 7.3°C. above might be expected as the low oxygen conWyoming. Furthermore, during June, July, tent of the atmosphere at Wyoming might and August, Las Cruces had 79, Laramie 2, be expected to cause the heart to work and Puyallup 3 days above 32.2°C. harder and become larger through greater (90°F.) Houghton (1967). The effect of use. It is also in disagreement with the findaltitude on body weight is shown in the reings of Smith et al. (1954) who found the sults from Washington (587.7 gms.) and hearts of turkeys to be larger at 3,201 meWyoming (518.4 gms.). The effect of the ters than at sea level. The hearts from the higher temperature was dramatically shown at New Mexico by the lowest mean value Wyoming strain were significantly heavier of 442.5 gms. The significant location X than those from the other strains (Table age interaction (Table 4) showed the effect 2). The fact that the Wyoming strain has of heat at New Mexico at the age of four become adapted to the high elevation weeks and the altitude difference by eight found at Wyoming indicates that a selecweeks of age at Wyoming. Management tion for survival at a high altitude has factors were coordinated to keep them uni- taken place along with the development of form at the various stations and although large heart size. Heart size has also been the feed was not the same at each station, reported to be related to body size with the larger hearts usually found in the smaller TABLE 4.—Duncan's multiple range test for body weight (gms.) means for the locationXage interaction (1966)1
Location
Wyoming
TABLE 6.—Duncan's multiple range test for thyroid means from the strainXage interaction (1Q66)1'2
Strain Wyoming
New Mexico
9.25A b 8.19A
Washington
9.59A
Age (weeks)
New Mexico
a
9.44A 10.47A 9.16A
a
Washington
Strain 0
8.91A
Wyoming
10.69A
New Mexico
8.84A
Washington
1 Significance of strain mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05). 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
a 15.50B 19.67A a 16.71B
4
8
12
b 7.96 A b 5.92B b 7.67 A
be 6.75A b 6.71A b 5.42 A
c 5.83 A b 6.46A b 7.12A
1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Strain means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05). 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
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TABLE 5.—Duncan's multiple range test for thyroid means from the strainXlocation interaction (1966)l,i
WEIGHTS OF GLANDS AND ORGANS TABLE 7.—Duncan's multiple range test for heart means from the strainXlocation interaction (1966)1,2
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TABLE 9.—Duncan's multiple range test for testes means from the locationXage interaction (1966)1,2
Strain
Age (weeks) Location
Wyoming Wyoming New Mexico Washington
New Mexico
a 631.4B a 684.1A ab 655.8C
Washington
0
4
8
12
b 592.9B b 661.1A a 668.3A
b 23.8A b 19.6A b 19.1A
b 24.1A b 27.9A b 23.8A
b 41.7A b 43.9 A b 49.5 A
157.0C a 222.IB a 284.5A
a 616.2B b 658.8A b 635.8AB
1
Wyoming New Mexico Washington
1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
birds (Sturkie, 1965). In this data, the body weights for the Wyoming and New Mexico strains were smaller than the Washington strain but they had larger hearts although the only significant difference was for the Wyoming strain. Heart size relative to body weight decreased with age (Table 3) as exhibited in previous work (Francis and Roberson, 1965). The significant strain X location and strain X age differences (Tables 7, 8) are not clear. The fact that hatching took place at 1,374 meters may have imposed a selection as the hatchability for the Washington strain was very poor. It would be desirable to use a normal population for comparison. Strain differences disappeared between four and eight weeks of age. Significant strain and age differences were noted for the relative spleen weight (Tables 2 and 3). The mean for the New
Mexico strain was 189 mg. as compared with 168 mg. and 155 mg. for the Washington and Wyoming strains. Age differences might be expected. There were no significant interactions for relative spleen size. The relative mean weights of the testes were significantly heavier for New Mexico (85.8 mg.) and Wyoming strains (103.4 mg.) than the mean for the Washington strain (45.1 mg.) (Table 2). A significant age difference was also noted (Table 3). The differences observed in the location X age and strain X age interactions may be attributed to the large age variance. The significant location X age interaction occurred only between the locations at 12 weeks of age which was at the same time sexual maturity was taking place. All testes were smallest at Wyoming (157 mgs.), larger at New Mexico (222 mgs.) and largest at Washington (285 mgs.) (Table 9).
TABLE 8.—Duncan's multiple range lest for heart means from the strainX.age interaction (/P66)1'2
TABLE 10.—Duncan's multiple range test for testes means from the strainXage interaction (1966)1,2
Age (weeks)
Age (weeks)
Strain
Wyoming New Mexico Washington 1
0
4
8
12
a 778.5A a 736.8B a 724.9B
a 732.8A b 671.OB a 726.6A
b 580.2A c 601.5A b 597,3A
b 536.9A d 538.6A c 514.3A
Significance of age mean differences are indicated b y lower case letters (rows). Strain means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
Strain
Wyoming New Mexico Washington
0
4
8
12
b 20.6A b 20.9A b 20.9 A
b 29.3A b 20.4A b 26.2 A
b 54.2A b 42.2 A ab 38.8A
a 309.5A a 259.9A a 94.3B
1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Strain means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . a Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
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Significance of strain mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
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TABLE 11.—Duncan's multiple range test for liver means from the locationX age interaction (1966)xa
C. HUTTO AND R.
H.
ROBERSON
SUMMARY
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Three strains of S. C. White Leghorn Age (weeks) males were raised at each of three state agLocation 4 0 8 12 ricultural experiment stations, at elevations a ab ab b of 15 m., 1152 m., and 2215 m. above sea 2,500A Wyoming 3.049A 2.748A 2.744A a c be b level. One strain was obtained from each sta3.633A 2.447A 2.583A 2.897A New Mexico a b c d tion. The eggs were all hatched at a fourth 1.979A Washington 3,182 A 2.840A 2,454A station (1374 m.), and the chicks were 1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower sexed and distributed to the three stations case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed for rearing and further observations. Four by 2the same letter are significantly different (P<,05). Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body males from each of two hatches, three weight. strains, three locations, and four ages were weighed, killed, frozen, and sent to one staThe means for the significant strain X age tion where various organs and glands were interaction for the testes weights are found weighed. Two hundred and eighty eight in Table 10. The Washington strain exhib- males were examined. ited a much smaller testes at 12 weeks than Significant differences between locations the other strains. were observed for body weight and relative Highly significant age differences were heart weight. Highly significant differences obtained for relative weights of the adre- were observed between ages for body nals, bursa and liver (Table 3). The means weight and relative weights of the thyroids, for the adrenals and liver showed a contin- heart, spleen, testes, adrenals, bursae of uous decrease in size relative to body Fabricius, and livers. Significant strain weight during the observation periods, differences were observed for heart, spleen, while the mean bursa weight increased testes, and bursa of Fabricius. Significant from 0 to 4 weeks, remained constant location X age interactions were noted for through the 8th week, then decreased at 12 body weight, testes, and liver. Significant weeks of age. There were no other signifi- strain X location differences were noted cant values for the adrenals and bursae. A for the thyroids and hearts. highly significant location X age interacThe elevation at which chicks were tion was obtained for the liver (Table 11). raised apparently had no great effect upon At Wyoming and Washington, there was a the organs or glands examined. The higher decrease in liver size as the birds became ambient temperature at New Mexico may older, whereas at New Mexico the liver size have accounted for the lower body weight decreased at four weeks then increased at at this location, although there was a large eight weeks and again at 12 weeks. This difference due to elevation between the may be attributed to the hot weather at Washington and Wyoming locations. New Mexico. The cooler weather at WashACKNOWLEDGMENTS ington and Wyoming may have created a Thanks are due Heisdorf-Nelson Farms, greater need for energy, for growth and body maintenance so that less was stored Kirkland, Washington for supplying the in the liver. Kleiber and Dougherty (1934) Washington strain chicks. Thanks also go have shown that the amount of fat stored to Dr. A. A. Kurnick, Hoffman-LaRoche was greater at an environmental tempera- for providing the vitamin mix used at New ture of 32°C. than at 21°C. Mexico State University. Appreciation is
WEIGHTS OF GLANDS AND ORGANS
due Dr. Morris Finkner, biometrician, New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station for aid and interpretation of the statistical analysis and Dr. C. Elmer Clark, Utah State University, for hatching the chicks. REFERENCES
zation of food energy in baby chicks. J. Gen. Physiol. 17: 701-726. Moore, C. R., and D. Price, 1948. A study at high altitude of reproduction, growth, sexual maturity and organ weights. J. Exp. Zool. 108: 171-216. Smith, A. H., H. Abplanalp, L. M. Harwood and C. F. Kelly, 1959. Poultry at high altitudes. University of California. California Agric. 13: 8-9. Smith, A. H., W. O. Wilson and N. Pace, 1954. The effect of high altitude on the growth of turkeys. Growth, 18: 27-35. Sturkie, P. D., 1965. Avian Physiology. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Timiras, P. S., 1964. Comparison of growth and development of the rat at high altitude and sea level. I n : Weihe, W. H., The Physiological Effects of High Altitude. The MacMillan Company, N.Y. Timiras, P. S., A. A. Krum and N. Pace, 1957. Body and organ weights of rats during acclimatization to an altitude of 12,470 feet. Amer. J. Phys. 191: 598-604. Vaughan, B. E., and N. Pace, 1956. Changes in myoglobin content of the high altitude acclimatized rat. Amer. J. Physiol. 185: 549-556.
Breaded Fried Chicken: Effects of Precooking, Batter Composition, and Temperature of Parts before Breading K. K. HALE, JR. 1 AND T. L. GOODWIN Department of Animal Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701 (Received for publication August 8, 1967)
NTEREST in different cooking methods for chicken has increased in recent years. Carlin et al. (1959) found that precooked parts from frozen chicken averaged 20 to 26 percent loss from the raw state to the ready-to-eat product; whereas, nonprecooked controls averaged 16 percent losses. Mickelberry and Stadelman (1962)
1
1
Present Address: Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
observed lower cooking losses were obtained when chicken was partially cooked with steam and finished by deep-fat frying as compared with other methods involving deep-fat frying. Contradictory results were reported by Smith and Vail (1963). These authors reported no significant differences in yield due to cooking methods of skilletfrying, deep-fat frying, and oven frying. Skin from deep-fat fried chicken was found to contain 40 percent fat as com-
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Buss, E. G., 1956. Some factors which affect hatchability of chicken eggs at higher altitude. Ph.D. thesis, Purdue University. Duncan, B., 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 11: 1-42. Francis, D. W., and R. H. Roberson, 1961. Circulatory organ changes in White Leghorns at a moderate altitude. Poultry Sci. 40: 1403. Francis, D. W., and R. H. Roberson, 1963. Body characteristics of White Leghorn pullets housed in cages and floor pens. Poultry Sci. 42:58-61. Francis, D. W., R. H. Roberson, R. S. [Hansen and D. C. Hutto, 1966. The effect of various altitudes on S. C. White Leghorn males. Poultry Sci. 45: 1085. Houghton, F., 1967. Personal communication. Kleiber, M., and J. E. Dougherty, 1934. The influence of environmental temperature on the utili-
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' A portion of this study was conducted in cooperation with the W-50 Western Regional Project entitled "Atmospheric Stresses on the Performance of Chickens." 2 Journal Article No. 290, Agricultural Experiment Station, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico 88001. 3 Western Washington Research and Extension Center, Puyallup, Washington 98371. 4 Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station, Laramie, Wyoming 82070. 5 New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station, Las Cruces, N.M. 88001.
of organs from turkeys reared at sea level and 3,201 meters (10,500 feet), found a significant difference only in the heart. Other organs examined were lung, kidney, spleen, liver, pancreas, proventriculus, gizzard and adrenals. Francis and Roberson (1963) examined a number of organs from three strains of White Leghorn pullets after they had completed one laying year and found the only organ which exhibited a significant difference between the strains was the heart. In this work, as in previous work, the chicks were all hatched and reared at New Mexico. In a preliminary report Francis et al. (1966) reported there was a significant location effect for heart growth in chicks from three strains when all strains were reared at each of three locations. Timiras (1964) has reported that a profound alteration of growth in rats was observed along with changes in organ weights and cardiovascular alterations at a moderately high altitude (3,802 meters) which became progressively more accentuated in successive generations. Vaughan and Pace (1956), Moore and Price (1948), and Timiras et al. (1957) have reported the organ changes that occur due to short or prolonged exposure of rats to 3,802 meters (12,470 feet). The objective of the work reported here was to determine whether any changes occurred in several glands or organs of three strains of White Leghorn males each adapted to a specific elevation. However,
734
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AN examination of various glands and -**- organs from several strains of White Leghorn males, each bred at a different altitude but hatched and reared at one place, has indicated that strains may change physiologically in adapting to an altitude (Francis and Roberson, 1961). The fact there was a high embryonic mortality may have clouded the results. Buss (19S6) first reported a high embryonic mortality between strains during hatching at high elevations. There is little data on physiological changes of chickens kept at various altitudes. Smith et al. (1959) found that poults grew normally, and that chickens could adapt and resume normal production at 3,049 meters (10,000 feet). However, at 3,811 meters (12,500 feet) mortality amounted to 84% the first year and growth was better than that of a comparable group at sea level. Death was attributed to chronic heart insufficiency. Smith et al. (1954), comparing mean relative weights
735
WEIGHTS OF GLANDS AND ORGANS
all strains were hatched at one location and shipped to each of the three original locations where they were reared.
T A B L E 2.—The means for body weight and various glands from three strains of S. C. White Leghorn males (1966) Strain
PROCEDURE
T A B L E 1.—The average weights of body and various glands from S. C. White Leghorn males reared at three locations (1966)
Body Weight1 Thyroid* Heart Spleen Testes Adrenals Bursa Liver
Washington
New Mexico
Wyoming
509.9a» 9.48a 640.8a 167.7a 45.1a 16.1a 348.9a 2,811a
530.9a 9.69a 636.9a 189.3b 85.8b 16.4a 352.8a 2,820a
507.6a 9.01a 657.1b 154.6a 103.4b 15.3a 367.7a 2,723a
1 2
Body weight in grams. Weights of organs and glands expressed in mgms. per 100 grams body weight. 3 Any two means in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05).
can's multiple range test (1955) was used to test differences where appropriate. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There were two hatches, three strains, three locations, four individuals, and four ages, or 288 individuals, from which the thyroids, hearts, spleens, testes, adrenals, bursae of Fabricius, and livers were removed and weighed. The data for strain, location, and age are summarized in Tables 1, 2, and 3. A significant difference for body weight was noted among the locations. The mean weight at New Mexico was less than at Washington and Wyoming, perhaps partly because of higher temperature in New Mexico. Although the elevation is midway between Washington (IS m.) and WyoT A B L E 3.—The means for body weight and various glands from S. C. White Leghorn males taken at four ages (1966)
Locations and Elevations Washington 15 m. Body Weight1 Thyroid' Heart Spleen Testes Adrenals Bursa Liver 1 2
587.7 c3 9.20a 653.3a 189.5a 94.3a 15.6a 350.7a 2,614a
New Mexico 1,182 m. 442.5a 9.78a 668.0a 169.2a 78.4a 16.2a 347.5a 2,890a
Wyoming 2,215 m. 518.4b 9.19a 613.5b 153.0a 61.7a 15.9a 371.2a 2,850a
Body weight in grams. Weights of organs and glands expressed in mgms. per 100 grams body weight. » Any two location means not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05).
Age (weeks) 0 Body Weight1 Thyroid2 Heart Spleen Testes Adrenals Bursa Liver 1 2
4
8
12
34.0a3 248.3b 672.5c l,109.8d 17.29a 7.18b 6.23c 6.47c 746.7a 710.1a 592.9b 529.9c 49.0a 157.4b 251.3c 224.4c 20.8a 25.3a 45.1b 221.2c 22.8a 17.5b 13.0c 10.4d 133.1a 497.9c 497.3c 297.5b 3,408c 2,678b 2,593ab 2,459a
Body weight in grams. Weights of organs and glands expressed in mgms. per 100 grams body weight. 3 Any two means in the same row not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05).
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Two separate settings of eggs each from the Agricultural Experiment Stations of Western Washington (IS m.), Wyoming (2215 m.), and New Mexico (1182 m.) were shipped by air to the Utah Experiment Station in the spring of 1966. Each strain was incubated, hatched, and sexed and the resulting males and females were divided into three groups and returned to each of the stations from which the eggs originated. At each station, all three strains of chicks were reared together, by standard management practices. At each station, four males from each strain were weighed, killed, and frozen on the day the chicks were received and again at the 4th, 8th, and 12 th week. The frozen birds were packed in dry ice and shipped to New Mexico by air. All the dissections were done by one person (DWF) using techniques described by Francis and Roberson (1963). All organ weights were related and expressed as milligrams per 100 grams of body weight, for statistical analysis. Analysis of variance was used to determine significance. Dun-
736
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W.
FRANCIS, R.
S. HANSEN, D.
C. HUTTO AND R.
H.
ROBEESON
a ration which was nutritionally adequate was used. Thus, it was felt that temperature and altitude were the primary factors Age (weeks) causing the weight differences. Location 0 4 8 12 The relative thyroid weights showed a d c b significant age difference (Table 3), which 32.4A Wyoming 272.9A 710.4B 1,057.4B d c b a might be expected. They also exhibited a New Mexico 34.9 A 186.8B 531.2C 1,016.9B d c b a significant strain X location interaction Washington 34.6A 285. OA 775.8A 1,255.1A (Table 5). This occurred in the Wyoming 1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital strain at New Mexico. A strain X age inletters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P-C05). teraction was also significant for the thyroid (Table 6). This may be attributed to the large age differences. ming (2215 m.), the mean maximum JulyHeart size was significantly smaller at August temperature at New Mexico (1182 Wyoming than at Washington and New m.) was 33.8°C. (92.8°F.), which was Mexico (Table 1). This is contrary to what 8.3°C. above Washington and 7.3°C. above might be expected as the low oxygen conWyoming. Furthermore, during June, July, tent of the atmosphere at Wyoming might and August, Las Cruces had 79, Laramie 2, be expected to cause the heart to work and Puyallup 3 days above 32.2°C. harder and become larger through greater (90°F.) Houghton (1967). The effect of use. It is also in disagreement with the findaltitude on body weight is shown in the reings of Smith et al. (1954) who found the sults from Washington (587.7 gms.) and hearts of turkeys to be larger at 3,201 meWyoming (518.4 gms.). The effect of the ters than at sea level. The hearts from the higher temperature was dramatically shown at New Mexico by the lowest mean value Wyoming strain were significantly heavier of 442.5 gms. The significant location X than those from the other strains (Table age interaction (Table 4) showed the effect 2). The fact that the Wyoming strain has of heat at New Mexico at the age of four become adapted to the high elevation weeks and the altitude difference by eight found at Wyoming indicates that a selecweeks of age at Wyoming. Management tion for survival at a high altitude has factors were coordinated to keep them uni- taken place along with the development of form at the various stations and although large heart size. Heart size has also been the feed was not the same at each station, reported to be related to body size with the larger hearts usually found in the smaller TABLE 4.—Duncan's multiple range test for body weight (gms.) means for the locationXage interaction (1966)1
Location
Wyoming
TABLE 6.—Duncan's multiple range test for thyroid means from the strainXage interaction (1Q66)1'2
Strain Wyoming
New Mexico
9.25A b 8.19A
Washington
9.59A
Age (weeks)
New Mexico
a
9.44A 10.47A 9.16A
a
Washington
Strain 0
8.91A
Wyoming
10.69A
New Mexico
8.84A
Washington
1 Significance of strain mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05). 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
a 15.50B 19.67A a 16.71B
4
8
12
b 7.96 A b 5.92B b 7.67 A
be 6.75A b 6.71A b 5.42 A
c 5.83 A b 6.46A b 7.12A
1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Strain means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different (P<.05). 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
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TABLE 5.—Duncan's multiple range test for thyroid means from the strainXlocation interaction (1966)l,i
WEIGHTS OF GLANDS AND ORGANS TABLE 7.—Duncan's multiple range test for heart means from the strainXlocation interaction (1966)1,2
737
TABLE 9.—Duncan's multiple range test for testes means from the locationXage interaction (1966)1,2
Strain
Age (weeks) Location
Wyoming Wyoming New Mexico Washington
New Mexico
a 631.4B a 684.1A ab 655.8C
Washington
0
4
8
12
b 592.9B b 661.1A a 668.3A
b 23.8A b 19.6A b 19.1A
b 24.1A b 27.9A b 23.8A
b 41.7A b 43.9 A b 49.5 A
157.0C a 222.IB a 284.5A
a 616.2B b 658.8A b 635.8AB
1
Wyoming New Mexico Washington
1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
birds (Sturkie, 1965). In this data, the body weights for the Wyoming and New Mexico strains were smaller than the Washington strain but they had larger hearts although the only significant difference was for the Wyoming strain. Heart size relative to body weight decreased with age (Table 3) as exhibited in previous work (Francis and Roberson, 1965). The significant strain X location and strain X age differences (Tables 7, 8) are not clear. The fact that hatching took place at 1,374 meters may have imposed a selection as the hatchability for the Washington strain was very poor. It would be desirable to use a normal population for comparison. Strain differences disappeared between four and eight weeks of age. Significant strain and age differences were noted for the relative spleen weight (Tables 2 and 3). The mean for the New
Mexico strain was 189 mg. as compared with 168 mg. and 155 mg. for the Washington and Wyoming strains. Age differences might be expected. There were no significant interactions for relative spleen size. The relative mean weights of the testes were significantly heavier for New Mexico (85.8 mg.) and Wyoming strains (103.4 mg.) than the mean for the Washington strain (45.1 mg.) (Table 2). A significant age difference was also noted (Table 3). The differences observed in the location X age and strain X age interactions may be attributed to the large age variance. The significant location X age interaction occurred only between the locations at 12 weeks of age which was at the same time sexual maturity was taking place. All testes were smallest at Wyoming (157 mgs.), larger at New Mexico (222 mgs.) and largest at Washington (285 mgs.) (Table 9).
TABLE 8.—Duncan's multiple range lest for heart means from the strainX.age interaction (/P66)1'2
TABLE 10.—Duncan's multiple range test for testes means from the strainXage interaction (1966)1,2
Age (weeks)
Age (weeks)
Strain
Wyoming New Mexico Washington 1
0
4
8
12
a 778.5A a 736.8B a 724.9B
a 732.8A b 671.OB a 726.6A
b 580.2A c 601.5A b 597,3A
b 536.9A d 538.6A c 514.3A
Significance of age mean differences are indicated b y lower case letters (rows). Strain means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
Strain
Wyoming New Mexico Washington
0
4
8
12
b 20.6A b 20.9A b 20.9 A
b 29.3A b 20.4A b 26.2 A
b 54.2A b 42.2 A ab 38.8A
a 309.5A a 259.9A a 94.3B
1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Strain means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . a Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
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Significance of strain mean differences are indicated by lower case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed by the same letter are significantly different ( P < . 0 5 ) . 2 Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body weight.
738
D.
W.
FRANCIS, R.
S. HANSEN, D.
TABLE 11.—Duncan's multiple range test for liver means from the locationX age interaction (1966)xa
C. HUTTO AND R.
H.
ROBERSON
SUMMARY
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Three strains of S. C. White Leghorn Age (weeks) males were raised at each of three state agLocation 4 0 8 12 ricultural experiment stations, at elevations a ab ab b of 15 m., 1152 m., and 2215 m. above sea 2,500A Wyoming 3.049A 2.748A 2.744A a c be b level. One strain was obtained from each sta3.633A 2.447A 2.583A 2.897A New Mexico a b c d tion. The eggs were all hatched at a fourth 1.979A Washington 3,182 A 2.840A 2,454A station (1374 m.), and the chicks were 1 Significance of age mean differences are indicated by lower sexed and distributed to the three stations case letters (rows). Location means are indicated by capital letters (columns). Any two means as given above not followed for rearing and further observations. Four by 2the same letter are significantly different (P<,05). Weights are expressed in mgms. per 100 grams of body males from each of two hatches, three weight. strains, three locations, and four ages were weighed, killed, frozen, and sent to one staThe means for the significant strain X age tion where various organs and glands were interaction for the testes weights are found weighed. Two hundred and eighty eight in Table 10. The Washington strain exhib- males were examined. ited a much smaller testes at 12 weeks than Significant differences between locations the other strains. were observed for body weight and relative Highly significant age differences were heart weight. Highly significant differences obtained for relative weights of the adre- were observed between ages for body nals, bursa and liver (Table 3). The means weight and relative weights of the thyroids, for the adrenals and liver showed a contin- heart, spleen, testes, adrenals, bursae of uous decrease in size relative to body Fabricius, and livers. Significant strain weight during the observation periods, differences were observed for heart, spleen, while the mean bursa weight increased testes, and bursa of Fabricius. Significant from 0 to 4 weeks, remained constant location X age interactions were noted for through the 8th week, then decreased at 12 body weight, testes, and liver. Significant weeks of age. There were no other signifi- strain X location differences were noted cant values for the adrenals and bursae. A for the thyroids and hearts. highly significant location X age interacThe elevation at which chicks were tion was obtained for the liver (Table 11). raised apparently had no great effect upon At Wyoming and Washington, there was a the organs or glands examined. The higher decrease in liver size as the birds became ambient temperature at New Mexico may older, whereas at New Mexico the liver size have accounted for the lower body weight decreased at four weeks then increased at at this location, although there was a large eight weeks and again at 12 weeks. This difference due to elevation between the may be attributed to the hot weather at Washington and Wyoming locations. New Mexico. The cooler weather at WashACKNOWLEDGMENTS ington and Wyoming may have created a Thanks are due Heisdorf-Nelson Farms, greater need for energy, for growth and body maintenance so that less was stored Kirkland, Washington for supplying the in the liver. Kleiber and Dougherty (1934) Washington strain chicks. Thanks also go have shown that the amount of fat stored to Dr. A. A. Kurnick, Hoffman-LaRoche was greater at an environmental tempera- for providing the vitamin mix used at New ture of 32°C. than at 21°C. Mexico State University. Appreciation is
WEIGHTS OF GLANDS AND ORGANS
due Dr. Morris Finkner, biometrician, New Mexico Agricultural Experiment Station for aid and interpretation of the statistical analysis and Dr. C. Elmer Clark, Utah State University, for hatching the chicks. REFERENCES
zation of food energy in baby chicks. J. Gen. Physiol. 17: 701-726. Moore, C. R., and D. Price, 1948. A study at high altitude of reproduction, growth, sexual maturity and organ weights. J. Exp. Zool. 108: 171-216. Smith, A. H., H. Abplanalp, L. M. Harwood and C. F. Kelly, 1959. Poultry at high altitudes. University of California. California Agric. 13: 8-9. Smith, A. H., W. O. Wilson and N. Pace, 1954. The effect of high altitude on the growth of turkeys. Growth, 18: 27-35. Sturkie, P. D., 1965. Avian Physiology. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Timiras, P. S., 1964. Comparison of growth and development of the rat at high altitude and sea level. I n : Weihe, W. H., The Physiological Effects of High Altitude. The MacMillan Company, N.Y. Timiras, P. S., A. A. Krum and N. Pace, 1957. Body and organ weights of rats during acclimatization to an altitude of 12,470 feet. Amer. J. Phys. 191: 598-604. Vaughan, B. E., and N. Pace, 1956. Changes in myoglobin content of the high altitude acclimatized rat. Amer. J. Physiol. 185: 549-556.
Breaded Fried Chicken: Effects of Precooking, Batter Composition, and Temperature of Parts before Breading K. K. HALE, JR. 1 AND T. L. GOODWIN Department of Animal Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701 (Received for publication August 8, 1967)
NTEREST in different cooking methods for chicken has increased in recent years. Carlin et al. (1959) found that precooked parts from frozen chicken averaged 20 to 26 percent loss from the raw state to the ready-to-eat product; whereas, nonprecooked controls averaged 16 percent losses. Mickelberry and Stadelman (1962)
1
1
Present Address: Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, Lafayette, Indiana 47907.
observed lower cooking losses were obtained when chicken was partially cooked with steam and finished by deep-fat frying as compared with other methods involving deep-fat frying. Contradictory results were reported by Smith and Vail (1963). These authors reported no significant differences in yield due to cooking methods of skilletfrying, deep-fat frying, and oven frying. Skin from deep-fat fried chicken was found to contain 40 percent fat as com-
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Buss, E. G., 1956. Some factors which affect hatchability of chicken eggs at higher altitude. Ph.D. thesis, Purdue University. Duncan, B., 1955. Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 11: 1-42. Francis, D. W., and R. H. Roberson, 1961. Circulatory organ changes in White Leghorns at a moderate altitude. Poultry Sci. 40: 1403. Francis, D. W., and R. H. Roberson, 1963. Body characteristics of White Leghorn pullets housed in cages and floor pens. Poultry Sci. 42:58-61. Francis, D. W., R. H. Roberson, R. S. [Hansen and D. C. Hutto, 1966. The effect of various altitudes on S. C. White Leghorn males. Poultry Sci. 45: 1085. Houghton, F., 1967. Personal communication. Kleiber, M., and J. E. Dougherty, 1934. The influence of environmental temperature on the utili-
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