What do we know about domestication in eastern Asia?

Quaternary International xxx (2016) 1e8

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What do we know about domestication in eastern Asia? John Dodson a, *, Guanghui Dong b a

State Key Laboratory of Loess and Quaternary Geology, Institute of Earth Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710052, China Key Laboratory of Western China's Environmental Systems (Ministry of Education), College of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, 730000, China b

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Available online xxx

The body of data based on new work on genetics and DNA, plus a growing number of radiocarbon ages which are independent of dates based on cultural associations has broadened our knowledge of domestication in eastern Asia. Here we review the situation for several plant and animal species that were domesticated locally or imported to east Asia. Major centres of plant domestication in China have been in the Yellow and Yangtze river basins, and in Yunnan. For animals it appears that the Yellow River region, the area around Xi'an and the south-east have been important centres. Many adopted domesticates have entered China through the north-west and later through ports such as Canton (Guangzhou). It appears that while there are outliers to extended ranges of wild plants and animals, sometimes not securely dated, widespread deliberate movement of plants and animals outside their natural ranges coincided with reduced hunting and gathering around 5e4 kyr in the Longshan cultural period. The adoption of agriculture has resulted in large scale landscape transformation; forests and woodlands have been replaced by crop and grazing lands and this is evident in many late Holocene sedimentary records. This transformation continues and the patterns are changing as diets are shifting and much grain is now used to feed chicken and beef, and in addition this has placed increased pressure on water resources. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Plant domestication Animal domestication Patterns of domestication China East Asia

1. Introduction The purpose of this paper is to provide a starting point of the current general status of what is known about domestication and landscape transformation by humans across eastern Asia. The following provides analysis of new material which expands on previous reviews and aims to broaden our understanding of the topic. A key element in the development of modern societies was the domestication of plants and animals. This led to a shift of hunter-gatherer groups to settled communities. Hunter-gatherer groups were mobile, necessarily small bands and generally unable to accumulate large quantities of material goods. It can be argued that settled communities had crops and animals to tend which led to predictable and hence reliable food supplies and land ownership. Also shorter breeding cycles meant that population growth was more rapid and a greater diversification of tasks was possible. The latter most likely fostered greater complexity of cultural, religious and political systems, and more rapid technological advancements. Indeed the makings of many modern societies was

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Dodson).

rooted in the development of domestication and agricultural systems. The development of domestication apparently began in several distinct places, and the Levant and Eastern Asia were amongst the earliest of these. Diamond (2002) asked why this occurred so late in the history of modern humans. Of course we don't know the answer to this but it may have been related to the onset of milder and more steady climates as the Holocene period opened a little over 10,000 years ago (Richerson et al., 2001). Presumably under more stable climate exploitable species ranges and the living environment for humans became predictable over many generations. The early phases of domestication were based on local species, and hence differed in detail from place to place. A few widespread species, such as pigs (Sus sp.) may have been independently domesticated in several centres. When more extensive trading and technological exchanges were developed useful domesticates and technologies were transported to new areas. The process of domestication is generally one where selection of species characteristics is made on the basis of their usefulness to humans. This results in a simplification of the gene pool in the domesticated species. A simplified gene pool makes for a more

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vulnerable population, and as agricultural societies often rely on fewer species compared to hunter gatherers it is important that the largest possible gene pool is preserved as insurance against loss of a domesticate. The process of domestication is continuing and indeed has speeded up through application of new gene technology. There have been several excellent reviews on domestication over the last few decades (e.g. Crawford, 1992; Zohary and Hopf, 2000; Gupta, 2004; Ucko and Dimbelby, 2007; Larson et al., 2014) which have established the broad patterns we continue to recognise today. In the last few year's greater availability of evidence from archaeological excavations and a gradual shift from dating by archaeological context to more objective AMS radiocarbon analyses on seeds, residues and bones has provided new and more refined insights into data. In addition there has been a rapid expansion of genetic data and the application of stable isotopes which has greatly broadened our understanding for several key species; and bringing all this together it is now possible to offer more refined discussions on the impacts of domestication on people, cultures, landscapes and ecosystems. In this paper focus is on eastern Asia, where the evidence often predates modern states such as China. A summary account of selected early domesticated plants and animals is given here and some of the mid to late Holocene imports of domesticates into and from eastern Asia is presented. The gaps in knowledge remain large; however it is clear that bridging these will help define the challenges of sustainability for the well-being of societies today. 2. Environmental background The late Pleistocene environment of eastern Asia was like most parts of the temperate world emerging from the Last Glacial Maximum. Temperate areas were several degrees cooler than today, with stronger seasonality, and a punctuation of high magnitude events known variously as Heinrich Events with the youngest of these known as the Younger Dryas. These probably originated from events in the North Atlantic and lasted decades to centuries and their scales were such that major redistributions of biomes and species ranges occurred. In the tropics the scale of change was dampened but lower sea levels greatly increased land area in some places and while temperatures were only a little milder the redistribution of continentality and monsoon driven rainfall was great in some regions (see for example An, 2000 and An et al., 2000). In contrast, globally, Holocene climate variability was subdued compared to the late Pleistocene. With small but sometimes significant differences the distribution of biomes settled into their present configuration by the early Holocene (see for example Zhao et al., 2009). That is, until human impacts of various kinds led to the next major changes in species distributions. 3. Plant domestications in China 3.1. Millets Two main species of millet are cultivated in China: Panicum miliaceum (common or broom corn millet) and Setaria italic ssp. italic (foxtail millet). These are indigenous to northern China and thus their cultivation is thought to have originated there. The timing of domestication and routes of dispersal are unknown (Lu et al., 2009) but the earliest claimed site, which remains contentious, is at Cishan in northern China (CPAM Hebei Province, 1981, and confirmed by Lu et al., 2009) where husk phytoliths and hydrocarbons and ethers from common millet have been found in material from grain storage pits. The dates from charcoals in these are between ca. 10,300 and ca 8700 cal yr BP, but these do not relate

directly to millet. A small amount of foxtail millet appears after this time. Sites further west in Gansu (Gansu, 2006) and in Liaoning (Barton et al., 2009) have dates around 7500e8000 cal yr BP. It is clear that more precise and targeted dates from more locations are needed to lock in the age and place of domestication. Zhao (2011) quotes unpublished dates on millet seed from Xinglonggou (Inner Mongolia) at 7670e7610 cal BP. These are secure ages, the site is regarded as a millet farming site where the society was in transition from hunter-gathering to agriculture. It is the most reliable early millet site for China at present. Common millet can tolerate poorer soils and drought, and the drier climates in the early Holocene (e.g. Feng et al., 2006a,b) may have been crucial in the adoption of common millet before foxtail millet. Millet may have been introduced into Korea at about 8000 cal BP and is associated with the Middle Jeulmun pottery period (Crawford and Lee, 2003). It is not indigenous to Japan and its spread there was probably as a cultigen (Crawford, 1992). Millets are C4 plants and where they are the main foods of humans and animals the 13C values of animal protein provide evidence of this. The v13C values can thus provide a direct link between humans and the use of millets in the food chain. 3.2. Rice Oryza is a genus of about 24 species in Africa, Asia, Southeast Asia, New Guinea and Australia. Most grow as tall wetland grasses. Oryza glaberrima is from Africa and was cultivated from about 2 to 3000 years ago (Linares, 2002). Several rice species are indigenous to China and about five distinct groups occur in O. sativa (Garris et al., 2005). The earliest dated rice grains at about 12,000 years ago come from Hunan Province (Zhang and Jiarong, 1998) but there is uncertainty over whether these were in fact domestic rice. Many argue that rice was first domesticated in the mid to lower Yangtze, and the earliest known archaeological evidence tends to support this (see Gross and Zhao, 2014). Rice remains have been found in many early Neolithic sites including Shangshan and Xiaohuangshan with ages of 11,400e9600 cal yr BP and the Pengtoushan site with ages of 9500e8100 cal yr BP (Wang et al., 2010; Zhao, 2010). A key site is at Hemudu near Ningbo where storage pits containing rice dated at around 7000e5000 cal year BP is present. Huang et al. (2012) examined a large set of genome sequences from a large geographical spread of O. rufipogon plants and concluded that all domesticated rice came from one wild species found in the Pearl River basin of Guangdong. Clearly this is a key area to look for archaeological evidence that might be associated with that occurrence. Rice has several distinctive phytoliths and these, along with rice seeds, have been identified in many cases. Rice occurs in north China from the early Holocene in places where it would not grow naturally. It is also known from Gansu in the mid to early Holocene (Li et al., 2007a,b). This suggests it was quickly adopted as a major crop. By the mid-Holocene climate in some of those areas led to dryness and the unsuitability of rice for many Neolithic centres and its use was lessened or discontinued. Its cultivation spread to southeast China, southern Asia, Japan and Korea over the next several millennia (Gross and Zhao, 2014). Rice in the Ganges Delta area could have been harvested without domestication in the late Pleistocene (Fuller, 2011) and become domesticated on the Ganges Plains and could thus have been an independent centre of domestication (Saxena et al., 2006). 3.3. Buckwheat Fagopyrum esculentum ssp. ancestrale is regarded as the ancestor of cultivated buckwheat in Asia. Ohnishi (1998) suggested the use as a crop began around 6000 years ago. Since the main ancestors

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are found in Yunnan this may have been the area of original domestication. Fagopyrum seeds are recorded perhaps as early as 6000 yr BP in Japan in the Jomon Culture of Hokkaido (Crawford et al., 1976), although Fagopyrum is not native to the region (see Iwata et al., 2005). Strong evidence for its cultivation in China at 5400 cal yr BP comes from the Western Liaohe River Basin in Inner Mongolia where pollen, charcoal and evidence of clearing and associated weeds occur (Li et al., 2007a,b). At this site buckwheat cultivation around 4500 and 1000 cal yr BP, based on all these proxies, is particularly evident. The earliest charred seeds of buckwheat were unearthed at the Dingjiawa site of the Spring and Autumn Period (770e476 BC) in Beijing, China (Zhao, 2008).

3.7. Peaches

3.4. Soy bean

Pyrus communis occurs from temperate China to Asia Minor and Western Asia. Silva et al. (2014) hypothesise that the pear was probably domesticated in two regions: China and the Caucasus Mountains, but with a possible third region in Central Asia (Vavilov, 1992, quoted in Silva et al., 2014). The details are difficult to unravel because of the many hybrids, most especially in eastern Asia where species diversity is concentrated (Silva et al., 2014). Cultivation of pears began over 2500 years ago and there are historical records of its use in China extending from at least 1500 years ago (Shen, 1980). China remains the centre of production of pears in both quantity and area under cultivation (FAO, 2013).

It is commonly assumed that soybeans (Glycine max) were first cultivated in China, but the ancestor species (Glycine soja) is widespread across northern China, adjacent Russia and the Korean Peninsula and Japan. It receives much mention in China in Zhou Dynasty times (about 3000 years ago) and recent archaeological research (Lee et al., 2011) places soy bean use perhaps as far back as 5500 years ago in all of northern China, Korea and Japan. The genetics has G. soja/G. max as a complex, with the ancestor species having a much greater degree of genotypic diversity (Li et al., 2010a,b; Kim et al., 2012; Chung et al. 2014). An analysis of genetic diversity of domestic soybean across China is consistent with an origin of domestication along the Yellow River (Li et al., 2010a,b). Clearly more research is needed to identify the origin and key steps in the spread of domesticated soybean. Recent work suggests humans have utilized wild soybeans since 9000 BP in north China, and soybean was domesticated before the main Zhou periods (1046e221 BC) (Wu et al., 2013). 3.5. Tea Camellia sinensis is a native of east, south and south east Asia, use as tea possibly began in Yunnan Province and legend has it that its use started as a medicinal drink, possibly in the Shang Dynasty around 2700 BC (Lu Yu in Yang, 2007; Lu et al., 2016). It was at the time of the Sui Dynasty (581e617 AD) that tea became more widely used as a popular beverage and this evolved into an art form in the Tang Dynasty (618e907 AD). Tea has been found in Shaanxi and Tibet with an age of about 2100 BC (Lu et al., 2016). It was after 790 AD that tea was introduced into Japan where drinking it also became an art form. The tea plant is also native to Assam and may have been used as early as 750 BC but the details of this are apparently lost in history. The Indian tea industry began in earnest after the British brought in Chinese varieties in the early 19th Century (Bennett and Bealer, 2001). 3.6. Citrus The wild progenitor species and hybrids of domesticated citrus are controversial (Wu et al., 2014). Cultivated citrus fruits have a narrow genetic diversity, and the range of edible types probably began several thousand years ago from South East Asia (Wu et al., 2014). Gmitter and Hu (1990) thought the original domesticate was from a hybrid of Citrus reticulata and C. maxima from Yunnan in southern China. A presumed wild mandarin from Mangshan in China is distinct from both these species, and from pummelos, oranges and mandarins and this likely invalidates the earlier conclusion it is a progenitor of mandarins (Xu et al., 2013; Wu et al., 2014). The origin of cultivated pummelos, mandarins and oranges seems to be from a complex and so far unravelled admixture.

Peaches were likely first domesticated from wild Prunus persica. The oldest known remains from an archaeological context come from Zhejiang Province in China. These date to around 8000 BP, and earliest peach stones have been recovered along the lower Yangtze River (Zheng et al., 2014). Zheng et al. (2014) also noted that the early peach stones seem to have two population types, and stones similar to modern cultivated forms are found in context with the Liangzhou culture with an associated age of 5300e4300 BP. 3.8. Pears

4. Animal domestication 4.1. Dogs Dogs may have been the first domesticated animals, and DNA analysis suggests that the ancestor was the European grey wolf which shares 99.9% of its DNA with domestic dogs (Thalmann et al., 2013). In 1977 a puppy from a grave in Israel caused great interest when an age of about 12,000 years was published (see CluttonBrock, 1995). Later dog remains of about 16,000 years ago were reported from Russia and Germany (Larson et al., 2012; Grimm, 2015). An age of 32,000 years on a skull from Belgium was also published (Germonpre et al., 2009) and there is speculation about whether this was a dog or from an unusual wolf skull (Morey, 2014; Germonpre et al., 2015). The story became more complex when DNA analyses found that the greatest genetic diversity occurred in dogs south of the Yangtze in China (Savolainen et al., 2002; Shannon et al., 2015). This date is at odds with an ancestor probably coming from Europe. So it is an open question on when and where dogs were first domesticated from wolves. The process is also controversial. Some argue it was a rapid process as wolves scavenged carcasses around camp sites. Others argue it was a drawn out process with dogs and humans going from a commensal relationship to full domesticity through selective breeding, thus allowing for an early stage of selfdependence and domestication by dogs. Recently Nagasawa et al. (2015) have shown that dogs and humans are able to stimulate the hormone oxytocin-gaz in each other. Domestic dogs are the only animals known to have this relationship with humans, and this may be a key factor in their mutual trusting relationship. 4.2. Cats The place and time for the origin of domestic cats are also open questions, but the timing is certainly later than for dogs as the evidence cited below demonstrates. It can be argued that the full domestication process is incomplete because of the generally aloof nature of cats, and perhaps humans were domesticated by cats! The genetic evidence is insufficient to come to clear conclusions but

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that which is available points to the ancestor being Felix sylvestris, the near eastern wild cat (Vigne et al., 2011). The earliest independent evidence comes from dates on two cat jaw bones from Quanhucun in Shaanxi Province of China. These cats are outside the known natural range of Felix sylvestris. This opens the question of whether the cats were present in a village setting in a purely commensal way or whether they had been imported as already domesticated from further west. The cat bones at Quanhucun were dated between 5560 and 5280 years and the stable isotope analysis suggests the diet was underpinned by millet (Hu et al., 2014). The argument goes that cats were attracted by rodents that were living in millet storage areas, and hence both farmers and cats would have enjoyed mutual benefit from this. Isotope differences between rats and cat samples (Bar-Oz et al., 2014) can possibly be explained by cats having a diet which included fish, reptiles, insects and birds, and this is broader than for rodents (Hu et al., 2014). The Quanhucun evidence is thus the oldest currently know and is at least a commensal one and possibly a domestic one that was established over 5000 years ago. 4.3. Pigs Much conjecture surrounds the origins of domestication of pigs. Archaeological evidence shows that domestic pigs might be traced back to 9000 B.P. in Jiahu site of north China (IA, CASS, 2010), and were present in both northern and southern China by 8000 B.P. (Yuan and Flad, 2002; Luo and Zhang, 2008). It is not known if domestication took place independently in the two regions. Mitochondrial DNA in wild boars and domestic pigs suggest there were multiple domestication events (Tanaka et al., 2008) in the Mekong and at Bhutan-Myanmar-Vietnam area. Larson et al. (2010) interpret a moderately large data base and infer that there was independent domestication in India, peninsula South-east Asia and from a small island SE of Taiwan (Wu et al., 2007). The latter interpretations so far have no corroborating archaeological evidence. Current views have domestication of pigs after sedentary or seasonally mobile societies practicing millet cultivation in China. Krause-Kyore et al. (2013) have reported on domesticated or possibly domesticated pigs by hunter-gatherer societies in northern Germany at about 5000 cal BP. They possibly obtained domestic pigs from Neolithic farmers while they continued to hunt wild boar. Frantz et al. (2015) show that there has been considerable gene flow between wild boars and domestic pigs across Eurasia and this has ramifications for understanding the process of domestication, at least for pigs. 4.4. Chickens Recent work suggests that the domestic chicken originated from the red jungle fowl (Gallus gallus gallus) and the grey jungle fowl (Gallus sonneratii). Chickens were one of the earliest domesticated poultry species with the oldest bones in the archaeological setting coming from Nanzhuangtou in Hebei Province of Northern China. This region is not currently suited to either of these species as it is semi-arid lightly shrubby grassland. The area however was more humid and forested in the early Holocene (Li et al., 2010a,b). Farming was probably well established in the region at 8000 cal BP. There is evidence of millet cultivation, domestic dog and pottery dating to about 10,000 cal BP (Yang et al., 2012) also at the site. Mitochondrial DNA sequences from 39 presumed chicken bones indicate that chicken domestication may have been as early as 10,000 in the region (Xiang et al., 2014). Peters et al. (2015) questioned this conclusion on several grounds. Other DNA databases suggest that chickens were domesticated several times in different parts of Asia including South Asia, and Southwest and Southeast

Asia. The timing and origin of these will only come from certainly identified chicken bones in archaeological context. According to zooarchaeological analysis, domesticated chickens were definitely present in the Shang Dynasty site of Yinsu in Henan Province of north China around 3300 B.P. (Yuan, 2015). 4.5. Silk worms Silkworms are native to north China. They are larvae of the moth Bombyx mori and feed exclusively on Morus alba, which is also endemic to China. It was probably first used for making cloth in the Longshan period (2600e2000 BC). Early fragments are known from tombs. The oldest date comes from a cocoon and has an age of 2600e2300 BC (Kuhn, 1982). Genetic studies suggest silkworms were domesticated around 2100 BC (Sun et al., 2012), and this corresponds well with the archaeological evidence. The raw fabric was created in China and exported along the Silk Road to Syria, Palestine and Egypt by the second century AD, and Persia from the 4th Century AD. Production methods along with larvae were apparently smuggled by Nestorian monks to Byzantine about 550 AD (Norwich, 1988). 4.6. Buffalo Recent genetic analysis has modern domesticated buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) originating in one of Asia's south, southeast or China (Yan et al., 2008). Bone samples from the Wei River region near Xi'an in Shaanxi province yielded good DNA sequences from samples dated between 8000 and 3600 BP (Yang et al., 2008). This data shows the ancient samples were not direct descendants from modern domesticated water buffalo but never-the-less were more closely related to these than other bovid species. While not proven modern buffalo were descended from an extinct indigenous water buffalo (probably B. mephitopheles) and thus suggests water buffalo were not first domesticated in China (see Liu et al., 2004). 5. Introduced domesticates 5.1. Wheat, barley Barley and wheat were first domesticated after the Younger Dryas in western Asia (Haldorsen et al., 2011), and are now known from charred remains from Kazakhstan from about 2800e2300 BC (Spengler et al., 2014). The oldest dates in China are from Shandong, charred wheat seeds were directly dated to 2500 BC in Zhaojiazhuang site of Longshan culture (Jin et al., 2011). By 1700 BC remains become more widespread in China (e.g. Flad et al., 2010; Dodson et al., 2013). The route to China was over some high Central Asian mountain passes on a route similar to variations of the later Silk Road. While the above dates are consistent with a journey into China via Mongolia more work with earlier dates may reveal other routes into China (Barton and An, 2014; Betts et al., 2014). The first wheat was introduced into areas where millet was cultivated, and the proportion of wheat to millet was low for several centuries. Barley may have just predated wheat in China (Li et al., 2007a,b) and is more productive than wheat or millet at high elevations where the growing season is shorter. Barley was probably the key crop that made settlement of the high plateau environments of Tibet, Qinghai and Xinjiang possible (Chen et al., 2015), and it is widely planted there today. 5.2. Maize, potatoes The earliest known domesticated maize (and squash) is known from Mexico (Piperno et al., 2009; Ranere et al., 2009), and this is

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about 9000 cal BP. It was transported to the rest of the world after the first or second Columbus voyages. A case has been made for pre-Columbian maize in China a little before this (Uchibayashi, 2005) but the route to introduction is unclear. Zea mays was domesticated from Z. mays spp. parviglumis and today these differ greatly. Maize is a very important crop in China and now outstrips rice production (Hu and Zimmer, 2013). In the 1940s the majority was used as food for humans but now the vast majority is used to feed pigs, chickens and cows, plus some industrial uses, and while farmed areas and production rates have increased China is a net importer of maize (Hu and Zimmer, 2013). Potatoes came late to China but are included here as China produces about 25% of the world annual potato crop and now obtains more nutrition from them than rice. Potatoes originated in South America but they do not preserve well in archaeological settings. A date of about 2500 BC has been obtained from Peru (Urgent et al., 1982) and it is assumed they were cultivated much earlier than this (Harris and Hillman, 2014). Spooner et al. (2005) suggest that there was a single point of domestication. Potatoes were probably introduced into China by Portuguese traders in the 17th Century. 5.3. Sheep, cattle, horses While horses are known from Palaeolithic art from about 30,000 years ago these are probably depictions of hunted animals. The first horses were probably domesticated somewhere between the Urals and Kazakhstan, about 6000 years ago (Anthony, 2007; Warmuth et al., 2012). There may have been several domestications and a case can be made for the Iberian Peninsula and northern Africa (Luis et al., 2006). The overall case for domestication is based on evidence of bitting, changes in sex ratios of horse remains and the appearance of horses in graves with humans (Anthony, 2007). The domestication of horses marked a pivotal time for human societies. This was a time when workloads for agriculture, transportation and warfare changed (Norwich, 1988). Competitive societies of the times needed to adopt domesticated horses relatively quickly. Horses appeared in great numbers for the first time around 3000 BP in Shang Dynasty sites (Cai et al., 2009) and this suggests they arrived as already domesticated. Mitochondrial DNA analyses on 35 samples from northern China suggest the ancestor of domesticated Chinese horses came from Mongolia (Cai et al., 2009). The domestication of cattle probably first occurred in the Fertile Crescent about 10,500 years ago (Clutton-Brock, 1999; AjmoneMarsan et al., 2010) but may have taken place on 2e3 separate occasions (McTavish et al., 2013). Domesticated cattle in China appear to be present by about 3000e2000 BC (Yuan, 2015) and mtDNA analysis indicates these originated from taurine cattle. Zhang et al. (2013) have recently made a case for early Holocene domestication of cattle at about 10,500 years ago in northeastern China, This case rests principally on a radiocarbon date and wear analysis on teeth in a jawbone from Heilongjiang Province. Sheep are thought to have been domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region of Western Asia at about 10,500 years ago (e.g. Peters et al., 2005; Zeder, 2008), and arrived in East Asia a few millennia later. They were initially treated as valuable sources of meat, milk and milk products, and the hides were useful for leather. It was probably several thousand years later that selective breeding added fibre as an additional product. The earliest claimed domesticated sheep in China are based on archaeological associations with ages between 5 and 7000 years from Banpo village near Xi'an (Li and Han, 1959), Baoji (Zhou, 1983), Shizhaocun (Zhou, 1999) and Hetaozhuang (Sang, 1979). Yuan (2015) believed sheep were first widespread across GansuQinghai somewhere between 5600 and 5000 BP, and on the

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central Plains of China by 4500e4000 BP. These data suggest domesticated sheep come to China in the Neolithic and became widespread during the Bronze Age when societies became sedentary. Radiocarbon dates directly on sheep bone from northern Shaanxi Province have ages of 5700 BP (3700 cal yr BCE), and these are the oldest known from eastern Asia (Dodson et al., 2014). 5.4. Carp Carp is probably the earliest domesticated fish (Balon, 2004). As a group they have probably been used for food for thousands of years. Cyprinus carpio came from ancesters found in the Black, Caspian and Aral seas. They became common in the Danube and were kept by Romans over 2000 years ago (Balon, 1995). From there they were exported to most continents and indeed are a major environmental pest in many regions. They were cultivated in China from about 960 AD into goldfish forms. The most expensive forms, koi, were developed in Japan. Recent work suggests the Japanese fish may have originated in China (Mabuchi and Song, 2014). 6. Impact of domestication Domestication was a key process that enabled many societies to move from a hunter-gather lifestyle to a more settled one. The early phases of this were probably a combination of gathering productive wild foods and selecting off-spring for improved qualities for replanting and breeding of animals for human utility. The investment in these activities led to ownership of outcomes and settled societies would have had a desire to care for the outcomes. Managed areas may have gradually led to land ownership. The first settled societies were now in place and they were rewarded by having more reliable food resources. Diamond (2002) suggested that the biogeographic luck of peoples living where domesticates developed gave them great advantage over others, followed by population expansion; and this may well account for the spread of a relatively few language groups across much of the world; as well as the genes of the same people (see also Bellwood, 2005). The earliest evidence of many domesticates seems to be close to their natural occurrence. While there are outliers of movement of crops and animals in early Holocene times, as outlined in the cases described above, it appears that it is not until the Longshan cultural expansion do we see many domesticated plants and animals significantly beyond their natural ranges. The Longshan people developed a wide range of pottery types, seed grinding technology and farming implements, generally after 4e5000 years ago (Sun, 2013; Zhao, 2013). Selection of crop and domestic animal offspring for improving outcomes for societies required some insight, and the expanding lands they occupied fostered innovation in how to manage these areas. Development and evolution of metal technologies was a key process in allowing further expansion of agriculture. Large settlements would have led to some stratification of societies and diversification of human occupations into innovators, rapid evolution of cultural activities and politics. However, the process of domestication is ongoing. It is now bolstered by gene technology which enables selection for disease resistance and coping with factors such as salinity and ever greater productivity. In some cases this raises ethical issues. While the history of agriculture is a key part of the history of mankind it is accompanied by several significant side stories. The expansion of agricultural land takes place at the expense of natural systems, and the species that depend on them (e.g. Lyons et al., 2016). Many sedimentary records from China reveal a series of changes which include loss of tree cover and conversion to grassland and cropland (e.g. Dodson et al., 2006; Feng et al., 2006a,b), increased rates of sedimentation as erosion follows (e.g. Zhou et al.,

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2002) and these are often accompanied by episodes of fire as woody vegetation is burned (e.g. Dodson et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2007; Xue and Li, 2010) to make way for cropland. The timing of these varied from place to place as agriculture developed and spread, and this alone is evidence that many of these changes are not driven by regional climate change. The scale of the changes in China is extensive, to the point that few pristine areas remain. Ecosystem services have been greatly degraded. This is a serious concern and now national priorities have turned to questions of land rehabilitation for sustainability, and China has many programs for greening cities and agricultural production areas. Changing dietary preferences are bringing new pressures on China's landscape. There has been a shift toward beef and chicken consumption in recent times and this is accelerating. This has led to diversion of some grain from human consumption to animal consumption. For maize less than 40% is used for human consumption in China and the rest for products and animal feed. Local production is insufficient to meet these demands, despite more land going into maize production, and China is a net importer of maize (Hu and Zimmer, 2013). Beef also requires more land and water than pork production, and this places increasing demands on natural resources. Changing diets thus come with land-use and water-use consequences. There have been implications of domestication on human health. Larger groups of humans make contagious disease likely to spread and thus mortality rates rise (e.g. Bentley et al., 1993 suggested mortality rates went up from 0.01 to about 0.10 per cent in early agricultural societies). It is now documented in some cases and suspected in others that huge mortality has occurred with viruses jumping species such as from chickens to humans (e.g. Peiris et al., 2007). Agriculturally-based societies had a more reliable source of food but they generally ate a narrower range of food than hunter/gatherer societies. In mid-Holocene settlements in northern and western China stable isotope measurements show a large dependence of humans on millet, and on some animal products that were fed on millet (Barton et al., 2009). Close domesticates including dogs and pigs, and the rats that lived with them also show millet at the heart of their food chains. Proximal herds such as sheep and cattle consumed some millet but included a wide range of wild plants obtained on the periphery of settlements, wild animals such as deer had little millet in their diet. While stable isotopes have opened the window on diets of humans in northern China not much is known about other impacts on human health from agricultural and settled life styles. A hint of this comes from analysis of two female skeletons found at Huoshiliang in Gansu Province (Dodson et al., 2012). These women were 35e45 years old and were members of a bronze age agricultural settlement, growing mainly millet and with some domesticated animals such as sheep, dogs and pigs. The skulls showed advanced tooth and jaw disease, and the bone had evidence of iron and zinc deficiency, presumably from eating a mainly vegetarian diet. Ion beam analysis confirmed the low Fe and Zn content and also revealed elevated As and Cu, the latter probably due to involvement in smelting bronze, although it is not impossible to rule out its presence in local groundwater. A sample of two is very small and forensic analysis of larger population size samples may help understand how degenerative disease patterns may have become more pronounced in settled societies than for huntergatherer societies. 7. Conclusion Eastern Asia was one of the main centres of domestication of many plant and animal species. It has also imported many species

from elsewhere and in return exported some of the most important crops and fruit to other parts of the world. While the framework for these changes is understood much detail awaits further research. Domestication is a work in progress and modern genetic tools promise a greatly quickening pace in engineering this. Degradation of environmental systems due to agriculture is evident in most parts of China. Changing dietary preferences and the way modern agriculture is practiced will result in many new and expanding impacts being placed on environmental systems.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for the thoughtful comments of two reviewers.

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Please cite this article in press as: Dodson, J., Dong, G., What do we know about domestication in eastern Asia?, Quaternary International (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.04.005