What do university students who will work professionally with children know about maltreatment and mandated reporting?

Children and Youth Services Review 28 (2006) 906 – 926 www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth

What do university students who will work professionally with children know about maltreatment and mandated reporting? Maureen Smith * Department of Child and Adolescent Development, 201 Sweeney HallSan Jose´ State University, One Washington Square, San Jose, CA 95192-0075, United States Received 26 July 2005; received in revised form 27 September 2005; accepted 4 October 2005 Available online 20 December 2005

Abstract This study examines the knowledge and understanding of child maltreatment held by students in majors and disciplines that lead to careers which fall into the mandated reporter category. Participants included 332 graduate and undergraduate students in majors ranging from Nursing to Administration of Justice. Subjects were asked to rate the importance of factors for determining maltreatment (e.g., seriousness of the act), to indicate whether an act depicted in a vignette was maltreatment, and whether they would report that incident. Results indicated less confidence and consistency in ratings relative to working professionals [Portwood, S. (1999). Coming to terms with a consensual definition of maltreatment. Child Maltreatment, 4(1), 56–68] as well as differences in ratings by academic discipline. The results are discussed with respect to their implications for curriculum and training. D 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Child abuse and neglect; Undergraduate and graduate students; Curriculum; Professional training; Reporting abuse

1. Introduction Nationally, child maltreatment is an ongoing concern. The National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect conducted by the US Department of Health and Human Services (1998) indicated that approximately 44 per 1000 children are reported as maltreated every year. Moreover, the number of reported cases of maltreatment increases every year. For example, * Tel.: +1 408 924 3774; fax: +1 408 924 3758. E-mail address: [email protected]. 0190-7409/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2005.10.003

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recent statistics indicate that in October 2002, in California 69,605 children were referred for emergency services related to child maltreatment (CWS/CMSM, 2003). These referrals come from a variety of sources, not all of whom work professionally with children. However, the majority of the referrals come from professionals who are, by law, required to report any suspected cases of child maltreatment. Mandated reporters include, but are not limited to: (a) Teachers (instructional aids, teachers’ aids, teachers’ assistants, administrators, and certified pupil–personnel employees), (b) Administrators, presenters, and counselors in child-abuse prevention programs, (c) Head Start teachers, (d) School district police or security workers, (e) Administrators of public or private day camps, (f) Administrators of public or private youth centers, youth recreation programs, and youth organizations, (g) Administrators and employees of public or private organizations whose duties include direct contact with, or supervision of, children, (h) Licensees, administrators and employees of licensed community care and day care facilities, (i) Employees of child institutions, including foster parents, group home personnel, and personnel of residential care facilities, (j) Social workers, probation officers, and parole officers, (k) Peace officers, and (l) Health care professionals including licensed nurses, marriage, family, and child counselors, and clinical social workers. Recent research has revealed that, across these various professions, many mandated reporters are not reporting suspected cases of child maltreatment (see, for example, Delaronde, King, Bendel, & Reece, 2000; Reinger, Robison, & McHugh, 1995. Sedlak (1991; as cited in Gilman, 2000) found that 65% of all maltreatment cases, as well as 60% of severe maltreatment cases, are not reported to Child Protective Services by the professionals who are aware of these cases. Underreporting may occur for a variety of reasons. Much of the underreporting may reflect the training, or lack thereof, these mandated reporters have received regarding state mandated reporting and child maltreatment. To address this issue, it is important to explore the knowledge and understanding of child maltreatment that pre-professionals have as they enter their careers and become mandated reporters. This study specifically examines the knowledge and understanding of child maltreatment held by undergraduate and graduate students in majors and disciplines that lead to careers which fall into the broad mandated reporter category. 1.1. Problems with defining maltreatment and reporting suspected cases The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment ACT of 1974 and revised in 1996 (PL 104-235) defines child maltreatment as bany action or lack of action that results in imminent risk of serious harm, death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation of a child. . .under 18. . .by a parent or caretaker who is responsible for the child’s welfareQ (Gilman, 2000; pp. 175). Although useful for providing a general framework for conceptualizing maltreatment, this definition is also quite broad and somewhat ambiguous. For example, does the harm have to be intentional? Moreover, as Barnett, Manly, and Cicchetti (1993) point out, not all child maltreatment leads to immediate harm. Given this ambiguity at the Federal level, it is hardly surprising that state laws and statutes regarding abuse also tend to vary greatly. It is these variations in legal definitions that may lead to problems with reporting cases of suspected child abuse and neglect. This may be especially salient in cases of emotional abuse/psychological abuse. Hamarman, Pope, and Czaja (2002) reported a greater degree of inconsistency in reporting rates across many states for emotional abuse relative to physical or sexual abuse and appeared to be a direct reflection of greater variation in the definition of this form of abuse compared to physical and sexual abuse. Even with its more consistent definition, sexual abuse is the most under-reported form of abuse (Gilman, 2000), whereas neglect, which makes up 65% of

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maltreatment reports, is very difficult to define (Gilman, 2000) and frequently is not easily recognized or well understood (Reyone and Gaeddert, 1998). Overly broad definitions are likely to result in false positives, whereas definitions that are too narrow are likely to limit the number of children who are served or assisted (Gilman, 2000). Thus, it is not surprising that in a study of children under age five with non-accidental injuries who were reported to Child Protective Services, Miller, Fox, and Beckwith (1999) found that, in many cases, the filed petitions did not match the severity of the abuse. Consistent with this study are findings from Reyone and Gaeddert (1998) that teachers tend to view neglect as less serious with respect to harm than physical and sexual abuse, thus suggesting they may be less likely to report suspected cases of neglect. Moving beyond difficulties within the context of legal definitions, some of the problems with low rates of mandated reporting may result from professionals’ definitions of maltreatment not matching legal definitions for abuse and neglect. Some of this may reflect the fact that legal definitions must take into account parents’ rights and due process, which often places the system at odds with the protection of children (Gilman, 2000). That is, legal definitions serve the purpose of criminal intent and may not always take into account the best interests of the child (Portwood, 1999). To illustrate, Portwood’s (1999) study presented maltreatment scenarios to a diverse sample of legally mandated reporters. The results showed low to moderate ratings of whether the acts portrayed in the scenarios met the legal definition of maltreatment. That is, acts were rated as maltreatment that did not fit the legal definition, whereas other acts that may meet the legal definition were not rated as maltreatment. Delaronde et al. (2000) found that 58% of mandated reporters had not reported suspected maltreatment over the course of their career. Most of these non-reporters were strongly in favor of an alternate policy to the official mandated reporting policy of their state. Those who reported suspected cases, but were hesitant to do so, also favored an alternative policy. These findings suggest that there is not only dissatisfaction with legal definitions of maltreatment, but discomfort with current reporting mandates, among various groups of professionals who work with children and who encounter maltreatment cases in the course of their careers. Moreover, outside the context of legal definitions of maltreatment, no consensus has been reached among professionals who deal with child maltreatment (e.g., psychologists, social workers, pediatricians) about an appropriate definition of maltreatment (Belsky, 1991; Emery and Laumann-Billings, 1998). This may reflect recognition by these professionals that there is no unique, consistent profile of parents who maltreat their children and there are many situational factors that appear to be strongly associated with child maltreatment (Emery and Laumann-Billings, 1998). Under these situations, it is not surprising that mandated reporters tend to consciously or unconsciously use many different factors, in addition to legal definitions, to determine whether a report needs to be filed. One additional factor, experience at work with actual cases of maltreatment, appears to strongly influence the definitions that a reporter holds and, hence, the ultimate decision to report or to not report. Portwood (1998) found that subjects with more extensive work-related experience with abuse were less open to considering mitigating factors such as the perpetrator’s own history of abuse, whereas subjects who lacked work-related experience with abuse were more likely to view ambiguous situations as cases of maltreatment. Another study found that clinicians in a hospital made reporting decisions based, in part, on their perception of risk factors such as single mothers with new boyfriends or families with low income (Thyen, Leventhal, Yazdgerdi, & Perrin, 1997). Stroud, Martens, and Barker (2000) found that referrals for prosecution from clinicians were less likely when the injury was more

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severe, whereas law enforcement agents referred a sexual abuse case for prosecution more often when the perpetrator was a stranger and not a family member. Issues regarding suspected versus verified abuse (Crenshaw, Crenshaw, & Lichtenberg, 1995) or the personal repercussions of making the report (Baxter and Beer, 1990) also may influence an individual’s decision to report a case of maltreatment. 1.2. Why mandated reporters may rely on non-legal definitions when deciding to report? The most common theme in the extant literature to explain the level of underreporting appears to be a lack of knowledge and training with regard to mandated reporting requirements and recognition of child maltreatment itself. Portwood, Grady, and Dutton (2000) noted that although 87% of the law enforcement agents in their sample had some degree of contact with children, they received little formal training regarding child maltreatment issues and the training they did receive mainly focused on legal standards and not indicators of abuse. Lack of mandated reporter training may be especially problematic in public schools where there exists a greater opportunity to observe and document cases of suspected maltreatment. Subjects from the studies of Baxter and Beer (1990) and Orelove, Hollahan, and Myles (2000) stated that they had little to no training in their school districts with respect to mandated reporting and child maltreatment issues. This may explain, in part, why teachers have reported that they are unaware of reporting laws and requirements and/or are under-prepared to recognize signs of child maltreatment (Crenshaw et al., 1995). Baxter and Beer’s (1990) survey of administrators, regular teachers, counselors, and special education teachers revealed that while most teachers were aware of mandated reporting laws, less than 22% had read the state law and 45% were unsure if state law actually required all personnel to report suspected abuse. Moreover, 66% of the entire sample of teachers and school personnel felt apprehensive about reporting suspected abuse and most of the respondents wanted help with definitions, recognition, and legal procedures. These findings help explain Tite’s (1993) data showing that there appears to be only moderate correspondence between teachers’ definitions of abuse and decisions to report abuse. Similar findings have been found in research on nurses (O’Toole, O’Toole, & Webster, 1994), clinicians (Kalichman, Craig, & Follingstad, 1990), and law enforcement personnel (Stroud et al., 2000). With respect to nurses, O’Toole et al. (1994) found that less serious types of abuse, such as neglect and psychological abuse, were neither recognized nor reported. Clinicians, on the other hand, appear to be more likely to report sexual abuse when they have more confidence that abuse is actually occurring (Kalichman et al., 1990). In situations where court action is considered, Stroud et al. (2000) found that initial child disclosure of sexual abuse was more common in cases where criminal action was taken than in cases dropped by the District Attorney. Across all these studies, a common theme appears to be that the decision to report or to not report a case of suspected maltreatment often depends on the mandated reporter’s confidence that maltreatment has occurred. These findings again indicate that there is a need and desire among professionals for more training with respect to recognizing signs of abuse, as well as legal definitions of abuse and reporting requirements. Unfortunately, recent attempts to increase reporting and to provide the kind of knowledge that is needed to understand maltreatment and mandated reporting by providing a mandatory training workshop for these kinds of professionals have had limited success (Aldridge, 1992; Reinger et al., 1995). Specifically, Reinger et al. (1995) found that post-training, 69% of recognized child maltreatment cases still were not reported to Child Protective Services. Aldridge (1992) also found at a 12-month follow-up to training, very poor performance on interview techniques

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assessments, suggesting that these professionals will have difficulty eliciting the kind of information they need to report suspected abuse. One idea to help combat this problem may be to provide greater education about child maltreatment and reporting issues to mandated reporters before they enter their professions. That is, university students in majors that are likely to lead to careers that would require they report suspected child maltreatment may be better served, and better able to meet the needs of children, if they had greater preparation during their undergraduate and graduate studies with respect to child maltreatment issues. Therefore, building on the work by Portwood (1999), this study focused on graduate and undergraduate students in a variety of majors and disciplines at a large, metropolitan university and their understanding of issues pertaining to maltreatment and reporting suspected maltreatment. Specifically, the study examined factors that have been identified as important for future study, such as severity or frequency (National Research Council, 1993). Following Portwood’s (1999) protocol, this study included factors that potentially influence a reporter’s decisions about whether or not maltreatment has occurred (e.g., perpetrator characteristics such as age, gender, or family background). Subjects also were presented with scenarios depicting the major types of abuse (physical, sexual. psychological) and neglect. The goal was to discover how well various majors/disciplines leading to careers working with children are preparing their students to deal with maltreatment and their roles as mandated reporters. 2. Method 2.1. Study participants There were 332 participants in the study. Students were sampled from the following majors or disciplines: Child and Adolescent Development (N = 141), Human Performance (N = 49), Special Education (N = 52), Social Work (N = 23), Teaching Credential programs (N = 29), Administration of Justice (N = 16), Nursing (N = 10), and Liberal Studies, (N = 12). The average age of the participants was 29.3 years (SD = 9.3; range = 20–60). Graduate students were, on average, significantly older (N = 159, M = 33.0, SD = 10.4) than undergraduate students (N = 156, M = 25.3, SD = 5.7; p b .0001). The sample reflected the ethnic make-up of the University and surrounding community (Caucasian, 26%, Asian, 32%, Latino, 13%, African American, 4%, and Other, 25%). Gender also reflected the typical breakdown by sex in these majors/disciplines with 78% of the participants being female. Chi square tests did not indicate any differences in ethnicity or gender between academic majors/disciplines and student status (graduate versus undergraduate). There was a range of experience with respect to familiarity with mandated reporting laws for child maltreatment: 9% reported being bnot at all familiarQ, 25% reported being ba little bit familiarQ, 42% reported being bsomewhat familiarQ, and 23% reported being bvery familiarQ with these laws. The Chi square test (80.1, df = 21, p b .0001) revealed differences by major with respect to self-reported familiarity with mandated reporting laws. Specifically, Human Performance majors reported the least familiarity with the laws, whereas Administration of Justice majors reported the most familiarity with mandated reporting laws. 2.2. Procedures This project surveyed undergraduate students in their capstone or senior seminar classes in the following majors: Administration of Justice, Child and Adolescent Development, Human

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Table 1 Mean ratings (and standard errors) of factors used to determine maltreatment by major Factor

Total

Major ChAD

Actual physical harm to the child Actual psych. harm to the child The act is sexual in nature A possibility of physical harm to the child* A possibility of psychological harm to the child Seriousness of the act Frequency of the act The perpetrator intends harm Whether the child thinks he/she has been abused The perpetrator is mentally ill* Whether the act meets the legal definition of abuse or neglect Whether the act is socially or culturally acceptable* Whether the perpetrator is taking drugs or alcohol*** The age of the child Whether the perpetrator was abused as a child**** The perpetrator grew up in a violent home or neighborhood*** Age of the perpetrator*** The child consents to the act Sex of the child Sex of the perpetrator* Whether the perpetrator comes from a divorced family*

HuPerf

SpEd

SocWk

Cred

AJ

NURS

LibSt.

6.6 (.77) 6.6 (.06)

6.6 (.10) 6.8 (.11) 6.7 (.15) 7.0 (.15) 6.5 (.18)

6.8 (.23) 6.6 (.21)

6.6 (.72) 6.6 (.06)

6.5 (.10) 6.6 (.11) 6.6 (.15) 6.9 (.14) 6.5 (.17)

6.8 (.21) 6.4 (.20)

6.5 (1.0) 6.6 (.09)

6.5 (.10) 6.6 (.11) 6.6 (.15) 6.9 (.14) 6.5 (.17)

6.8 (.21) 6.4 (.20)

5.7 (.90) 5.7 (.08)

5.5 (.13) 5.6 (.14) 6.0 (.19) 6.2 (.18) 6.0 (.23)

6.1 (.29) 5.7 (.27)

5.7 (.93) 5.6 (.08)

5.6 (.20) 5.6 (.15) 5.9 (.20) 6.2 (.19) 5.8 (.24)

6.1 (.29) 5.6 (.28)

5.8 (1.3) 5.9 (.12)

5.7 (.20) 5.5 (.21) 6.1 (.29) 5.7 (.28) 6.2 (.35)

6.1 (.43) 5.3 (.41)

5.7 (1.6) 5.8 (.15) 5.1 (2.0) 5.5 (.18)

5.8 (.24) 5.4 (.26) 5.7 (.35) 5.6 (.34) 5.5 (.430) 6.2 (.53) 6.1 (.50) 5.2 (.28) 4.4 (.30) 5.1 (.42) 4.4 (.40) 5.3 (.49) 5.0 (.62) 5.3 (.58)

4.8 (1.9) 5.0 (.17)

5.1 (.28) 4.1 (.30) 5.0 (.41) 4.0 (.39) 4.2 (.48)

4.4 (.61) 5.1 (.57)

4.4 (1.9) 4.7 (.17)

4.6 (.28) 3.8 (.30) 4.9 (.41) 3.7 (.39) 3.6 (.48)

4.0 (.61) 4.9 (.57)

4.8 (1.7) 4.9 (.150) 4.8 (.24) 4.4 (.26) 5.0 (.36) 4.1 (.34) 4.5 (.42)

5.6 (.53) 5.5 (.49)

3.7 (1.8) 4.0 (.16)

4.0 (.26) 3.2 (.28) 4.0 (.38) 3.0 (.36) 3.4 (.45)

4.6 (.56) 2.9 (.53)

4.1 (2.2) 4.5 (.19)

4.5 (.31) 3.7 (.34) 4.1 (.46) 2.8 (.44) 3.1 (.55)

4.5 (.68) 4.3 (.64)

3.6 (1.8) 4.0 (.20) 3.3 (2.0) 3.8 (.17)

3.5 (.33) 3.3 (.35) 3.1 (.48) 2.7 (.46) 3.7 (.57) 3.6 (.28) 2.6 (.35) 3.0 (.41) 1.9 (.39) 2.3 (.49)

3.4 (.72) 3.7 (.67) 3.0 (.61) 2.8 (.57)

3.3 (2.0) 3.8 (.18)

3.7 (.28) 2.7 (.30) 3.0 (.42) 2.1 (.40) 2.3 (.50)

3.0 (.62) 2.9 (.58)

3.1 (1.9) 3.7 (.18)

3.1 (.28) 2.5 (.30) 3.1 (.42) 2.0 (.40) 2.8 (.49)

2.5 (.62) 2.6 (.58)

2.9 (2.0) 3.1 (.17)

3.2 (.28) 2.3 (.30) 2.4 (.41) 2.1 (.49) 2.7 (.61)

2.8 (.57) 2.7 (.61)

1.9 (1.7) 2.2 (.15) 2.0 (1.7) 2.3 (.16)

2.0 (.25) 1.7 (.26) 2.0 (.36) 1.7 (.26) 1.0 (.43) 2.1 (.25) 1.5 (.27) 2.1 (.37) 1.8 (.35) 1.1 (.44)

2.0 (.53) 1.0 (.50) 2.0 (.53) 1.1 (.51)

1.9 (1.5) 2.2 (.14)

2.2 (.22) 1.5 (.24) 1.9 (.33) 1.5 (.31) 1.1 (.39)

2.2 (.49) 1.4 (.45)

(continued on next page)

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Table 1 (continued) Factor

Total

Major

Whether the perpetrator was raised in a low-income environment*** Whether the perpetrator has a high school diploma or GED Whether the perpetrator represents a minority race

2.0 (1.5) 2.4 (.14)

2.1 (.22) 1.5 (.24) 1.9 (.33) 1.4 (.32) 1.3 (.39)

2.5 (.49) 1.4 (.46)

1.8 (1.4) 2.0 (.13)

2.0 (.21) 1.7 (.22) 1.6 (.31) 1.5 (.29) 1.2 (.36)

2.1 (.45) 1.2 (.42)

1.7 (1.3) 1.9 (.13)

1.9 (.20) 1.5 (.22) 2.0 (.30) 1.4 (.28) 1.1 (.35)

2.2 (.44) 1.1 (.41)

ChAD

HuPerf

SpEd

SocWk

Cred

AJ

NURS

LibSt.

Note: ChAD = Child and Adolescent Development, HuPerf = Human Performance, SpEd = Special Education, SocWk = Social Work, Cred = Teaching Credential Program, AJ = Administration of Justice, NURS = Nursing, LibSt. = Liberal Studies. Significant differences between groups at *p b .05, **p b .01, ***p b .001, and ****p b .0001. Scores that are bold differ significantly from other scores on that item; underlined scores are intermediate and do not significantly differ from plain text scores or scores in bold.

Performance, Liberal Studies, and Nursing. Students at the graduate level also were surveyed from the following disciplines: Administration of Justice, Child and Adolescent Development, Teacher Credential, Human Performance, Social Work, and Special Education. Early in the semester, professors were contacted and asked for access to the students enrolled in their classes. In participating classes, one of two Child and Adolescent Development MA students explained the study as well as participants’ rights and passed out the questionnaire. Students who did not wish to participate were told to pass the blank questionnaire back at the end of the session. The majority of the professors agreed to dedicate 25 min to completion of the questionnaire in class. However, professors who were not able to dedicate class time to data collection were given the option of having the MA student come to class to briefly describe the study and pass out questionnaires in self-addressed campus envelopes. These questionnaires were completed outside of class. These students returned the completed questionnaires in a campus envelope to the PI’s office mailbox. 2.3. Instrument The survey consisted of questions regarding definitions of maltreatment and factors related to determining abuse (Portwood, 1999). The first part of the questionnaire presented students with questions regarding their age, gender, and ethnicity. This section also asked students about their academic experience: status (graduate, undergraduate), major/discipline, and knowledge of mandated reporting laws on a 4-point scale with (1) not at all familiar and (4) very familiar. The second part of the questionnaire used Portwood’s (1999) instrument that assesses participants’ attitudes and beliefs about maltreatment. All of Portwood’s original 21 factors were used on this questionnaire. These factors address whether an act should be considered when determining maltreatment, such as actual physical harm to the child or severity of the act. The

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Table 2 Mean ratings (and standard errors) of maltreatment vignettes by major F (df )

Total ChAD HuPerf SpEd SocWk Cred AJ

Physical abuse — spanking A father spanks his eight-year-old son with a stick, causing some minor bruises F (7, 251) = 3.8, p b .001

5.5 (1.6)

5.7 (.15)

4.5 (.24)

5.4 (.28)

5.6 (.39)

5.9 (.34)

5.4 5.3 (.39) (.54)

4.3 (.54)

5.3 (.18)

3.9 (.30)

4.5 (.34)

4.8 (.49)

4.7 (.43)

4.5 5.0 (.48) (.68)

3.8 (.67)

4.8 (.19)

3.8 (.31)

4.2 (.35)

5.1 (.50)

4.3 (.44)

4.9 4.2 (.50) (.70)

2.9 (.69)

5.8 (.18)

5.6 (.29)

5.6 (.32)

5.5 (.47)

5.7 (.41)

6.0 6.1 (.47) (.65)

6.0 (.64)

6.0 (1.5)

6.2 (.15)

5.8 (.24)

5.9 (.28)

5.6 (.39)

6.3 (.34)

6.3 6.1 (.39) (.54)

5.5 (.54)

5.3 (1.7)

5.5 (.16)

5.1 (.27)

5.0 (.30)

5.3 (.43)

5.1 (.37)

5.5 5.9 (.43) (.59)

3.9 (.59)

6.8 (.77)

6.9 (.08)

6.5 (.12)

7.0 (.14)

6.9 (.20)

7.0 (.17)

7.0 7.0 (.20) (.27)

6.8 (.22)

6.8 (.81)

6.9 (.07)

6.5 (.12)

7.0 (.14)

6.9 (.19)

7.0 (.17)

7.0 7.0 (.19) (.27)

7.0 (.27)

Total percent report yes 72.0 A father spanks his eight-year-old son with a stick, leaving no visible injuries F (7, 251) = 2.61, p b .01 4.8 (1.9) Total percent report yes 56.3 A father spanks his five-year-old son with a stick after he finds the child playing with a book of matches F (7, 251) = 2.1, p b .01 4.4 (2.0) Total percent report yes 46.7 A father spanks his six-month-old son with a stick after he finds the child playing with a book of matches F (7, 251) = 1.1 5.7 (1.8) Total percent report yes 70.5 Physical abuse — slapping A mother slaps her six-month-old child in the face F (7, 251) = 0.83 Total percent report yes A mother slaps her five-year-old child in the face F (7, 251) = 1.5 Total percent report yes

NURS LibSt.

76.8

55.7

Sexual abuse: sexual intercourse On one occasion a father has sexual intercourse with his eight-year-old daughter F (7, 251) = 1.6 Total percent report yes On one occasion a mother has sexual intercourse with her eight-year-old son F (7, 251) = 1.4

94.6

Total percent report yes

94.6 (continued on next page)

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Table 2 (continued) F (df )

Total ChAD HuPerf SpEd SocWk Cred AJ

A father frequently has sexual intercourse with his eight-year-old daughter F (7, 251) = 2.4, p b .02 Total percent report yes

6.8 (.80)

6.9 (.08)

6.4 (.12)

6.9 (.14)

6.9 (.20)

7.0 (.18)

7.0 7.0 (.20) (.28)

7.0 (.27)

6.7 (1.0)

6.8 (.09)

6.2 (.15)

6.8 (.17)

6.7 (.25)

6.8 (.22)

7.0 6.9 (.25) (.34)

7.0 (.34)

5.5 (1.9)

5.4 (.18)

5.2 (.30)

5.4 (.34)

5.0 (.48)

6.3 (.42)

6.0 6.5 (.48) (.67)

5.3 (.66)

6.8 (.09)

6.2 (.15)

6.8 (.17)

6.4 (.24)

6.8 (.21)

6.9 6.9 (.24) (.34)

7.0 (.33)

6.6 (.12)

6.1 (.19)

6.3 (.22)

5.9 (.31)

6.7 (.27)

6.9 7.0 (.31) (.43)

6.9 (.42)

5.5 (.18)

5.4 (.30)

5.1 (.34)

5.2 (.48)

6.1 (.42)

5.9 6.3 (.48) (.66)

5.8 (.65)

6.4 (1.3)

6.4 (.12)

6.0 (.20)

6.6 (.22)

6.0 (.32)

6.4 (.28)

7.0 6.5 (.32) (.44)

6.3 (.44)

5.8 (1.6)

6.0 (.15)

5.2 (.25)

5.5 (.28)

5.1 (.40)

6.2 (.35)

6.1 6.5 (.40) (.56)

5.6 (.55)

93.7

Sexual abuse: oral sex A father has oral sex with his eight-year-old daughter, but only after she says it is bokayQ F (7, 251) = 2.4, p b .02 Total percent report yes

92.8

Sexual abuse: genital fondling A father frequently touches his six-month-old son’s genitals F (7, 251) = 1.6

Total percent report yes 67.8 A father frequently touches his eight-year-old daughter’s genitals, but only after she says it is bokayQ F (7, 251) = 2.3, p b .03 6.7 (1.0) Total percent report yes 92.2 On one occasion a father touches his eight-year-old daughter’s genitals, but only after she says it is bokayQ F (7, 251) = 2.1, p b .05 6.5 (1.2) Total percent report yes 91.0 A mother frequently touches her six-month-old son’s genitals F (7, 251) = 0.93 5.6 (1.9) Total percent report yes 68.4 Sexual abuse: showing pornography A father often shows pornographic pictures to his eight-year-old daughter F (7, 251) = 1.5 Total percent report yes On one occasion, a father shows pornographic pictures to his eight-year-old son F (7, 251) = 2.2, p b .04

NURS LibSt.

87.7

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Table 2 (continued) F (df )

Total ChAD HuPerf SpEd SocWk Cred AJ

Total percent report yes 72.6 A father often shows pornographic pictures to his eight-year-old son F (7, 251) = 2.6, p b .01 6.2 6.4 5.7 (1.4) (.13) (.21) Total percent report yes 84.3 A father often shows pornographic pictures to his five-year-old daughter F (7, 251) = 3.0, pb .005 6.1 6.5 5.9 (1.1) (.11) (.18) Total percent report yes On one occasion, a father shows pornographic pictures to his eight-year-old daughter F (7, 251) = 2.6, p b .02 6.1 6.3 5.6 (1.4) (.13) (.21) Total percent report yes 78.6 Sexual abuse: kissing on the lips A father often kisses his eight-year-old daughter on the lips F (7, 251) = 0.57 2.8 2.7 3.2 (1.6) (.16) (.26) Total percent report yes 16.0 A mother often kisses her five-year-old daughter on the lips F (7, 251) = 0.90 2.4 2.3 2.4 (1.5) (.15) (.24) Total percent report yes 8.7 Neglect: failure to provide medical or psychological treatment Despite the recommendation of the teacher, parents refuse to have their child’s vision checked F (7, 251) = 2.1, p b .05 4.0 4.9 4.2 (1.7) (.36) (.26) Total percent report yes 33.1 Despite the recommendation of the teacher, parents refuse to get psychological treatment for their child F (7, 251) = 0.64 4.4 4.5 4.1 (1.7) (.16) (.26) Total percent report yes 48.5 Neglect: permitting play in a room w/broken windows Along with their 6-month-old child, parents live in an old house; in the living room where their child often plays, there are several windows with broken glass and very jagged edges F (7, 251) = 0.59 4.9 5.0 4.6 (1.7) (.17) (.28)

NURS LibSt.

6.0 (.24)

5.5 (.34)

6.4 (.30)

6.7 6.8 (.34) (.48)

6.2 (.47)

6.5 (.20)

5.7 (.29)

6.7 (.25)

7.0 6.7 (.40) (.40)

6.5 (.40)

6.1 (.24)

5.5 (.35)

6.1 (.30)

6.6 6.9 (.35) (.48)

5.3 (.48)

3.0 (.29)

2.6 (.42)

3.0 (.37)

2.7 2.7 (.42) (.58)

2.5 (.58)

2.9 (.27)

2.2 (.39)

2.0 (.34)

2.2 2.3 (.39) (.54)

2.8 (.53)

3.6 (.30)

5.1 (.42)

3.6 (.37)

4.7 3.6 (.42) (.59)

4.4 (.58)

4.0 (.30)

4.5 (.43)

4.3 (.37)

4.7 4.8 (.43) (.59)

4.3 (.59)

4.7 (.32)

5.1 (.40)

5.1 (.46)

5.2 5.0 (.46) (.64)

4.4 (.63)

(continued on next page)

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Table 2 (continued) F (df )

Total ChAD HuPerf SpEd SocWk Cred AJ

Total percent report yes 62.7 Along with their 8-year-old child, parents live in an old house; in the living room where their child often plays, there are several windows with broken glass and very jagged edges F (7, 251) = 1.4 5.0 (1.7) Total percent report yes 59.6 Neglect: leaving a child home alone Parents frequently leave their 8-year-old son home alone for several hours F (7, 251) = 0.48 Total percent report yes On one occasion, parents leave their 5-year-old son home alone for several hours F (7, 251) = 0.45

69.9

Total percent report yes On one occasion, parents leave their 8-year-old son home alone for several hours F (7, 251) = 0.64

74.4

Total percent report yes

5.2 (.16)

4.6 (.27)

5.0 (.30)

4.5 (.43)

5.4 (.38)

5.8 5.1 (.43) (.60)

4.4 (.59)

5.2 (1.6)

5.2 (.16)

5.1 (.26)

5.1 (.29)

5.7 (.42)

5.4 (.37)

5.6 5.5 (.42) (.59)

4.8 (.58)

5.6 (1.6)

5.8 (.15)

5.4 (.25)

5.6 (.28)

5.6 (.40)

5.8 (.35)

5.7 5.4 (.40) (.55)

5.8 (.55)

4.4 (1.8)

4.5 (.17)

4.5 (.28)

4.2 (.32)

4.9 (.46)

4.6 (.40)

5.0 4.9 (.46) (.64)

3.8 (.63)

4.3 (.18)

4.4 (.29)

3.8 (.33)

4.5 (.47)

4.0 (.41)

4.0 4.8 (.47) (.65)

3.6 (.65)

4.7 (.18)

4.3 (.28)

4.7 (.32)

4.5 (.46)

4.8 (.40)

4.6 4.7 (.46) (.63)

3.9 (.62)

5.4 (.18)

4.4 (.30)

5.4 (.34)

5.2 (.49)

5.3 (.43)

6.5 5.3 (.49) (.68)

4.5 (.67)

44.6

Neglect: leaving alcohol within child’s reach Parents forget to put away a bottle of whiskey, leaving it within easy reach of their 6-month-old son F (7, 251) = 0.68 4.2 (1.8) Total percent report yes 30.4 Parents forget to put away a bottle of whiskey, leaving it within easy reach of their 5-year-old son F (7, 251) = 0.59 4.5 (1.8) Total percent report yes 39.5 Neglect: parents refuse to send the child to school F (7, 251) = 2.5, p b .02 Total percent report yes

NURS LibSt.

5.3 (1.9) 72.0

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Table 2 (continued) F (df )

Total ChAD HuPerf SpEd SocWk Cred AJ

Neglect: hygiene Parents do not wash their 6-month-old child’s hair for weeks at a time F (7, 251) = 0.39 Total percent report yes Parents do not wash their 8-year-old child’s hair for weeks at a time F (7, 251) = 0.82 Total percent report yes

4.8 (1.7)

4.8 (.17)

5.0 (.28)

5.1 (.32)

4.7 (.45)

4.5 (.39)

4.9 5.0 (.45) (.62)

5.0 (.62)

4.9 (1.7)

4.9 (.17)

4.5 (.28)

5.1 (.31)

5.3 (.45)

4.6 (.39)

4.6 5.7 (.45) (.62)

4.9 (.61)

2.5 (.15)

3.1 (.25)

2.7 (.28)

3.1 (.40)

3.1 (.35)

2.4 3.8 (.40) (.56)

3.0 (.55)

3.3 (.16)

4.3 (.26)

3.6 (.30)

3.4 (.42)

4.3 (.34)

3.0 4.5 (.42) (.58)

3.4 (.58)

2.6 (.15)

3.5 (.24)

2.9 (.28)

3.5 (.39)

3.0 (.34)

2.9 4.4 (.39) (.54)

3.4 (.54)

2.6 (.13)

2.6 (.21)

2.3 (.24)

2.5 (.35)

2.7 (.30)

2.2 2.9 (.39) (.48)

2.3 (.47)

2.8 (.14)

3.3 (.23)

2.3 (.26)

2.8 (.37)

3.1 (.32)

3.2 2.4 (.37) (.51)

2.1 (.51)

5.0 (.15)

4.3 (.25)

4.7 (.29)

3.8 (.41)

4.6 (.36)

4.7 4.9 (.41) (.57)

5.0 (.56)

50.3

53.6

Psychological abuse: dressing child in opposite sex Parents dress their eight-year-daughter in boys’ clothing F (7, 251) = 1.4 2.8 (1.6) Total percent report yes 10.8 Parents dress their eight-year-old son in girls’ clothing F (7, 251) = 2.9, p b .007 3.7 (1.7) Total percent report yes 25.9 Parents dress their six-month-old son in girls’ clothing F (7, 251) = 2.9, p b .007 3.1 (1.6) Total percent report yes 14.5

clothing

Psychological abuse: comparing a child to a sibling Parents constantly tell their child he/she should make better grades in school like his/her older sibling F (7, 251) = .52 2.5 (1.4) Total percent report yes 3.6 Psychological abuse: argue in front of a child Parents often argue in front of their child F (7, 251) = 1.6 2.9 (1.5) Total percent report yes 6.6 Psychological abuse: calling a child names A mother screams at her 5-year-old daughter and calls her names F (7, 251) = 0.74 Total percent report yes

NURS LibSt.

4.8 (1.6)

47.3 (continued on next page)

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Table 2 (continued) F (df )

Total ChAD HuPerf SpEd SocWk Cred AJ

A mother screams at her 6-month-old daughter and calls her names F (7, 251) = 1.6 Total percent report yes Psychological abuse: threats A father says to his 10-year-old son, bYou’re going to get a beating when we get home.Q F (7, 251) = 1.7

NURS LibSt.

5.1 (1.7)

5.1 (.17)

4.8 (.28)

5.0 (.31)

4.4 (.45)

5.2 (.39)

4.8 5.7 (.45) (.62)

4.9 (.61)

4.5 (1.7)

4.8 (.16)

4.4 (.27)

3.9 (.30)

4.3 (.43)

4.9 (.38)

4.2 5.0 (.43) (.60)

3.4 (.59)

3.8 (.17)

3.6 (.27)

3.2 (.31)

4.2 (.44)

4.1 (.38)

2.9 4.3 (.44) (.61)

2.8 (.60)

54.8

Total percent report yes 44.6 A father says, in a cheerful tone of voice, to his 10-year-old son, bYou’re going to get a beating when we get home.Q F (7, 251) = 1.8 3.7 (1.7) Total percent report yes 27.7

Note: ChAD = Child and Adolescent Development, HuPerf = Human Performance, SpEd = Special Education, SocWk = Social Work, Cred = Teaching Credential Program, AJ = Administration of Justice, NURS = Nursing, LibSt. = Liberal Studies. Scores that are bold differ significantly from scores in plain text on that item; underlined scores are intermediate and do not significantly differ from scores in plain scores or scores in bold.

items also present potential mitigating factors with respect to perpetrator culpability such as substance use by the perpetrator, age of the perpetrator. An additional three factors were added because current research suggests that these are common predictors of child maltreatment (see Brown, Cohen, Johnson, & Salzinger, 1998). Thus, questions were added regarding perpetrator SES, education level, and minority status. All questions were rated on a 7-point scale, from 1 (not at all important) to 7 (one of the most important factors) for deciding if an act was maltreatment. The 24 items are presented in Table 1. The third part of the questionnaire also used Portwood’s (1999) instrument, this time assessing participants’ definition(s) of maltreatment. There were 40 vignettes, covering physical, sexual, and psychological abuse, as well as neglect. Additionally, the vignettes varied with respect to factors that have been shown previously to be included in dpopularT definitions (e.g., not official) of maltreatment. These factors are frequency (once, frequently, often), consequences to victim (no injury or minor bruising), intent of perpetrator (presence or absence of disciplinary intent), sex of victim, age of victim (5 months, 5 years, 8 years), and whether or not the child consented to the act. An additional two vignettes were added regarding threatening a child with a spanking and varying with whether the threat was made in a joking tone of voice or said in a serious voice. All vignettes were rated on a 7-point scale, from 1 (definitely not maltreatment) to 7 (definitely maltreatment). A final addition to Portwood’s original instrument was made by asking respondents if they would report this act as suspected abuse (yes/no) after each vignette. These vignettes are presented in Table 2.

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3. Results Zero-order correlational analyses of the data indicated that age was modestly, but consistently, associated with items on both the importance of factors for determining maltreatment scale and the maltreatment vignettes. In general, younger participants were less likely to rate factors involving frequency, perpetrator intention, child perception of the act or consent to the act, acceptability of the act, and perpetrator mental health, poverty, gender, education level or history of abuse as important factors than older participants (rs range from .11 to .23; ps range from .02 to .0001). Younger participants were also less likely to rate examples of neglect (e.g., parental failure to get the child’s vision checked), psychological abuse (e.g., mother screams at her five-year-old), parents touching infants’ genitals, mothers kissing their children on the lips, or threats of punishment as maltreatment compared to older participants (rs range from .11 to .22; ps range from .02 to .0001). Interestingly, younger participants were more likely than older participants to rate dressing an 8-year-old boy in girl’s clothing as abuse (r = .11, p b .04). 3.1. Participants’ ratings of factors that are important to consider when determining maltreatment Table 1 presents the mean scores and standard errors for participants’ ratings of factors that are important to consider when determining maltreatment. Overall, three factors received a rating of 6 or higher in all the sampled majors — Actual Physical Harm, Actual Psychological Harm, and the Act is Sexual in Nature. Three more factors – Possibility of Physical Harm, Possibility of Psychological Harm, and Seriousness of the Act – received a rating of 5.5 or higher across all majors. Paired t-tests indicated that participants distinguished between actual and potential physical harm (t (328) = 19.4, p b 001) and between actual and potential psychological harm (t (328) = 19.4, p b 001) with respect to their ratings of these factors. Frequency of the Act and Perpetrator Intention were rated as important, but received scores lower than 5.5 in some majors. Participants rated the child’s perceptions of abuse, perpetrators’ mental health, whether the act meets legal definitions of maltreatment, and perpetrator use of drugs or alcohol as fairly important. All other factors were rated by the participants as relatively unimportant. To explore differences in ratings, MANCOVA was conducted. Given the pattern of correlations described above, age was included as a covariate in the analyses. Familiarity with mandated reporting laws differed by group and was included as a covariate in the MANCOVA for rating factors important to determining maltreatment. However, the F (24, 263) = 1.3 was nonsignificant and the results of the analyses were identical when the variable was included and when it was excluded from the MANCOVA. Therefore, the analyses reported here do not include familiarity with mandated reporting in the MANCOVA. The MANCOVA was significant for both major ( F (168, 1904) = 2.64, p b .001) and age ( F (24, 266) = 2.64, p b .001). Follow-up univariate analyses with Ryan–Einot–Gabriel–Welsch multiple range test scores revealed group differences on 10 of the 24 factors. Nursing, Teacher Credential, Administration of Justice, and Social Work students rated the possibility of psychological harm ( F (7, 298) = 2.34, p b .03) as more important than the other majors. Perpetrator mental health ( F (7, 298) = 2.32, p b .05) was rated as less important by Special Education, Teacher Credential, Administration of Justice, and Nursing students relative to other majors. Liberal Studies, Administration of Justice, Special Education, and Teacher Credential students rated social/cultural acceptability of the act ( F (7, 298) = 2.50, p b .02) as less important compared to Child and Adolescent Development, Human Performance, Social Work, and Nursing students. Administration of

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Justice, Special Education, and Teacher Credential students rated perpetrator use of drugs/ alcohol ( F (7, 298) = 2.77, p b .008) as less important compared to the other majors. Perpetrator history of abuse as a child ( F (7, 298) = 4.27, p b .0001) and perpetrator experience growing up in a violent home ( F (7, 298) = 3.59, p b .001) were rated as more important by Child and Adolescent Development and Human Performance students relative to the other majors. Child and Adolescent Development students also rated age of the perpetrator ( F (7, 298) = 2.97, p b .005) higher than students in other majors. Sex of the perpetrator ( F (7, 298) = 2.19 p b .04) received the highest importance ratings from Child and Adolescent Development, Human Performance, and Social Work students. Perpetrator comes from a divorced family ( F (7, 298) = 2.23, p b .03) received higher importance ratings from Child and Adolescent Development, Human Performance, and Nursing students relative to the other majors. Finally, perpetrator was raised in a low-income environment ( F (7, 298) = 3.00, p b .005) was rated as more important, relative to other majors, by Child and Adolescent Development and Nursing students. 3.2. Participant ratings of maltreatment vignettes Table 2 presents the mean scores and standard errors for participants’ ratings of maltreatment vignettes. Overall, participants rated the vignettes comprised of clearly sexual acts (intercourse, oral sex, showing pornography to a daughter or frequently to a son, and touching an older daughter’s genitals) as acts of sexual abuse. However, participants were much less certain about the abusive nature of kissing children on the lips or touching the genitals of an infant. Acts that involved physical discipline, such as slapping and spanking, were generally rated as potentially abusive. Participants were even less sure of acts that could be described as neglect or psychological abuse. An examination of the percent of all subjects stating they would report the incident described in the vignette indicates a general trend for subjects to indicate they would report that incident when they were more certain the act was abuse. Few students were willing to report an incident they did not define as maltreatment (see Table 2). To explore differences in ratings, a MANCOVA was conducted. Given the pattern of correlations described above, age was included as a covariate in the analyses. Familiarity with mandated reporting laws differed by group and was included as a covariate in the MANCOVA for rating maltreatment vignettes. However, the F (42, 198) = 1.6 was non-significant and the results of the analyses were identical when the variable was included and when it was excluded from the MANCOVA. Therefore, the analyses reported here do not include familiarity with mandated reporting in the MANCOVA. The MANCOVA was significant for both major ( F (294, 1442) = 2.8, p b .0001) and age ( F (42,200) = 1.8, p b .004). Follow-up univariate analyses with Ryan–Einot–Gabriel–Welsch multiple range test scores revealed group differences on 15 of the 42 vignettes. Table 2 presents the F-values for these analyses. Participants’ ratings of physical abuse differed by major on three vignettes. Child and Adolescent Development, Social Work, and Teacher Credential students rated spanking an 8-year-old son and leaving bruises as more definitely maltreatment than other majors. Child and Adolescent Development, Social Work, Teacher Credential, and Nursing students also rated spanking an 8-year-old son without leaving visible marks as more definitely maltreatment than the other majors. Finally, spanking a 5-year-old after catching him playing with matches was rated as more definitely abusive by Child and Adolescent Development, Social Work, and Administration of Justice students compared to other majors. The follow-up univariate analyses revealed even greater between group differences for sexual acts. Human Performance students rated a father having frequent sexual intercourse with his

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daughter and a father having oral sex with his daughter after she consents as pretty sure this is maltreatment, whereas all other majors rated the act as definitely maltreatment. The vignette involving a father frequently touching his 8-year-old daughter’s genitals after she consents was rated as pretty sure this is maltreatment by both Human Performance and Social Work students. All other majors rated this as definitely maltreatment. Similarly, Human Performance, Social Work, and Special Education students rated the one time only touching of a daughter’s genitals as pretty sure this is maltreatment relative to all other majors who rated it as definitely maltreatment. Ratings of somewhat sure this is maltreatment were made for a one time showing of pornography to his son (Human Performance, Special Education. Social Work, and Liberal Studies), frequently showing pornography to a son, often showing pornography to a 5-year-old daughter, and on one occasion showing pornography to an 8-year-old daughter (Human Performance and Social Work). Two vignettes that fall under the neglect category also had significant between group differences. Specifically, Child and Adolescent Development, Social Work, and Administration of Justice students were more sure that parents failing to have their child’s vision checked was maltreatment than other majors. Administration of Justice students were much more certain that refusing to send a child to school was maltreatment than other majors. Finally, students in the various majors differed in the degree to which they rated dressing a son in girl’s clothing as psychological abuse. In these cases, Human Performance, Teaching Credential, and Nursing students were more sure that dressing an 8-year-old boy in girl’s clothing was maltreatment and Nursing, Human Performance, and Social Work students were more certain that dressing a 6month-old boy in girl’s clothing was maltreatment relative to other majors. 4. Discussion This study explored knowledge and beliefs regarding maltreatment of graduate and undergraduate students who will work in careers where they will be mandated reporters. A general caveat should be made with respect to interpreting the data presented in this study. First, the sample, although representative of the University as a whole, was recruited from a potentially self-selected population. That is, the professors who agreed to allow access to their students may have been interested in the topic of maltreatment or believed that it was a relevant issue for their course. Thus, students in these classes may have had greater exposure to, or experience with, the issue of maltreatment than other students in that major or discipline. As was a limitation with the Portwood (1999) study, the vignettes had a limited range of variability in the components of the vignettes (e.g., age, gender, consequences, intent). However, as with Portwood, time was a factor and it was felt that professors would be hesitant to grant more than 25 minutes of class time for filling out the questionnaires. The lack of consistency in the number of participants in each major may also lead to some bias in the results and the results need to be interpreted with caution. Finally, and especially with this sample, stated beliefs and intentions to report may not reflect what these subjects would do when faced with this situation in the context of their actual jobs. These data only reveal pre-professionals’ views regarding maltreatment they hold as they enter their careers. One area for future research is to determine how these beliefs and understanding of maltreatment are developed and how well these beliefs and understanding match later reporting behavior. In general, the results of this study suggest that future mandated reporters hold similar beliefs about maltreatment as their counterparts who are professionals in positions that require them to be mandated reporters. However, the pre-professionals in this sample, relative to Portwood’s

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(1999) sample, were also more unwilling to rate events as maltreatment and were more likely to take into account mitigating factors when determining maltreatment. That is, students appear to be less aware of legal definitions and standards of maltreatment or they are more unwilling to use that as criteria to determine abuse. These pre-professionals may enter their careers only somewhat confident and sure of what does and does not constitute maltreatment. This may then explain, in part, mandated reporters’ reluctance in (and low rates of) reporting incidents of maltreatment. Similar to findings from Portwood’s (1999) study of mandated reporters, participants in this study emphasized the importance of actual harm and sexual acts for determining child maltreatment. However, unlike Portwood’s sample of professionals, students in this sample distinguished between actual and potential physical harm and between actual and potential psychological harm, by rating the potential for harm as less important. Similar to Portwood’s study, frequency and severity also were rated as important for determining abuse and all other factors were rated as less important. Participants’ ratings of the maltreatment vignettes were also similar to ratings made by the professionals in Portwood’s (1999) study. Specifically, the most consistent and highest ratings were for clear cases of sexual acts (e.g., sexual intercourse with a child). However, there was more confusion about whether less overtly sexual acts (e.g., kissing a child on the lips) were maltreatment. Participants in this study rated incidents of physical abuse (e.g., beating a child with a stick) as maltreatment, but the average scores tended to be five out of seven, suggesting that these incidents are viewed as probably maltreatment, but not definitely maltreatment. Again, reflecting findings from Portwood (1999), students found it difficult to define incidents of neglect and psychological abuse as clear cases of maltreatment. With respect to reporting the incident described in the vignette, the findings indicated that participants would report an incident when they were more certain the act was abuse. Few students were willing to report an incident they did not personally define as abuse even though the act may be defined legally as maltreatment. Clear cases of sexual abuse received the largest percent of students indicating they would report that act as abuse. Not all acts with high ratings of dabuseT received high percentages of students indicating they would make a report. This suggests that there is a discrepancy between personal or research based definitions of maltreatment and legal definitions or standards for maltreatment. This mismatch or discrepancy may continue into their actual career and these future professionals may be reluctant to report because they are aware that their personal definitions of maltreatment do not match legal definitions. Others also have found that uncertainty about the indicators of abuse is associated with failure to report suspected abuse by mandated reporters (Kenny, 2002; King, Reece, Bendel, & Patel, 1998). The results of this study also demonstrated that decisions about factors important to determining maltreatment as well as the ratings of the maltreatment vignettes clearly differed by major/ discipline. With the exception of possibility of physical harm, subjects in this study were fairly consistent across groups in their ratings of importance for the first eight factors for determining maltreatment. However, group differences became apparent with respect to other factors such as age of perpetrator. Contrary to Portwood’s (1999) findings, there was no clear and consistent pattern in the source of these differences. However, both Child and Adolescent Development and Human Performance majors were more likely to take into account the perpetrators’ childhood experiences, whereas Administration of Justice and Teaching Credential students were more likely to take into account the perpetrators’ current experiences.

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As was the case with factors for determining maltreatment, academic major/discipline appears to be associated with subjects’ definitions of maltreatment. Again, and contrary to Portwood’s (1999) findings, there was no clear and consistent pattern in the source of these differences. However, Human Performance and Social Work majors tended to give the lowest ratings in the sexual abuse vignettes. In general, the mean scores indicate that students were more confident that an act was abuse when the act fell into an area that was likely to be covered in their course curricula. For example, Nursing students tended to rate health issues higher than other majors for neglect and Child and Adolescent Development students tended to rate incidents of psychological abuse higher than other majors. Thus, it appears that different majors/disciplines may be approaching the topic of maltreatment from diverse perspectives and emphasizing or de-emphasizing various factors in their discussion of the issue. For example, curriculum in Child and Adolescent Development and Human Performance emphasizes the effects of early experience on current functioning, whereas curriculum in Administration of Justice and Teaching Credential programs may focus more on current functioning and legal issues. There is some evidence that differences in training may be associated with different perspectives regarding maltreatment. Tirosh, Shechter, Cohen, and Jaffe (2003) reported that in a sample of Israeli physicians, family practitioners were more likely to view corporal punishment as maltreatment than were pediatricians. Further analysis of the data revealed that family physicians tended to be trained in Israel, whereas a significant percentage of the pediatricians in the sample had received their training in foreign institutes. These attitudes were strongly related to decisions to report suspected abuse. These findings also suggest that mandated reporters enter their professions with a set of preconceived beliefs and perceptions about maltreatment. For example, Delaronde et al. (2000) reported that support for an alternate mandated reporting policy varied by professional status, with social workers indicating greater support for an alternative mandated reporting policy than physicians or physicians assistants. Brigham and Spier (1992) found that defense attorneys differed from prosecuting attorneys, child protective service workers, and law enforcement personal with respect to their beliefs regarding children’s capacity to provide eyewitness testimony. Specifically, defense attorneys consistently rated children’s accuracy and memory lower, and suggestibility higher, than the other three groups. Brigham and Spier (1992) suggest that these views are related to their professional roles. The data from the present study revealed that age appears to have a strong influence on subjects’ ratings of factors that are important for determining maltreatment and students’ definitions of maltreatment incidents. Specifically, younger participants were less likely to rate factors involving frequency, perpetrator intention, child perception of the act or consent to the act, acceptability of the act, and perpetrator mental health, poverty, gender, education level or history of abuse as important factors than older participants. Younger participants were also less likely to rate examples of neglect, psychological abuse, parents touching infants’ genitals, mothers kissing their children on the lips, or threats of punishment as maltreatment compared to older participants. Older students in these majors are more likely to be currently employed, or previously employed, in jobs that bring them in potential contact with incidents of child maltreatment. Thus, it is possible that job-related experience with maltreatment impacts perceptions and beliefs about maltreatment. Portwood (1998) found that ratings of maltreatment differed by professional experience with maltreatment cases with respect to discussion of mitigating factors for determining maltreatment and ratings of ambiguous situations. Combined, these data imply that mandated reporters are gaining experiences while in training that impacts

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how they filter and process information about maltreatment that may affect their decisions to report suspected maltreatment. Although Portwood (1999) found consensus among professionals who serve as mandated reporters regarding definitions of abuse, there was less consistency in this sample of preprofessional students. Consistency was strongest for actual and potential harm to a child, the sexual nature of the act, and frequency. Moreover, students appear to be most confident in areas that are likely to be covered in the context of course work in their major or discipline. These results suggest the need for stronger curricula in these majors regarding maltreatment and that this curriculum needs a greater emphasis on interdisciplinary content, something also recommended by Aldridge (1992). Aldridge (1992) also emphasizes the need for intensive training, based on solid developmental theory, that is appropriate to their level of expertise. This would be congruent with the belief of Alvarez, Kenny, Donohue, and Carpin (2004) that training pre-professionals should involve providing the trainees with a broad knowledge base that has been incorporated throughout the curriculum, whereas training of professionals should focus on specific issues (e.g., legal definitions, symptoms) and be a part of continuing education. There is an argument that training programs should expand to provide pre-professionals with communication skills and ongoing opportunities to incorporate the material into actual practice. In the case of pre-professional training, this would suggest the need for practical experience through internships or service learning. These data also suggest that prior to obtaining their degrees and entering their professions, students in majors leading to careers that will require them to be mandated reporters would benefit from greater and earlier exposure to legal definitions of maltreatment and the specific criteria for mandated reporting. Alvarez et al. (2004) have made similar recommendations after reviewing the literature regarding training programs and failure to report suspected maltreatment. Additionally, these data suggest that course work and curriculum should be focused on helping students to distinguish between their own personal beliefs about what constitutes maltreatment and the legal definition of maltreatment. The focus also should be on less clear areas of maltreatment or the kinds of situations professionals are likely to encounter on a more frequent basis (e.g., is slapping a young child maltreatment and should it be reported), rather than on the areas where there is clear understanding and consensus (e.g., sexual intercourse with a child). Finally, students should be made, through course content and curricula, more familiar with the process of assessing and reporting maltreatment before becoming a mandated reporter to help insure that they will appropriately report suspected cases of maltreatment (Alvarez et al., 2004). Although the American Psychological Association Directorate and the Division of Child, Youth, and Family Services (1996) have created guidelines for course content at the undergraduate and graduate levels, it appears that graduate programs (and these are limited) are more likely than undergraduate programs to implement these guidelines in their curriculum (Alpert & Paulson 1990; Gallmeir & Bonner, 1992). The results of this study further confirm the need to incorporate information about maltreatment into professional training and education at the undergraduate and graduate student levels. References Aldridge, J. (1992). Further training of professionals dealing with child witnesses. In H. Dent, & R. Flin (Eds.), Children as witnesses (pp. 231 – 244). New York, NY7 John Wiley & Sons. Alpert, J., & Paulson, A. (1990). Graduate-level education and training in child sexual abuse. Professional Psychology, Research and Practices, 21, 169.

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