What did urban studies do for women? A systematic review of 40 years of research

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What did urban studies do for women? A systematic review of 40 years of research Seyed Navid Mashhadi Moghadam, Mojtaba Rafieian∗ Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Women Gender Urban studies Planning City

The present study is a general review of the published papers on women and the city with the aim of identifying knowledge gaps in the research. In order to achieve this goal, 275 papers were selected from 43 journals drawn from four data bases: Taylor and Francis; Wiley Online Library; Science Direct (Elsevier); and SAGE Libraries. The results of the paper suggest the United States of America and the United Kingdom have the highest number of papers in relation to women and the city, and in considering the period 1977–2019, the highest number of papers were published in the past 10 years. The knowledge gaps and debates which left behind are presented in five discussion documents which can be used for future research. These five documents include debates on the health and safety of women in cities; economic studies representing labour, migrants and poverty; social justice debates, and the road to the right to the city. The fifth document, at the end of this paper, presents a typology based on three aspects: theories of women in urban studies, ‘the theoretical debate’; the designer's efforts create urban spaces in order to achieve urban inclusivity, ‘the form-of-city debate’; and the inclusion of women in future urban development planning processes together with emerging gender planning theory, ‘the planning process debate’.

1. Introduction Women form half of the population on Earth and, as various studies show, have always suffered some kind of discrimination and inequality (Crompton, 1997; Hoff, 1994; Katz, Stern, & Fader, 2005). Urban spaces for social events and interactions can both produce inequalities and, at the same time, moderate them. After many studies, William Whyte considered the high ratio of women to men as one of the success indicators of public spaces. In the case where the number of women is higher, it represents a proper place with excellent management which pleases everyone (Whyte, 1980). The main question this paper seeks to answer is, ‘To date, what research has been conducted on women in urban areas, and in relation to this issue, which research gaps remain? The study of the status of women in cities and their associated social problems is not new. Papanek (1976) categorised five challenges facing women: 1) social and economic status; 2) work; 3) education and training; 4) geographic and social mobility; and 5) women's groups and associations. Jelin (1977) focuses on the status of immigrant women from Latin America and their participation in the labour force, as well as their quality of life in cities. However, the significance of the issue has not decreased over time, and by reviewing the city in terms of gender, Chant (2013) emphasizes the need to consider women's issues ∗

in relation to work, safety and transportation in urban areas. Similarly, the research of C. Moser (2012), underlines the prominence of mainstreaming women's safety in cities, a need which is highlighted despite technological developments. In addition to the safety issue, other recent research considers the importance of equality in areas such as health (Borrell, Gotsens, & Novoa, 2019, pp. 515–534), policy making (Fuszara, 2019, pp. 689–698), and sustainable education and development (Suwarno, 2019). Accordingly, the present study indicates which scientific gaps remain in the research concerning women and urban areas and presenting a new typology of studies in this field. It should be noted that gender is non-binary, and includes cisgender or transgender. This paper offers a systematic overview of the gender-related academic literature on women and cities from the period 1977–2019. Although the list of references is by no means complete, the intention is that this survey of more than 275 articles from around the world will be a useful tool for researchers and students analysing the relationship between women and urban studies. Therefore, standing outside of previous research, this paper attempts to reveal the gaps in the literature, and present a clearer understanding of the relevance of urban studies for women. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the theoretical framework and a brief overview on the range of various issues related to women and the

Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.N. Mashhadi Moghadam), Rafi[email protected] (M. Rafieian).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2019.102047 Received 15 March 2019; Received in revised form 20 August 2019; Accepted 12 September 2019 0197-3975/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article as: Seyed Navid Mashhadi Moghadam and Mojtaba Rafieian, Habitat International, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2019.102047

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Fig. 1. The description of gender norms, roles, power and equality (Adopted from: Diekman & Goodfriend, 2006; S. Johnson, 2004; Jones & Chant, 2009; Lindsey, 2015; Riley, 1997).

city is first discussed, then the research methodology and raw data are presented. The collected data are demonstrated in the 4. Methodology and Data section, whereas the obtained data are analysed in the 5. Result section. The research gaps are presented along with new typology for women and cities studies in the 6. Discussion section.

in the academic literature of sociology and linguistics (Rai, 2017). However, since this term it is not correctly translated into the other languages, it is commonly used in at least English publications (Jahan & Mumtaz, 1996). That transition (from women to gender) occurred both due to the increased value of the language and the desire to form the pivot of the institutional policies. For women and female language, the gender approach has some advantages over the sex-oriented approach if the different meanings of these concepts is taken into consideration (Eveline & Bacchi, 2005). By stressing the social construction of human identity, gender brings contextual and historical meaning to the biological (and therefore seemingly immutable) referents of male and female, women and men, or sex (Rai, 2017). Constructive thinking is associated with public policies, as these policies advocate social and economic reconstruction. Gender is also more inclusive and relational as it addresses both women and men as well as their interactions (McRobbie, 2009). The gender approach is a response to those early advocates of feminism who wondered why only men should be involved in development plans (Lombardo & Meier, 2006). These advocates were certainly unaware of the deep roots of the male interests in the implementation of policies (Rai, 2017). The other advantages of a gender approach are that it defines problems and analyses the alternatives in a broader sense (Lazar, 2005). In the discussions of sexism and reproduction of the late 20th century, the 19th century's ‘woman problem’ became a male problem as perpetrators rather than the victims of sexual violence (Rai, 2017). Despite attempts to label their projects ‘gender’ rather than ‘women's’, the actions taken by many institutions were not indicative of a transition in behavioural outcomes or gender equity. There remain, therefore, ambiguities about the different meanings of these terms. These ambiguities partly arise from the polarized interpretations by those who believe politicisation is the root of the word ‘gender’, while

2. Theoretical framework Urban planning theory and practice have been the subject of feminist critique since at least the 1970s. The International Journal of Urban and Regional Research signalled the onset of feminist research on the notion of the city with a special issue in 1978. As a result, in the early 1980s a large number of books, special issues of journals and papers were published by many academic institutes. These publications voiced criticisms over the gender-blindness in urban planning, as well as the lack of concern for local needs and the technical-rational approach. Gender planning theory seeks to solve the problems faced by women in cities, a pivotal aspect of which is the shift in emphasis from women to gender and gender planning and which is described in the following. 2.1. Mainstreaming gender Until the beginning of women- and development-oriented studies and measures, the role of women in production, reproduction and society was overlooked both in public policy and in publications on development. As a result of the International Year of Women (1975), the World Decade for Women (1976–85), world conferences on women and other basic global measures, gender-oriented public policies now cover a wide range of social and economic issues and concerns (Moser & Moser, 2005; Rai, 2017). The lack of decision making was a feature of the biased hierarchy that suppressed women. In the 1970s, the word ‘gender’ did not feature 2

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planning), it will be more easily implemented. However, the solutions are not easily found when the goal is to make a change in attitudes rather than to product of planning (Locke & Okali, 1999). Moreover, gender planning cannot be driven by rational and comprehensive planning approaches unlike gender-aware planning (C. O. Moser, 2012). Because gender planning procedures involve negotiation and debate, social transformation is at its the core. The redistribution of power and resources within households, civil society, the state and the global system are the focus of these processes (Roberts, 2016; Wieringa, 1998). The difficulties in ‘operationalising’ subordination reflect the difficulties in the epistemological expression of this type of planning process (Locke & Okali, 1999). Moreover, the methodology that governs mediation of different interests and needs into strategies, policies, programs and projects is a context-specific methodology. In other words, it cannot be determined theoretically. As a result, the gender planning process does not involve a logical sequence of stages in a defined theoretical process. Rather, it involves an iterative process consisting of a number of procedures, which constitute the ‘ongoing and overlapping’ steps. Moser and Moser (2005) found, that at an international level, there is no consensus of success or failure in regards to gender planning Their research indicated that documentation in the public domain was both fragmented and arbitrary. However, they admitted that international institutions had put in place gender mainstreaming policies. Based on three case studies, Sweet and Ortiz Escalante (2010) showed how gender planning responds to gender violence. These case studies were selected because, based on their different scales, they described ‘a legislative top–down approach in Vilafranca del Penedès, a small Spanish city; local comprehensive planning in Ciudad Juárez, a US–Mexico border city, and grassroots citizen-planning in Chicago, a US Midwestern city’. In Vilafranca del Penedès, it can be seen how top–down planning is unable to change historically constructed gender relationships in the context of social planning. In Juárez, analysis showed how, when it privileges economic privatisation, planning can actually perpetuate gender violence, while society at large remains oblivious to it. In Chicago, the study showed how a grassroots group used economic development as a tool for addressing and preventing gender violence. Bekana (2019) investigated planning policies designed to achieve gender equality in Ethiopia, demonstrating the efforts and commitment at the highest level of the political echelon to gain gender equality. The result showed that Ethiopia was somewhat successful in strengthening national structures for achieving ‘gender parity’. These examples of gender planning demonstrate that, from politicians and planners at the government level to small scale neighbourhood communities, it cannot be limited to physical plans and should be seen as multi-scalar and multi-dimensional.

others consider it an act of depoliticisation. However, regardless of what economists or other specialists think of gender (as well as policies that overlook both women and gender), politics and power determine change in public expenditure and priorities. From the cultural point of view, one factor by which space is analysed is gender (Almahmood, Schulze, Carstensen, & Jørgensen, 2018). Promoting the masculinity of space has a negative influence on spatiotemporal applications and access of women to public urban areas by informing them about threats of being a violence victim (Fenster, 2005). In conservative societies the challenges facing women when entering the public places of a city increases, since gender norms (Fig. 1) and traditions limit them, as well as the cultural challenges presented by women's presence there (Diekman & Goodfriend, 2006; S.; Johnson, 2004; Sur, 2014). Thus, the inclusiveness of urban space has social, cultural and temporal aspects of urban space and not limited to a common set of universal spatial approaches (Whitzman, 2013). 2.2. Gender planning As regards the critical characteristics of gender planning, it could be said that it is both political and technical in nature and besides, conflicts are considered part of the planning process. It also entails transformative processes, and it deems planning a ‘debate’, resulting in effective guidelines on the elaboration of the gender planning process (Locke & Okali, 1999; C. O.; Moser, 2012). Unlike physical planning conventions and their distinct operational methodologies, ‘subordination’ or ‘emancipation’ cannot be operationalised (Locke & Okali, 1999; Taylor, 1999). Hence, gender planning primarily pursues the transformation of the relations between different groups in society, especially male and female groups. As a result, gender planning must be considered an iterative process in overall planning methodologies (C. O. Moser, 2012). According to Healey (1989), planning as a ‘debate’ suggests that values and strategies cannot represent the outcomes. Hence the process, which consists of the institutional mechanisms and operational procedures, whereby the interests and needs are ‘mediated’ into the strategies, policies, programs and projects, is itself the most important factor. Highly political transformative processes that may involve conflicts form the core of gender planning. Assuming that such a process is not necessarily rational or comprehensive, a planning methodology that revolves around debate, negotiation and conflict resolution is therefore needed (Fainstein & Servon, 2005; Little, 1994). This form of planning is more similar to the concept of planning as a ‘debate’, but this methodology has to be developed fully by dint of debating, decisionmaking, and practising (Fainstein & Servon, 2005; C. O.; Moser, 2012). The planning process and its organisational structure are identified by the planning methodology, while the planning tradition identifies the gender planning, purposes, and agenda (Huxley, 2002, pp. 136–154). Gender is the pivot of gender planning, which is a new planning tradition (Fenster, 2002). To wit, the social inequality relations between men and women form the basis for this tradition, which is based on the knowledge that is acquired from different sources. This tradition also pursues the satisfaction of the strategic and practical gender needs to end the subservience of women and promote equality, equity and empowerment (M. Macdonald, 1994). Its agenda is the specific strategic gender needs of women that are contextually linked to social factors such as social class, ethnicity, ‘race’, religion and location (Fainstein & Servon, 2005; Sandercock & Forsyth, 1992). It is noteworthy that gender planning does not revolve only around the practical gender needs of women. Various procedures constitute a planning framework, and these procedures should reflect a logical sequence of phases that determine the number of actions needed to complete the planning process (C. O. Moser, 2012). If the gender planning process consists of a finite number of phases and logical progression (similar to the straightforward linear procedures of blueprint planning and rational comprehensive

3. Literature review Gender relationship in urban areas is one of the most important dimensions of current urban studies, and considers the wider relationship between urban areas and culture. Serious attempts have been made in feminist discourse to analyse gender relations in urban areas. As a result of such endeavours, issues such as gender justice, women's experiences and safety in urban areas, women's citizenship rights and their participation in city planning are today being raised and pursued seriously. For instance, based on feminist theory, England (1994) examines social justice and urban rights issues, and attempts to reveal the role of the women in achieving these issues, which were neglected in Harvey's Social Justice and City (2010). Additionally, Isaac (1996) attempted to present the status of feminist theory in local development planning in Mexico. A number of researchers have made an attempt to highlight the role of women in urban areas or planning in accordance with the feminist theory (Ikävalko & Kantola, 2017; B.; Rahder & Altilia, 2004; Sun, 2008; Walcott, 2003). Other research has reviewed various aspects of women and the city regardless of feminist theory, 3

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planning to provide for women's safety (Whitzman, 2011), gendered spaces at night (Schmucki, 2012), the right to the city and women's safety (Mackness, 2013), and safety in urban parks (Maruthaveeran & van den Bosh, 2015). Olufemi (1999) considers the health of homeless women living on the streets of Johannesburg and in 88 case studies, concluded that in relation to urban pollution, the health status of the study group was extremely dangerous. Other research has investigated the access of pauper migrant women to health centres in Amsterdam (van de Pol & Kuijpers, 2005) and the inequality of access for African immigrant women to the health services, as well as the segregation of these women in New York (Grady & McLafferty, 2007). The effect of urban green areas on mental health and the reduction of women's stress has been studied by Stigsdotter and Grahn (2011). Poverty and women's health are two other issues which have also been the subjects of research (Das & Safini, 2018; Dutta & Banerjee, 2014; Gaur, Keshri, & Joe, 2013). However, urban poverty and its relationship to women has been studied in different terms, for example, Uddin (2018) addresses the issue of sustainability assessment in urban slums with an emphasis on women's participation, and Volbeda (1989) discusses housing and strategies for surviving women in slum areas of Brazil. Some examples of issues related to poor women include women's living conditions in informal settlements (Grover, 2011; Jurado, 2013; Labeodan, 1992; Massey, 2014; Platt, 2007), women's access to housing finance in poor districts of India (Patel & Burra, 1994) as well as state housing assistance (Kearns, Wiechen, & Smith, 1995), the role of culture and gender in formal interventions in informal settlements (Kellett & Garnham, 1995) and urban poverty and women's labour force (Asdar Ali, 2012; D.; Brown & McGranahan, 2016; Haritas, 2013; Holland, 1995).

which is considered below. 3.1. Women and urban areas The first issue is in relation to women and urban areas. There are demographic processes related to gender in urban spaces, and one such process is in the global South, where women are becoming a greater percentage of urban populations. Historically, Latin America and the Caribbean have been noteworthy as regions that have seen an increasing percentage of women in urban public spaces, but most African nations have experienced the same phenomenon (Chant, 2013). The countries of South Asia, though, have more men than women in urban public spaces of cities. A good example is India, where compared to every 100 men there are 96 women. Nevertheless, in cities with populations of more than one million—which constitutes 25% of the Indian urban population—the comparison of women and men entering the public spaces is 86.1–100 (Khosla, 2015). S. Marston (1985) studies women's status in urban areas of the United States of America and Alizadeh (2007) has examined the changes in women's status in Kurdish urban areas. Women's daily life in urban areas, a subject of some significance for understanding the city experience from women's point of view has been addressed in studies by Lykogianni (2008) and Markwyn (2012). Women who live in cities have common interests with men, but because they share similar duties and positions in life they establish different groupings. Such groups include women in the domestic sphere, (which includes older women), women who work and those who have premier careers (Kerber, 1988). Some women manage to perform duties in different spheres simultaneously (Higgins, Duxbury, & Johnson, 2000). Women with a lower level of welfare, such as those who live in slums, have to deal with problems which differ dramatically from those of wealthier groups (Chant, 2013). Poorer people also have difficulties with the availability of services, and lack of such services damages women twice as much as men (Barrett & Beardmore, 2000). The number of single women who live away from their families, women who manage household affairs and women who need to travel long distances to work, is far greater in large cities. Therefore, urban design and management should meet their needs. It has always been expected that urban growth must be ‘gender-neutral’ (Cornwall, 2003). In other words, it must develop the same services for both men and women. Of course, this notion still is not considered in the all projects, so that some projects (roads, transport facilities, water supply and sewerage, shelter, training, medical services, etc.) might, indeed, have influences which affect men and women differently. Ill-prepared water storage services, which make it more time consuming for women who collect water; less frequency of buses outside of peak hours, resulting in extended travelling time for women; poor streetlights that do not deter night-time crime against women, all these are part of urban infrastructure, but are far from ‘gender-neutral’. Although the growth of infrastructure should have advantages for women, it can be beneficial only when gender issues are explored and taken into account at the planning, design, financing and implementing stages to avoid gender imbalance. This would require significant change in urban design and management to mitigate the lack of gender equality.

3.3. Economic participation and accessibility Women and the city includes a wide range of discussions. In addition to the above, certain subjects such as ‘labour, women and the city’ (Chapple, 2001a; Peake, 1995; Pessar, 1994; Sheng & Shrestha, 1998; Sun, 2008), minority women (Cahill, 2007a; Moore & Mazey, 1986; C. E.; Reid, 1985), and migrant women (Cristaldi & Darden, 2011; Jung, 2014; Marquardt & Schreiber, 2015; Zhang, Gao, & Li, 2013) could also be mentioned. Past projects, in which the participation rate in the labour force is increased, have shown more wage growth for women and increased women's economic value (Clark, Ramsbey, & Adler, 1991; Smith & Ward, 1985). The relationship between economic growth and the presence of women in the labour force is U-shaped (Goldin, 1995; Mammen & Paxson, 2000; Psacharopoulos & Tzannatos, 1989). In parallel to the growth of the economy, female participation in the labour force could at first decline, but it will gradually increase and therefore take a U-shape. Another subject of research is urban transportation (Lang, 1992) which provides women's access to the working place and community facilities (Clark, Huang, & Withers, 2003; Fox, 1983; O.; Freedman & Kern, 1997), and the design of transportation with an emphasis on women's comfort (Crane, 2007; McKnight, 1994); racial differences in the commuting behavior of women (Ibipo, 1995) and transportation policies for low-income women (Blumenberg, 2004). It has been shown in several pieces of research across different nations and communities, that compared to men, in cities women commute for fewer hours. This is due various factors, the main one being that women are responsible for child caring and more housework than men, and this forms the basis of the Household Responsibility Hypothesis (HRH). A premier proof of this hypothesis is not simple; however, there are some aftermaths which admit it (Silveira Neto, Duarte, & Páez, 2014; Turner & Niemeier, 1997), though the support of others upon this hypothesis is not significant, or a blended of negative and positive comments (Kawabata & Abe, 2018). Another reason that women spend fewer hours going to work and back, is that women's journeys are mostly made with their family member(s), mainly the children. Compared to men, women tend

3.2. Health and survival Another important issue which has been taken into account the research literature of women and urban areas is women's health. Kallus and Churchman (2004) studied urban safety and the challenges that women confront in urban areas of Canada, while other research considered issues such as local violence (Serquina-Ramiro, Madrid, & Amarillo, 2004), safety among homeless women (K. E. Brown, 2004, pp. 267–268), male tourist violence against women, (Frohlick, 2007), victimisation of women in urban transportation (Loukaitou-Sideris & Fink, 2008; Paydar, Kamani-Fard, & Etminani-Ghasrodashti, 2017), 4

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to offer more support children, and so there is a higher probability that their trip is a combination of non-work and work (Hjorthol, 2000; Kawabata & Abe, 2018).

papers was published in 3 journals such as Cities, Habitat International and Urban Geography. The categorisation of papers presented in Fig. 4 is based on the four selected databases shown in different colours.

4. Methodology and Data

6. Discussion

The research method is quantitative based on descriptive statistics. At first, the data related to 300 papers from among 60 journals were accessed from four databases including Taylor and Francis, Wiley Online Library, Science Direct (Elsevier) and SAGE Library. The reason to select these databases was accessibility to the papers; and although there are other articles about women in cities found in other databases, the possibility of gathering all of them was beyond the capability and budget of the authors, therefore the biggest limitation of this paper is the reliance on the search of only those four databases. The main filter to select papers relating to the city (including city, urban and regional planning) was a direct relation of papers with the keywords, women and gender. Conversely, in order to achieve more precise results, keywords such as city, urban, public place/space, and planning/design were searched in the journals related to women. Finally, after a preliminary screening, 275 papers which had the highest number of articles on the subject of women and the city were selected from 43 top ranked journals. For each selected paper, two themes were chosen: the first indicates the main subject of the paper (for example, poverty) and the second (if any) compliments the first one (such as poverty and urban transportation). In general, 28 themes were determined by describing the selected papers. Table 1 demonstrates the themes, related explanations and the papers relevant to each theme along side their frequency.

As shown in the results section, the issue of women and urban areas is still an important one to be considered by researchers worldwide. In addition to the descriptive statistics provided in the previous section, five important analyses are now discussed to reveal knowledge gaps in relation to the women's issues, examples of which are briefly given below. 6.1. The matter of Health and safety First of all, the issue of women and urban areas for each country has been considered according to the specific research themes, showing the priorities of women needs in urban areas of each country. Table A1 shows the topic categorisation to be considered on a country-bycountry basis. In India, for example, the focus is more on poverty and Haritas (2013) has researched gender identity in poor districts, considering women's participation to increase the quality of the urban services in those areas. Das and Safini (2018) investigated urban daily life in the view of women and the way they deal with the challenge of lacking safe drinking water. In many ways, geography and space are closely related to the life of a woman. These include the relationship between women and the home, kitchen and workplace, as well as places in which they temporarily find themselves. Despite the influence of women in the design of private spaces, they have failed to be influential in the design of public ones. There has always been insufficient concern about gender and urban growth, although some gender spatial separations have been investigated and revealed by feminist geographers. These, however, refer mainly to women's private lives, and similar research on public spaces is required. There are also physical needs of women created by urbanisation which due to the new paid works, urban stress, limited, safe transportation, limitations to their time, and complications in a woman's life. The chances of being employed have both advantages and disadvantages for the health of women. On the one hand accessibility to paid work can increase a woman's health by way of offering more independence to poor women, as well as a higher level of social and economic status. On the other hand, it could have negative results, such as causing women to work in sub-standard circumstances which are harmful to their health. Additionally, women confront various gender-specific health matters, including cancer, osteoarthritis, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and depression (World Health Organization, 2010). These matters are usually affected by the following: water, land and air pollution; a shortage of chances to engage in physical activity rather than enough space for it; gender-specific marketing campaigns which result in greater tobacco and alcohol usage; car accidents; facing violence and stress; and a shortage of accessible fresh, healthy food. The latter one, along with weak support of network (because of migration of immigration) made women threatened by new risk. These health matters function as instances of the way women have to tolerate serious hardship caused by gender and social inequity, lack of education and insufficient policy-making and development information about women's demands, all of which result from the growth of cities. Regarding gender and public places, safety is the first concern, safety being generally understood as being far from risk, loss, or danger. Also, the individual subjectivity of this paper would be proved, as it is a matter of understanding. Therefore, while debating the urban politics of space, only a critic would deal briefly with the more general question of the right to urban space, and while looking for (re)politicize speeches about safety. Currently, the demand for another type of theoretical attitude, which always gets farther from present and premier theories and strategies, is evident. This attitude's basis is on oversimplified

5. The result The frequency of themes from selected papers is indicated in Table 1. As stated earlier, the papers related to women and urban studies not only cover one main subject (the first theme), but also another field (the secondary theme). Accordingly, the total frequency of each theme (first or second) is calculated and the result (Table 1) demonstrates that the highest number (57 papers) has been written on labour, followed by 44 papers on poverty. There are also two subjects including terrorism and decentralization which have each been reviewed in one paper. In addition to the frequency of the keywords in the papers, the frequency of the papers has been indicated in Fig. 2 based on the country (city) of the case study in each paper. The highest number of researches with a case study belongs to the cities of the United States of America (80 papers) after which, the papers with no case study (with theoretical basis) and have been categorised as ‘Global’. The United Kingdom is ranked third with 18 papers. Investigating by country demonstrates that although most of the research is in the USA and the UK, there are some research from India, whose proportional size reflects a significant percentage of world's population. The studies from China, however, are very few, and there are nearly no studies from SE Asia. The selected papers are categorised in another group based on publication over a 5-year period and country, are shown in Fig. 3. In accordance with the results, the highest number of papers was published in 2018, and whereas this rate of publication continued through 2019, the actual results are changeable. The highest number of papers, including 42 papers related to the period 2011–2015, is ranked second after 2016–2019. Another thing of note in Fig. 3, is that more than 44% of the papers have been written in the last 10 years. Fig. 3 suggests that the issue of women in cities remains an important issue and about 70 papers were published in the period 1977–2000. The publication of over 120 papers in the last 10 years shows an increase in the attention paid to women's urban affairs. The categorisation of selected papers based on the journal of publication is presented in Fig. 4 and shows that the highest number of 5

6

Gendering

7

Immigration

Feminism

6

10

Ethnography

5

Housing

Empowerment

4

9

Decentralization Economy

2 3

Health

Community

1

8

Keyword

#

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed about: 1. Women and Housing, 2. Homeownership, 3. housekeeping and home maintenance, 4. Gender and Housing, 5. Housing Market and finance, 6. Housing demand and House price, 7. Housing policy, 8. Property rights. This Keyword includes articles which have discussed female migrants, immigration, migration consequences, migrant women, migration to the city, rural-urban migration, immigration policies and migration behavior.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed topics such as cities-gender, gendering city, gendering planning, engendering financial aspects, gendered spaces and gendered perspective on urban life and rights. This Keyword includes articles which have discussed women's physical and mental health.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed Feminism theory (Paradigm) itself.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed how to help women to help themselves to increase their incomes or participation in urban planning, policy making and prosperities. This Keyword includes articles which have discussed the systematic study of women in their culture or is study about history of women in specific area.

This Keyword includes the role of women in decentralization of governance. This Keyword includes articles which have discussed: 1. Women's access to housing market, 2. women's employment, 3. Urban economy and finance, 4. Wages and Income

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed women's' role, behavior, participate and living quality in communities and neighborhoods.

Description

Table 1 The list of keywords and articles dedicated to each keyword.

1

3

20

26

4

5

3

21

0

14

14

0

4

0

1 17

5

Frequency as the second theme

0 6

5

Frequency as the first theme

(continued on next page)

Romero (1987), Huq-Hussain (1996), Ley and Murphy (2001), Rasmussen (2002), Kaestner et al. (2003), Arifin and Dale (2005), van de Pol and Kuijpers (2005), Grady and McLafferty (2007), Faggian, McCann, and Sheppard (2007), Platt (2007), Christine Bae (2008), Jenkins (2009), Cristaldi and Darden (2011), Zhang et al. (2013), Jung (2014), Marquardt and Schreiber (2015), Tammaru, Strömgren, van Ham, and Danzer (2016), Liu (2017), Jose (2017), Gholamhosseini, Pojani, Babiano, Johnson, and Minnery (2018), Hammelman (2018), Bastia (2018), Chau, Pelzelmayer, and Schwiter (2018), Vacchelli and Peyrefitte (2018).

Fodor (1978), David (1978), Blank (1988), Petras (1989), Stallen, Chabannes, and Steinberg (1994), Olufemi (1999), Kaestner, Kaushal, and Van Ryzin (2003), Grady and McLafferty (2007), Stigsdotter and Grahn (2011), Shin, Kweon, and Shin (2011), Eriksson, Nordlund, Olsson, and Westin (2012), Lottrup, Stigsdotter, Meilby, and Corazon (2012), Wuerzer (2013), Gaur et al. (2013), Greed (2014), Dzhambov et al. (2014), Dutta and Banerjee (2014), Dolling, Nilsson, and Lundell (2017), Sander, Ghosh, and Hodson (2017), Reckien et al. (2017), Koohsari et al. (2018), Das and Safini (2018), Gaikwad and Shinde (2019), Lee, Son, Kim, and Lee (2019), Ojala, Korpela, Tyrväinen, Tiittanen, and Lanki (2019). Birch (1978), Romero (1987), Sallie A. Marston (1987), Volbeda (1989), Muller (1990), Haurin and Kamara (1992), Kelly (1993), Daly (1993a), Kerkin (1993); Mulherin and Swanton (1993), Varley (1993), Stallen et al. (1994), Kamara (1994), Bourassa (1994), Kearns et al. (1995), Erman (1997), Njoh (1998), Lalloo (1999), Megbolugbe, Sa-Aadu, and Shilling (1999), Ghafur (2002), Payne (2004), Kalabamu (2005), Arifin and Dale (2005), Naples (2006), Jurado (2013), W. R. Johnson (2014), Xu, Ling, Lu, and Shen (2017), Dillingh, Prast, Rossi, and Urzì Brancati (2017), Begley and Chan (2018), Flage (2018).

Kelly (1993), Mulherin and Swanton (1993), Kerkin (1993), DeSena (1994), Marouli (1995), Kearns et al. (1995), Erdreich and Rapoport (2006), L. W. Reid, Adelman, and Jaret (2007), Williams (2007), Jenkins (2009), Rogalsky (2010), Yohn (2010), Cruz (2017), Geyer and Mosidi (2019). Gerson (1983), Christensen (1986), England (1994), Isaac (1996), Walcott (2003), B. Rahder and Altilia (2004), Stillman (2007), Frohlick (2007), Sun (2008), Grover (2011), Hur (2013), Ikävalko and Kantola (2017), Saegert (2018), Helmuth and Parker (2018). Watson (1990), Burnier (2004), Blumenberg (2004), Beall and Todes (2004), Hirt (2008), Fisher (2010), Meir and Gekker (2011), Keenan (2017), Watt (2018).

DeSena (1994), Secor (2003), Garcia-Ramon, Ortiz, and Prats (2004), Kyessi (2005), Talen, Grinnell, and Drever (2007), Fernandez and Angeles (2009), Haney (2013), Hill, Burdette, Jokinen-Gordon, and Brailsford (2013), Dzhambov, Dimitrova, and Dimitrakova (2014), Al-Bishawi and Ghadban (2015). Ali and Rahaman (2018) C. E. Reid (1985), S. Marston (1985), Giuliano (1988), Rutherford and Wekerle (1988), M'Rabu (1990), Daly (1993a), Daly (1993b), Patel and Burra (1994), Datta (1995), Mahmud (2003), Cahill (2007a), Fisher (2010), Eriksen (2010), Graves (2013), Li and Mroz (2013), Compton and Pollak (2014), Baltagi and Rokicki (2014), Moglia (2014), D. Brown and McGranahan (2016), Jose (2017), Van Cauwenberg et al. (2018). M'Rabu (1990), Fitzsimons (1996), Bashevkin (2005), Hajdarowicz (2018).

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Participation

14

Poverty

Minorities

13

16

Market

12

Planning

Labor

11

15

Keyword

#

Table 1 (continued)

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed poverty, homelessness, poor women and low-income women.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed: 1. Women participation in planning process, 2. Planning for women, 3. Planning with women.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed women's role in social changes, participation in development, contribution to planning and decision making and partnership in urban spaces.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed minorities, including homosexuals, women from different ethnic background and elderly women.

This Keyword includes which have articles discussed women's role in labor market, land market, private rental market, housing market, land tenure and industry business.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed: 1. Women and employment, 2. Female workers, 3. Gender division of Labor, 4. women informal works 5. women accessibility to work place, 6. female Labor force, 7. Gender and work, 8. Local labor demand.

Description

32

21

12

11

24

4

14

0

0

15

42

15

Frequency as the second theme

Frequency as the first theme

(continued on next page)

White (1977), Fox (1983), Gerson (1983), Giuliano (1988), Rutherford and Wekerle (1988), Villeneuve and Rose (1988), Johnston-Anumonwo (1988), Hanson and Pratt (1988), Walby (1988), Blank (1988), Petras (1989), Labeodan (1992), Peters (1993), Pessar (1994), H. MacDonald and Peters (1994), Peake (1995), Redclift (1995), Holland (1995), Wyly, Smith, and Wilton (1996), Aldridge (1996), Bartik (1996), Cooke (1997), Porter (1997), Sheng and Shrestha (1998), Hillman (1999), Bose (1999), Chapple (2001b), Chapple (2001a), Ong and Houston (2002), Rasmussen (2002), Ghafur (2002), Gould and Paserman (2003), Stoddard (2003), Weinberg (2004), Jacka (2006), Crane (2007), Sun (2008), Christine Bae (2008), Madariaga (2010), van der Heijden and Schmidt (2010), Yohn (2010), Abe (2011), Lottrup et al. (2012), Zhang et al. (2013), Graves (2013), Li and Mroz (2013), Black, Kolesnikova, and Taylor (2014), W. R. Johnson (2014), Compton and Pollak (2014), Baltagi and Rokicki (2014), Moglia (2014), Weinstein (2017), M. Freedman (2017), Dolling et al. (2017), Kawabata and Abe (2018), Begley and Chan (2018). Hanson and Pratt (1988), Walby (1988), Haurin and Kamara (1992), Daly (1993b), Pessar (1994), Kamara (1994), Hillman (1999), Stoddard (2003), Payne (2004), Kalabamu (2005), Madariaga (2010), Haney (2013), M. Freedman (2017), Flage (2018). Ettorre (1978), C. E. Reid (1985), Moore and Mazey (1986), Preston, McLafferty, and Hamilton (1993), Ibipo (1995), Peake (1995), Megbolugbe et al. (1999), Cahill (2007b), L. W. Reid et al. (2007), Williams (2007), Meth (2010), Shin et al. (2011), McCurn (2018), Fabula and Timár (2018). Whyatt (1978), Birch (1978), Holcomb (1984), van Wesemael-Smit (1990), Muller (1990), Shalaby (1991), Charman (1993), Freestone (1995), Amdam (1995), Varley (1995), Isaac (1996), Huq-Hussain (1996), Cooke (1997), Porter (1997), B. L. Rahder and O'Neill (1998), Holt (2005), Gatley (2005), Phimister (2005), Holden (2013), Nair and Moolakkattu (2015), Schmidt and van der Heijden (2015), Garnaut (2016), Ode Sang, Knez, Gunnarsson, and Hedblom (2016), Xu et al. (2017), Hajdarowicz (2018), Hami and Tarashkar (2018), Kawabata and Abe (2018), Lam (2018). van Wesemael-Smit (1990), Boesveld and Postel-Coster (1991), Shalaby (1991), Asthana (1994), Freestone (1995), Amdam (1995), Todes (1995), Fitzsimons (1996), Njoh (1998), B. L. Rahder and O'Neill (1998), Njoh (1999), Tinker (2000), Kallus and Churchman (2004), Beall and Todes (2004), Bashevkin (2005), Gatley (2005), Greed (2005), Fernandez and Angeles (2009), Meth (2010), Whitzman (2011), Meir and Gekker (2011), Jung (2014), Massey (2014), Reeves (2014), Nzengya (2015), Schmidt and van der Heijden (2015), Garnaut (2016), Yarger, Decker, Campa, and Brindis (2017), Ali and Rahaman (2018), Mavromatidi, Briche, and Claeys (2018), Uddin (2018), Graça, Queirós, Farinha-Marques, and Cunha (2018). Sallie A. Marston (1987), Volbeda (1989), Labeodan (1992), Patel and Burra (1994), Asthana (1994), Wolch and Adams (1995), Redclift (1995), Kellett and Garnham (1995), Holland (1995), Datta (1995), Bartik (1996), L. Johnson (1997), Peake (1997), Smith (1999), Olufemi (1999), Tinker (2000), Takahashi, McElroy, and Rowe (2002), Allgood and Warren (2003), Blumenberg (2004), Olufemi and Reeves (2004), K. E. Brown (2004), van de Pol and Kuijpers (2005), Platt (2007), Klodawsky (2009), Zhao (2009), Rogalsky (2010), Eriksen (2010), Grover (2011), Asdar Ali (2012), Jurado (2013), Hill, Burdette, Jokinen-Gordon, and Brailsford (2013), M. Reid (2013), Gaur et al. (2013), Haritas (2013), Massey (2014), Paul and Islam (2015), Cobb-Clark, Herault, Scutella, and Tseng (2016), D. Brown and McGranahan (2016), Liu (2017), Herault and Ribar (2017), Hammelman (2018), Šimon, Vašát, Poláková, Gibas, and Daňková (2018), Uddin (2018), Das and Safini (2018).

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Suburban

23

Total number

Welfare

Social Movements

22

28

Social Justice

21

Urban Space

Segregation

20

27

Resistance Safety

18 19

Sustainable Terrorism Transportation

Public Policy

17

24 25 26

Keyword

#

Table 1 (continued)

have discussed women and sustainability. have discussed urban terrorism. have discussed women transportation,

have discussed women position in

have discussed women's role or

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed women welfare.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed women in urban spaces.

This Keyword includes articles which participation in social movements. This Keyword includes articles which suburban. This Keyword includes articles which This Keyword includes articles which This Keyword includes articles which travel and commuting.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed equality, social justice and right to the city.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed women and segregation.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed resistance of women in city. This Keyword includes articles which have discussed safety of women in cities.

This Keyword includes articles which have discussed public policy about women, political thoughts and women in policy.

Description

275

4

30

1 1 15

0

4

6

0

2 10

5

Frequency as the first theme

208

1

8

1 0 14

2

1

12

5

1 7

14

Frequency as the second theme

Talen et al. (2007), Reckien et al. (2017). Keenan (2017). White (1977), Fox (1983), Lang (1992), Brownstone and Golob (1992), Preston et al. (1993), McKnight (1994), Ibipo (1995), O. Freedman and Kern (1997), Clark et al. (2003), Blumenberg (2004), Weinberg (2004), Crane (2007), Faggian et al. (2007), Loukaitou-Sideris and Fink (2008), Abe (2011), Sietchiping, Permezel, and Ngomsi (2012), Schmucki (2012), Bahrainy and Khosravi (2013), Haritas (2013), Ma, Mitchell, and Heppenstall (2014), Boarnet and Hsu (2015), Karki and Tao (2016), Paydar et al. (2017), Riggs and Schwartz (2018), Kerzhner, Kaplan, and Silverman (2018), Šimon et al. (2018), Souza et al. (2018), Gopal and Shin (2019). Garmanikow (1978), Holcomb (1984), Holcomb (1986), Wyly et al. (1996), Forte (2001), Mahmud (2003), Burnier (2004), Garcia-Ramon et al. (2004), Erdreich and Rapoport (2006), Alizadeh (2007), Klaufus (2008), Lykogianni (2008), Lisiak (2012), Lisiak (2012), Acey (2013), Holden (2013), Soltani, Zangiabadi, and Nastaran (2013), Greenberg Raanan and Shoval (2014), Marquardt and Schreiber (2015), Al-Bishawi and Ghadban (2015), Maruthaveeran and van den Bosh (2015), Adams (2016), Rottenberg (2016), Ode Sang et al. (2016), Gascon et al. (2016), Gholamhosseini et al. (2018), Almahmood et al. (2018), Kerzhner et al. (2018), Hami and Tarashkar (2018), Lam (2018). Blank (1988), Chapple (2001b), Chapple (2001a), Ong and Houston (2002), Kaestner et al. (2003).

Whyatt (1978), Moore and Mazey (1986), Christensen (1986), Boesveld and Postel-Coster (1991), Kellett and Garnham (1995), Aldridge (1996), Njoh (1999), Forte (2001), Walcott (2003), Naples (2006), Amir-Ebrahimi (2006), Alizadeh (2007), Hankins (2010), Cristaldi and Darden (2011), Hur (2013), M. Reid (2013), Vaiou (2014), Almahmood et al. (2018). Marouli (1995), Naples (2006), Ikävalko and Kantola (2017). Kallus and Churchman (2004), Serquina-Ramiro et al. (2004), K. E. Brown (2004), Frohlick (2007), Loukaitou-Sideris and Fink (2008), Whitzman (2011), Schmucki (2012), Mackness (2013), Bahrainy and Khosravi (2013), Soltani, Zangiabadi, Nastaran, and Mosayebi (2014), Maruthaveeran and van den Bosh (2015), Cobb-Clark et al. (2016), Paydar et al. (2017), Hancock, Blanchard, and Chapuis (2018), Krishnan (2018), Souza, Bittencourt, and Taco (2018), Gaikwad and Shinde (2019). Johnston-Anumonwo (1988), Villeneuve and Rose (1988), Cahill (2007b), Greenberg Raanan and Shoval (2014), Tammaru et al. (2016). Watson (1990), England (1994), Secor (2003), Gould and Paserman (2003), AmirEbrahimi (2006), Klodawsky (2009), Mackness (2013), Soltani et al. (2014), Paul and Islam (2015), Reckien et al. (2017), Ikävalko and Kantola (2017), Helmuth and Parker (2018), Bastia (2018), Chau et al. (2018), Watt (2018), Vacchelli and Peyrefitte (2018), Fabula and Timár (2018), Hancock et al. (2018), Krishnan (2018). Ettorre (1978), Fincher and McQuillen (1989), Holt (2005), Vaiou (2014), Cruz (2017). L. Johnson (1997), Hirt (2008),

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Fig. 2. Frequency of articles based on country/district of their case studies locations (Authors). *Other countries include: Argentina, Bulgaria, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Czech Republic, Denmark, Egypt, Hungary, Indonesia, Kenya, Latin America, Malaysia, Nairobi, Nigeria, Norwegian, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Saudi Arabia, Switzerland, Tanzania, Thailand.

Fig. 3. Frequency of selected articles per publication year. 9

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Fig. 4. Frequency of published articles per journal and publisher. The red colour represents Elsevier with 127 papers, the blue colour Taylor and Francis with 90 papers, the green colour Wiley Online Library with 37 papers, and the yellow colour SAGE with 21 papers. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

the presence of women in urban areas. For instance, the paper by Garcia-Ramon et al. (2004) focussed on urban planning, gender and the use of public space, or more recent articles such as Rottenberg (2016) on the status of women in urban areas, Gholamhosseini et al. (2018) on the place of public space in the lives of Middle Eastern women migrants in Australia, and Kerzhner et al. (2018) on Palestinian women's mobility in Jerusalem which considered both physical and social walls. Some research has looked at how migration patterns are determined by gender. Those studies mentioned above has shown that female migration is significantly larger in number and more complex, than previously thought and that some migration has gender-differentiated causation. The rate of female migration has increased because of women's familial and social dependency, financial constraints and greater opportunities for women's employment. There are cities and towns where women from rural societies are more welcome, so that migration from villages to urban communities is undertaken mostly by women and accordingly, the number of families managed by a woman, rather than by a man, is increasing. This trend is primarily seen in Latin America, the Caribbean, and some regions of South Asia. Women suffer the highest level of risk of violence because unequal gender relations and cultural constructs of femininity dictate which urban spaces are appropriate for women, and thus determine genderbased violence. There are, however, many examples which show a direct relation between violence towards women and an increased occurrence of such violence, and insufficient infrastructure and accessibility to services.

suppositions like this belief that populated streets with a lot of commits change cities into safer and more vibrant places. Published papers in the area of safety include the two types of research by Gaikwad and Shinde (2019) on the effects of urban parks on elderly women, and research conducted by Krishnan (2018) on the use of afternoon clubs from the perspective of young women. However various news reports cite Indian cities as the most dangerous places for women (BBC, 2018; Gowen, 2018; Narayan, 2018; Nayar, 2018), therefore it is required for researchers, managers and urban planners to pay more attention to the safety of women in Indian cities. Similarly, the subjects of women, migration and urban areas in the United States of America, the United Kingdom, Canada, India, Australia, Columbia and Sweden have been studied. Although, in relation to the recent influx of Syrian migrants to Europe, the United Nations has warned European governments, (McKernan, 2018; Nebehay, 2017), the significance of the issue of migrant women in cities has to be addressed by urban studies researchers. Additionally, social justice and women's right to the city, which have been the subject of research by Fabula and Timár (2018) and Hancock et al. (2018), are still topics which deserve more attention.

6.2. Economics: labour, Migrants and poverty Fig. 5 shows the main subjects in the field of women and urban areas over a 5-year period and women's labour forms a part of the research from 1982 to 2017. Up until 1992, this was a favourite topic of research, and in particular the study conducted by Giuliano (1988) in relation to women and employment, which was published in the Urban Geography Journal. Following on from this, in his paper entitled ‘Working women in the city and urban wage growth in the United States’, Weinstein (2017) looks at the importance of women's participation in the labour force and the dispersion of wage rates for urban working women. At the end of this paper, he mentions that to accomplish equality in women's and men's rights, further measures are required. Another significant issue for researchers since 2002 has been

6.3. The subject of social justice Fig. 5 suggests the least seen subjects in the 5-year period which can point to the topics including ‘women in communities’, ‘decentralization of governance’ and the role of women in the development of ‘social movements’. Fig. 5 illustrates that three subjects: ‘urban space’; ‘transportation’; and ‘social justice’ are the focus of urban researchers in 10

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Fig. 5. The Prime subject of articles in 5-year period.

transportation (Gopal & Shin, 2019; Loukaitou-Sideris & Fink, 2008; Souza et al., 2018), planning (Kallus & Churchman, 2004), urban parks (Gaikwad & Shinde, 2019) and social justice (Hancock et al., 2018; Krishnan, 2018) were studied. However, more reviews are required on the safety of women in urban areas such as streets and public spaces (to know more about street harassment in 37 countries see: Street Harassment, 2014). As can be seen in Fig. 6, the subject of labour has the highest number of connections with other themes. This means that his subject absorbed more interest of scholars than any other and subjects like immigration, the right to the city and poverty need more investigation with other parameters.

recent decades. Articles under these headings consider planning efforts to design women-friendly cities and spaces. Despite the participatory changes in planning that necessitate the involvement of citizens, social pressure still has only a minor effect on statutory planning processes. Planning can be defined as a set of institutional processes with a mediating role in development decisions (Beebeejaun, 2017) and these processes are interconnected with the policy approaches that put forward the vision for future development patterns. Although gender-other groups ought to be taken into account in the mechanisms of development, ‘gender mainstreaming’ has been wrongly used as a bureaucratic tool derived from the 1970s rights agenda (see Roberts, 2016). More recently, and despite the prevalence of the rights and equality language during the 1980s and 1990s, the gendered dimensions of planning seem to have failed the rights agenda (Beebeejaun, 2017). In the USA and UK, the result has been a policy shift from politicised discussions about women's rights, to the creation of spaces that value female diversity and inclusivity. However, the role of planning policy in inclusivity has garnered little attention. In the course of planning, women's rights are formulated in increasingly different ways to the direct experiences of other marginalized citizens (Doan, 2010). For instance, the London Plan is the chief strategic planning document of that city that intentionally provides ambiguous descriptions of notions such as inclusivity, access, and safety in abstract terms (Beebeejaun, 2017). It also provides explanations as to how the notion of gender and other forms of difference are approached. This is a characteristic example of planning language and its approach, whereby spaces are considered as independent containers wherein we can live despite our differences (Durose, Richardson, Combs, Eason, & Gains, 2012). Rather than being static sites, spaces are animated by physical characteristics, history, location, time of day or week, season, or the presence of other people (seeBeebeejaun, 2017). Inclusivity, access, and safety are dynamically produced through space and are simultaneously negotiated with other people. The combination of the first and second themes in the published papers (Fig. 6) demonstrates the neglected fields in the research on women in urban areas. To illustrate, the issue of safety in relation with

6.4. The road to the right to the city To increase equality and focus on gendering the right to the city, more studies on the role of planning are needed (see Fig. 6 that right to the city has less connection with other themes). In the gendered approach, the right to the city tends to be conceptualized with regard to safety in urban environments and the dangers some urban spaces pose to the personal safety of women. This concept includes public and transportation infrastructure and is linked to the risk of violence in public places. The tight links between housing, services and employment, which determine the ways in which services are allocated, create mobility barriers to social reproduction and are taken into account in this approach (Buckingham, 2010). Breaking the dichotomy of public and private domains, whereby ‘urban spaces are designed to value production and undervalue reproduction’ forms the basis for other perspectives on the specifically ‘gendered’ right to the city (Vacchelli & Peyrefitte, 2018). In this regard, the availability of services has been the focus of the policy discourses on the right to the city. Hence, the lack of equal engagement in the creation of urban spaces has not garnered adequate attention. Space is analysed in terms of the continually established and dealt with spatial relations in cities by feminist scholars such as Kye Askins (2016), who proposed the idea of ‘emotional citizenry’ considering the role of emotions during intercultural encounters in the context of 11

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Fig. 6. The pattern of combination of first main theme (blue) with second theme (green). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

women in urban spaces. Following that, as the of presence of women in position of power and influence on public policies grew, feminist geographers introduced the idea of ‘feminist capital’. The next trend presents a theory combining social justice, the city, and women, as a contribution to the idea of creating women-friendly cities. At the beginning of the 21st century, ‘Gendering the city’ has become the most prominent theme and covers many theoretical papers about women and cities. Once the notion of women's struggle became an important subject for theorists, the right to the city and its connection to the subject of women is under investigation by many scholars in the present decade. And last but not least, a trace of including gender into the right to the city theory can be seen in recent years. The form-of-city debate includes research that cover physical and action plans rather than theories, policies or just planning. In this category, the needs of women and the provision of women's-oriented facilities in cities were the most important subject for pragmatic scholars. In the 21st century, the research in this category was more focused on ‘gender implications of space use’ and ‘gender and integrated area’ and the next trend for those scholars who investigate the physical form of cities, is to focus on creating gendered spaces. Finally, in recent years the inclusive city has become the major subject for this category. However, it should be mentioned that ‘inclusive cities’ can be seen as a theory or even categorised as part of ‘the planning process debate’, but the fact that ‘inclusive cities’ is an effort to make urban places/spaces more diverse and its solutions are more physical, it should belong to the form-of-city debate. The remaining articles belong to ‘the planning process debate’ in which the process of planning, or planning itself is discussed. The first core theme, the ‘spatial dimension of the gender’, has been investigated by planning scholars and the main object of this research is to include subject of gender as a spatial parameter in the process of planning for future city developments. ‘Planning with women’ is the second core theme for many papers that sought to increase the participation of women in the process of planning and decision making. The rise of gender planning and ‘En-gendering effective planning’ as a new process, are the knowledge cores for articles that explore improved planning in the 21st century. Recently, there is increased interest shown in ‘planning decentralization and empowerment’ which can be traced in later articles. This paper seeks to suggest what should be researched in next years, and so fill the empty question mark at the end of Fig. 7. The

befriending services in the North East of England. Askins advocated an open and inclusive idea of citizenship whereby social justice for asylum seekers and refugees is not depoliticised. She also stressed the need for re-politicising the everyday and personal relations, while state politics play their role at the neighbourhood scale. Although Lefebvre (1991, 1996, p. 63181) neglected a specifically gendered perspective in his theorisations, other scholars discuss the daily space-production practices based on his work (1968, 1991) (Doderer, 2003; Sallie A; Marston & Smith, 2001; Simonsen, 2005; Vacchelli, 2014). However, the fascination with Lefebvre's work is rooted in his portrayal of the substantial role of space production in certain actions, indicating that it is mainly used as a means of control and domination that inevitably helps exclude some citizens to the advantage of others (Soja, 1998). The gendered right to the city has also been studied with respect to housing policies (Klodawsky, 2009; Watt, 2018) to increase women's safety or reduce violence (Fabula & Timár, 2018; Hancock et al., 2018; Mackness, 2013). It has also been analysed with regard to female immigrants (Bastia, 2018; Chau et al., 2018; Vacchelli & Peyrefitte, 2018). However, to integrate the gendered right to the city with the physical presence of women in urban spaces and hence create women-friendly cities, further research is required.

6.5. Towards a new typology of women and city studies In order to answer the main question of this paper, representing the role of urban planners and scholars in debates about women and city, Fig. 7 illustrates a typology of the main themes of research from 1977 until now. Arising from all 275 papers investigated, this typology describes the variability among observed, correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved briefly marks urban scholar researches regarding to three aspects. These aspects including theories of women in urban studies as ‘The theoretical debate’, the practitioner's efforts to create and design urban places in order to achieve inclusive city as ‘The form of city debate’ and including women in the process of planning for cities future development and also emerging gender planning theory itself as ‘The planning process debate’. In fact, the theoretical debate indicates those papers that presented a theory in the field of women and cities. Based on the investigation of 275 papers, the theoretical debate begins with theory of political practice which includes policies for supporting the greater presence of 12

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Fig. 7. The evolution of women and city studies in three aspects.

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since feminism is not a homogenous theory or set of beliefs, the following questions are raised: what challenges hinder our understanding of urban spaces and how do these challenges influence the formulation of distinctively urban rights? As stated by Castells (1982), men can easily claim urban spaces and have always sought to dominate, including spatial domination. Paying attention to the issues and challenges faced by women in urban areas is an essential requirement for accomplishing justice and social equality. Accordingly, it is necessary to investigate various issues of women and urban areas in order to achieve a better quality of life for them and to enhance the indexes of equality. This paper has reviewed 275 articles related to women and urban areas from 1977 to 2019. Although a number of powerful and precocious studies have been undertaken, the results of the research suggest there is still a long path ahead in this matter. To fill the knowledge gap observed from the analysis of the research results, the study of other topics such as the role of women in city entrepreneurship (analytical aspect), designing women-friendly urban spaces (urban form aspect), the status of women in the power structure, policy and decision making (planning procedural aspect), it is suggested for future research.

combination of these three aspects: theories; practices; and processes is called Gender Sensitive Urban Planning/Design, and can be regarded as a current paradigm. 7. Conclusion Urban areas as a basis for living and citizens' activity must be able to provide for all similarities and differences among people of all gender, social and age groups, as well as supplying a safe, healthy, lasting and attractive environment for everyone in order to meet properly the needs of all social classes. To satisfy the least of these needs, could have a remarkable effect on the quality of women's lives. As half of the urban population, women have different roles and needs. To address the needs of women in the urban planning process in order to achieve sustainability in all aspects of today's cities, should not be denied and today, gender mainstreaming and gender-sensitive planning are widely used as practical tools for considering the needs of women in urban planning. Two interconnected conclusions are therefore drawn. Firstly, gender maintains its axial role in a strong planning discourse that does not only rely on the language of diversity and difference. Besides, despite the considerable improvements in our knowledge of the role and importance of gender in urban spaces, there are still important questions with incomplete answers. New approaches to gender and gender relations were articulated and discussed in this paper, but planners’ limited knowledge of the complexity of gender prevents an in-depth discussion about the gendered and dynamic nature of space that may be the origin of tight links to feminism, antiracism, or queer scholarship. Therefore,

Acknowledgement We want to appreciate those anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments and also MS. Nilofar Ahmadi for her help regarding reproduction of figures.

Appendix Table A.1The typology of themes based on country location of case studies. Argentina

Argentina

Australia

Bangladesh

Brazil

Social Justice = 1 Immigration = 1

Social Justice = 1 Immigration = 1

Housing = 1 Poverty = 2 Social Justice = 1 Urban Space = 1 Economy = 1 Labor = 1 Planning = 1

Housing = 1 Safety = 1 Poverty = 1 Transportation = 1

Bulgaria Gendering = 1 Suburban = 1

Cameroon Housing = 1 Public Policy = 1 Planning = 2

Housing = 1 Planning = 3 Poverty = 1 Safety = 1 Urban Space = 1 Immigration = 1 Participation = 2 Suburban = 1 Canada Empowerment = 1 Immigration = 2 Labor = 2 Poverty = 2 Public Policy = 1 Safety = 2 Colombia Empowerment = 1 Poverty = 2 Immigration = 1 Participation = 1 Public Policy = 1 Egypt Planning = 1 Participation = 1

China Feminism = 1 Housing = 1 Labor = 4 Poverty = 2

Transportation = 2 Urban Space = 1 Immigration = 2 Participation = 2

Czech Republic Poverty = 1 Transportation = 1

Denmark Health = 1 Labor = 1

Germany Labor = 1 Urban Space = 1 Immigration = 1 Market = 1

Greece Resistance = 1 Social Movements = 1 Ethnography = 1 Public Policy = 1

Hungary Minorities = 1 Social Justice = 1

Indonesia Housing = 1 Immigration = 1

Iran Safety = 2 Social Justice = 2 Transportation = 1

Israel Gendering = 1 Urban Space = 5 Community = 1

14

Economy = 1 Planning = 2 Safety = 1 Segregation = 1 Social Justice = 1

Chile Transportation = 1 Safety = 1

Costa Rica Feminism = 1 Safety = 1

Cuba Planning = 1 Community = 1

Finland Feminism = 1 Health = 1 Resistance = 1 Urban Space = 1

France Health = 1 Planning = 1 Safety = 1 Policy = 1 Social Justice = 1

India Economy = 2 Feminism = 1 Health = 4 Immigration = 2 Labor = 1 Participation = 2 Planning = 2 Jamaica Health = 1 Labor = 2 Poverty = 1

Poverty = 6 Safety = 2 Transportation = 2 Decentralization = 1 Social Justice = 1

Japan Health = 1 Labor = 2 Participation = 1

Habitat International xxx (xxxx) xxxx

S.N. Mashhadi Moghadam and M. Rafieian Urban Space = 3 Participation = 1 Public Policy = 2

Kenya Planning = 1

Latin America Urban Space = 1

Netherlands Housing = 1 Labor = 1 Planning = 1 Poverty = 1 Immigration = 1 Participation = 1 Poland Labor = 1 Economy = 1

New Zealand Housing = 2 Ethnography = 2

Ethnography = 1 Planning = 1 Public Policy = 1 Segregation = 1 Transportation = 1 Mexico Feminism = 1 Housing = 1 Participation = 2 Poverty = 1 Labor = 1 Nigeria Labor = 1 Poverty = 1

Portugal Planning = 1 Urban Space = 1

Saudi Arabia Urban Space = 1 Public Policy = 1

Spain Feminism = 1 Labor = 1 Social Movements = 1 Urban Space = 3 Community = 1 Market = 1 Participation = 1 Turkey Community = 1 Housing = 1 Social Justice = 1

Sweden Health = 3 Immigration = 1 Urban Space = 2 Labor = 1 Participation = 1 Segregation = 1

South Korea Feminism = 1 Health = 1 Planning = 1 Immigration = 1 Public Policy = 1

Thailand Labor = 1

USA Community = 3 Economy = 8 Feminism = 3 Health = 4

Housing = 9 Immigration = 6 Labor = 25 Minorities = 11 Planning = 2

UK Empowerment = 1 Gendering = 1 Housing = 4 Labor = 3 Participation = 3 Planning = 3 Poverty = 13 Public Policy = 6 Resistance = 1 Safety = 3 Social Movements = 1

Transportation = 1 Urban Space = 1

Mexico Feminism = 1 Housing = 1 Participation = 2 Poverty = 1 Labor = 1 Norwegian Planning = 1 Participation = 1

South Africa Economy = 1 Health = 1 Housing = 2 Minorities = 2 Planning = 2 Switzerland Social Justice = 1 Immigration = 1

Nairobi Empowerment = 1 Economy = 1

Pakistan Poverty = 1 Urban Space = 1

Poverty = 4 Ethnography = 1 Gendering = 1 Market = 1 Tanzania Community = 1

Poverty = 2 Safety = 1 Social Justice = 2 Transportation = 2 Urban Space = 1

Economy = 2 Ethnography = 2 Immigration = 3 Market = 2 Segregation = 1

Terrorism = 1 Transportation = 13 Urban Space = 4 Welfare = 5

Ethnography = 7 Gendering = 2 Market = 7 Participation = 2 Segregation = 1 Social Justice = 3

Funding sources This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Seyed Navid Mashhadi Moghadam (MSc) is a PhD candidate at the Faculty of Art and Architecture at Tarbiat Modares University in Iran. His research focuses on social aspects and dynamics in power distribution between Citizens and Governance. Mojtaba Rafieian is Associated Professor at the Faculty of Art and Architecture at Tarbiat Modares University in Iran. His research focuses on the governance of urban development, with a special interest in Urban Transformation.

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