What Should We Expect from Congruence?

Journal of Vocational Behavior 55, 136 –146 (1999) Article ID jvbe.1999.1703, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on

What Should We Expect from Congruence? Judy Chartrand Consulting Psychologists Press

and W. Bruce Walsh The Ohio State University Assertions about congruence in Holland’s (1997) theory of careers have been extensively tested, but they have not been tested well. Most tests are flawed because they are cross-sectional, use samples in which most persons have migrated to congruent environments, classify the environment in casual ways, fail to focus on congruence with relevant aspects of the work environment, or have not used accurate assessments of the environment. Because congruence continues to play a central role not only in Holland’s theory, but in other theories of person– environment interaction, it is important that congruence research be improved. © 1999 Academic Press

John Holland’s assertion that satisfaction, stability and achievement depend on the congruence between one’s personality and the environment in which one works has been studied extensively, perhaps more extensively that any other assertion within vocational psychology. The specific proposition that has attracted the most attention has been the congruence-satisfaction hypothesis. Both researchers and counselors alike have sought to relate interest congruence to academic or work satisfaction. The research in this area has yielded mixed results, however. Spokane (1985) reviewed the research in the mid-1980s and coined the term the “magic .30” as the typical correlations between congruence and satisfaction. Recent studies, several of which involved meta-analyses, reported results that raise questions about whether Holland’s congruence concept is indeed related to satisfaction as he theorizes (Assouline & Meir, 1987; Tranberg, Slane, & Ekberg, 1993; Young, Tokar, & Subich, 1998, p.218). Although these research studies have merit and deserve careful attention, they belie the conceptual issues that complicate the seemingly simple concept of matching a person and an environment. Address reprint requests to W. Bruce Walsh, 1885 Neil Avenue, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210. 136 0001-8791/99 $30.00 Copyright © 1999 by Academic Press All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.

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The integrative, multimethod, and meta-analytic studies of the congruencesatisfaction hypothesis have helped quantify and synthesize the current state of research. Spokane (1985) conducted the first comprehensive review of the personality congruence hypothesis and the results lead him to conclude that the typical correlation between congruence and satisfaction is .30. In 1987, Assouline and Meir (1987) conducted a meta-analysis of 41 studies, of which 21 tested the congruence-satisfaction hypothesis. They noted that the strength of the relation varied depending on the way congruence was measured. However, their overall conclusion was that the congruence-satisfaction relationship was weak (mean r 5 .21). Tranberg et al.’s (1993) meta analysis extended Assouline and Meir’s work by including only published studies and more recent studies. Tranberg et al. also examined potential moderators of the congruence-satisfaction relation. Specifically, they examined Holland category as a possible moderator variable. Overall, the results of this meta-analysis failed to identify significant congruence-satisfaction relations (mean r 5 .17). However, Tranberg et al. did note differences across Holland category, with Social types yielding the highest congruence-satisfaction relations at .33 (mean correlation). Holland (1997) had some interesting and informative reactions to the metaanalyses reported above. One interpretation he suggested is that any metaanalysis is ambiguous. Another more informative interpretation is that with one exception, the cited studies above in which a correlation was possible are all positive. This suggests support for the congruence hypothesis. In addition, Holland (1997) suggested that the Tranberg et al. (1993) meta-analysis also reveals some of the weaknesses that plague such reviews if good studies are given no more weight than weak ones. Tranberg et al. (1993) attempted to address this problem by paying close attention to measurement issues, but as noted by Holland (1997) they neglected the quality of study design and sampling. Recent studies have produced mixed findings on congruence and satisfaction (e.g., Young, Tokar & Subich, 1998). However, before we conclude that the congruence-satisfaction relation is in doubt, we should revisit several conceptual and methodological issues. Though congruence meta-analytic and congruence measurement research has been informative, these lines of research have not addressed conceptual shortcomings within individual studies. In this respect, the meta-research may have compounded the effects of conceptually limited original studies. In the next section we discuss conceptual and methodological problems that have plagued congruence research. CONCEPTUAL ISSUES: ASKING MEANINGFUL QUESTIONS Multiple Forms of Evidence Research on congruence has typically taken the same form. Measure people, obtain an estimate of the environment’s classification, calculate congruence, and relate it to the level of job satisfaction or some other outcome variable. However, this approach may be susceptible to selection bias and restriction of range, thus

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leading to artificially low correlation estimates. Research from other areas of interest measurement suggest that it is important to examine multiple forms of evidence before drawing conclusions. For example, Donnay and Borgen (1996) used nonoccupational scales of the Strong Interest Inventory (see Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994) to differentiate people in 50 different occupations. The sample included over 18,000 people who had been on the job for at least 3 years and reported being satisfied with the job. They used General Occupational Themes (GOT) and Basic Interest Scales (BIS), both of which are categorized according to Holland’s themes, and Personal Style (PSS) to predict specific occupational membership. Essentially, the theory that “birds of a feather flock together” was clearly confirmed, and in this case, all of the “birds” were reporting job satisfaction. In fact, 62% of the women and 59% of the men in the sample reported being “very satisfied” with their job. Therefore, it may be that most samples have a restricted range on congruence, attenuating congruence– satisfaction correlations. Although the Donnay and Borgen (1996) study did not directly test the congruence-satisfaction hypothesis, it does suggest that people who are satisfied in their job can be differentiated according to their interest scores. Congruence appears to be a powerful concept in this study of 18,000 people. This type of research, which was undertaken with a different purpose in mind, suggests that it may be necessary to develop different research designs or ask different questions in the quest to study congruence-satisfaction and congruence-tenure relations. One Point in Time Studies of congruence typically implement a point-in-time view of congruence. Although researchers rarely identify the paradigm within which they operate, it is safe to classify most congruence research as emanating from a person– environment fit perspective. The basic approach is to identify and describe the person and the environment and study their independent and interactive effects (Chartrand, Strong & Weizman, 1995). The research is crosssectional, conducted at one point in time. But Holland’s theory clearly states that people seek out congruent environments and that environments attract and retain congruent people. Both of these assumptions imply a process, not a static end point. Basically, these assumptions require research designs that run across time. Unfortunately, to our knowledge, very few studies have empirically pursued the congruence-satisfaction hypothesis from this perspective. Determining the Slice of the Pie Job satisfaction and tenure are dependent on many different factors that extend beyond interest congruence. Values congruence certainly enters in to the equation (e.g., Rounds, Dawis, & Lofquist, 1987) as do other life factors (e.g., Fitzgerald & Betz, 1994). A global question of job satisfaction, such as “In general, how satisfied are you with your job,” extends well beyond what interest

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congruence purports to address, and this creates a conceptual problem. The level of specificity in the predictor and the criterion variables simply do not match. It would be more consistent to define the aspects of job satisfaction that should indeed be predicted by interest congruence. For example, “How much do you enjoy the tasks and activities of your job?” We should define which slice or slices of the pie interest congruence is suppose to predict. In research terms, we need to do a better job of defining constructs and making more rigorous predictions. METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES: ACCURATE MEASUREMENT With respect to congruence research, major issues continue to revolve around ways of measuring people’s interest, the environment, and congruence itself. A detailed discussion of epistemic and empirical issues associated with congruence research has been presented elsewhere (Chartrand et al., 1995), so we will only summarize a few key points. People Are the Strength It would be inaccurate to say that all interest inventories are equivalent in their ability to represent structural hypotheses or in their ability to predict job satisfaction (Rounds & Tracey, 1993; Rounds, 1998). However, the measurement quality of major interest inventories is such that we can be reasonably certain the we have obtained a good estimate of the person side of the equation. Extensive reliability and validity information on major interest instruments allows researchers to quantify error estimates. Thus, when we step back and view the nomological network within which interest congruence is embedded, interest measurement is not the weak link. In fact, in our opinion, this is the strongest aspect of the network. Grasping the Environment Accurately measuring the environment has been far more elusive than accurately measuring people, which is somewhat ironic. The method of measuring the environment does have an impact on the congruence-satisfaction relation. For example, Assouline and Meir (1987) found that when individual personality types were compared to modal personality type in an environment (Holland’s notion that people are the environment) the mean congruence correlation was .29. When a rationally derived method of classifying occupations was used the mean correlation was .21. Recent work by Lent and Lopez (1996) highlights the importance of occupational coding. They coded the work environment according to the out-of-date first edition of the Dictionary of Holland occupational codes (DHOC; Gottfredson, Holland, & Ogawa, 1982) and the modal type in the environment at two different work sites. They also used three different methods of calculating congruence. Their results indicated that the way the job is coded influences the calculation of congruence. For example, nursing positions at one site had to be determined by setting (staff nurse) rather than by specialty (psychiatry, emergency, surgery).

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Further, the DHOC assignment of Social and Enterprising for most nursing occupations was not consistent with the modal type within the environment, which was Investigative. Lent and Lopez noted that the greater the specificity in assigning codes, the greater the chance of demonstrating theory-predicted relations. They also suggested that the lack of unanimity across congruence studies might, in part, be explained by weak comparability across congruence measures using different methods of assessing job codes. The use of occupational titles as a way to define the environment may be problematic in and of itself. The changing nature of work is making occupational titles, at least in some fields, obsolete. As we have discussed elsewhere (Chartrand & Walsh, in press) occupational titles may not be the optimal unit of analysis in research or level of focus in career assessment. Though it is debatable, a higher-older unit of analysis (e.g., job cluster), more specific units of analysis (e.g., job tasks), or actually assessing the job (Gottfredson & Holland, 1991) may improve measurement. Krumboltz (1996) and Savickas (1997) further suggest that the modern age is changing the old order. Employees are increasingly being expected to accomplish whatever work tasks need to be carried out, and not necessarily follow a written job description. In this context, Krumboltz (1996) has suggested that the goal of achieving congruence between individuals and their work environments is unnecessarily restricting. The Savickas (1997) concept of career adaptability implies a similar conclusion. Stated differently, birds of a feather do not necessarily flock together. According to Krumboltz (1996), the congruence criterion overlooks the fact that people with very different characteristics are also successful in a given occupation. Heterogeneity within occupations he speculates is now more highly valued and congruence is not the valuable concept and criterion that it has been in the past. Calculating Congruence In summarizing the results of their meta-analyses, both Assouline and Meir (1987) and Tranberg et al. (1993) noted that the method used to calculate congruence influences the congruence–satisfaction relation. Camp and Chartrand (1992) first addressed the issue by examining 13 different congruence indices in terms of their relation to each other and to academic adjustment and satisfaction. The correlations among congruence indices varied widely, ranging from .05 to .98, which suggests that the measures are not interchangeable. However, none of the correlations between the congruence indices and satisfaction (with major) were significant. Brown and Gore (1994) extended the work on congruence measurement by examining measurement sensitivity, score distributions, and ways in which different orders of 3-letter codes are calculated. Their work lead them to propose a new measure, the C-index, to address shortcomings found in other measures. Recently, Young et al. (1998) examined 11 congruence indices and two different measures of job satisfaction using a large and representative (172 occupations were included) sample. The correlations among congruence

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measures ranged from .18 to .98 with an overall median correlation of .73. None of the congruence-satisfaction correlations were significantly different from zero, however, leading the authors to conclude that the hypothesized relationship is minimal regardless of the index chosen. The efforts to refine congruence calculations are well intentioned. However, it is important to take one step back in the calculation process and examine the units of measurement. The comparison of Holland codes (which is the typical unit of measurement with congruence calculations) is a crude level of measurement in that Holland themes reflect broad personality styles that do not necessarily correspond to job functions. Meir’s (1988) suggestion to move to a subspecialty level might improve precision, but does not provide a complete solution. A specific example may help illustrate the problem. Judy Chartrand’s code is SI (the third code is A, but is considerably lower than the first two codes). Her current occupation is closest to research and development manager (IR) among the occupations classified in Appendix B of the Strong manual (Harmon et al., 1994), though she could be coded as a psychologist. Regardless of the job title, or the congruence index used, the congruence score would not be particularly high, even though she is very satisfied with her job. However, if the job is coded at a task level a different picture emerges. The job tasks include writing (A), teaching/training (S), research design/analysis (I), and public speaking (E). Further, her basic interest scores from the Strong Interest Inventory for teaching (S), writing (A), and public speaking (E) are very high, very high, and high, respectively. Unfortunately, there was no category that matched research design/ analysis. Still, this pattern reveals high interest congruence and a clear link between congruence and satisfaction. If this example is typical, then the congruence indices contain considerable error. The calculations are based on a less than optimal unit of analysis. Job Satisfaction: What Makes People Happy on the Job In a nationally representative sample (Briggs, McCaulley, Quenk, & Hammer, 1998), respondents were asked to report their level of satisfaction with (a) the type of work they did, (b) their company/organization, and (c) future work opportunities. The three mean levels of satisfaction were significantly different from each other, with people reporting the greatest satisfaction with the type of work they do and the least with future work opportunities. These mean differences reflect different aspects of job satisfaction. Dawis (1991) noted that the accuracy of predicting job satisfaction from interests is affected by the tendency to use an overall or global satisfaction score. He pointed out that job satisfaction consists of several components with two major ones being intrinsic, or satisfaction with work itself (type of work), and extrinsic, or satisfaction with the condition of work. If interests reflect like/dislike for activities, then they should be related more to intrinsic than extrinsic job satisfaction. A theoretically concise test of the congruence–satisfaction hypothesis should focus more on the type of

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work people do than on external factors related to the organization. An overall index of job satisfaction confounds different aspects of job satisfaction. WHERE TO? The Congruence Concept The viability of the congruence concept continues to be visible in the work of other theorists. For example, Pervin (1992) in his model, notes that person– environment interaction, and thereby questions of congruence or fit, involve relations between multiple personal goals and multiple environmental demands or opportunities for goal attainment. Therefore, according to Previn, the question of congruence or fit must be considered in terms of person systems, environment systems, and the relations between person– environment systems. What is important to note is that multiple goals (the person) may be involved with multiple affordances (the environment and action possibilities), and the environment may provide for action possibilities that are congruent for some goals, but not with others. Schnieder, Smith, and Goldstein (in press) suggest that people make the environment and that good person– environment fit (the individual has the characteristics that are similar to the characteristics of the persons in the environment or the organization) may result in positive outcomes for the individuals over the short term, mainly in terms of adjustment, satisfaction, and commitment. These authors suggest, however, that over the long term, this cycle may yield homogeneity in thinking, decision making and action and, in this context, discuss some of the dark side of person– environment fit. Hogan and Roberts (in press) like John Holland assume that people make the environment. These authors suggest that people choose activities and interactions that are consistent with their identities and avoid interactions that are inconsistent with their identities or their motives, goals, and values. These authors note that people’s past choices of situations tend to predict their future involvement in various environments. Substantial evidence indicates that preferences for environments effectively predict occupational membership, occupational tenure, and occupational change. These preferences tend to be stable over time, because people tend to choose environments depending upon their motives and goals. Wapner and Demick (in press) conceptualize adaption as a congruent person-in-environment system state consisting of optimal relations between the person and the environment. In their transactional approach the person and environment parts must be treated relationally as part of one whole. Nasar (in press) in his theoretical framework conceptualizes the person in terms of personality predispositions and how our perceptions of physical environments facilitate an evaluative image that influence meaning and behavior. The evaluative images formed based on these perceptions influence subsequent meaning and behavior. Stated differently, how we perceive the environment (pleasing, arousing, exciting, and relaxing) influences our view of that environment and subsequent behavior. Once again, the concept of congruence is relevant.

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To operationalize the person concept in these theories a variety of traditional inventories of personality, competencies, interests and values are used. For example, Hogan and Roberts (in press) and Nasar (in press) in part define the person using the five factor model of personality. Others conceptualize and define the person in terms of life goals (motives, values, projects, pursuits, major life goals). However, the concept of environment in the person– environment match is much less rigorously defined in these theoretical frameworks. There is no question that we need better (more reliable and valid) assessments of the environment. As noted by Holland (1997) this improvement alone could contribute substantially to the outcome of congruence research. Future Directions Holland’s theory implies a developmental relationship between the individual and the environment. Put simply, do people tend to become more like their environments? Or from the perspective of Krumboltz (1996) and Savickas (1997), how adaptable and open to change are workers in the face of perceived environmental forces? Three studies (Walsh & Lacy, 1969, 1970; Walsh, Vaudrin, & Hummel, 1972) conducted some time ago explored this developmental relationship by using students’ self-reported change during the course of college. Two of these studies (Walsh & Lacey, 1969, 1970) attempted to determine if college students (senior males and females) classified to one of Holland’s types (using college major as a criterion) perceived themselves as having changed in a direction consistent with the profile of that type. Ten college major groups represented the personality types for females and six groups represented those for males. Separate scales were constructed for males and females based on attributes that effectively discriminated among the personality types. Each student reported the change he or she perceived in self on each attribute since his or her first year in college. For males, students in three college major groups (engineering, chemistry, and fine arts) perceived themselves to have changed in the direction consistent with the profile of their respective personality type (Realistic, Investigative, and Artistic). Female students in Investigative, Artistic, and Conventional environments (the sciences, music education, and business education) reported change in directions consistent with those environments. In general, these data imply a developmental relationship between the individual and the environment beyond the formative and adolescent years. The environment seemed to have a molding effect. The Walsh, Vaudrin, and Hummel study (1972) examined the developmental relationship with limited exposure to the environment. Participants in this study were third quarter (first year) males and females, each classified to a Holland type by college major. The prediction was that reported change during the first two quarters would not be very great. Seven college major groups represented the personality types for males and nine groups for females. For males, the students in two college major groups (chemistry-physics and fine arts) perceived change in a direction consistent with the profile of the respective personality type

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(Investigative and Artistic). For females, significant findings were also obtained on two scales (Investigative and Conventional). The findings for these groups suggest an early developmental relationship between the person and environment. These findings take on increased meaning when compared to the same named senior groups (Walsh & Lacey, 1969, 1970). The senior groups reported more change consistent with their personality types when compared to the first year groups. Stated differently, this limited database tentatively suggests that people tend to become more like their environments and that a developmental or learning relationship may exist between the individual and the environment. Although, as Spokane (1985) noted, these studies do not discount the possibility that accentuation is a function of increased age, they show that increases in congruence may be obtained through increases in self-reported interests, changes in aspiration, or job changes. In any event, the basic question “Do people tend to become more like their environments” remains an empirical question that clearly needs additional work in the context of Holland’s and other theoretical frameworks. Another interesting research direction has been pursued by Wampold, Mondin, and Ahn (1999) in their work investigating people and tasks. According to Holland’s model (1997) satisfied persons find themselves surrounded by similar persons and performing tasks that are intrinsically interesting. That is, two important features of the environment are tasks and people. For some people, task similarity may be more predictive of satisfaction, and for others, people similarity may be more predictive. Given this context, Wampold et al. examined the relative preferences of Social types and Investigative types for tasks and people. Participants, 38 upper division undergraduates in Social (S) majors and 15 upper division undergraduates in Investigative (I) majors, were administered a paired-comparison inventory in which the stimuli to be compared were task (S or I) and people (S, I, or alone) combinations. As expected, S participants preferred to work with S people, particularly on S tasks. I participants most preferred to perform I tasks with I people and least preferred to perform an I task with S people. Stated differently, social people preferred social tasks with social people over all other people/task combinations. Clearly, both the type of task and the type of people were important to social people. For investigative people, investigative tasks, performed either alone or with other investigative people, were preferred. The least preferred combination was investigative tasks with social people. Wampold et al. note that the findings suggest that investigative people tend to avoid social environments that require emotional interactions, in spite of the tasks that might be performed in the environment. According to the authors, this suggests that investigative people may have a relative deficit in social-coping social skills (particularly emotional responding) and that interactions with social types may place demands on these particular skills, creating discomfort. In summary, although congruence was assumed to be inherent in the choice of a social major or in the choice of an investigative major, the findings suggest that people similarity and activity similarity may yield different assess-

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ments that are differentially related to satisfaction. The study, the methodology, and the findings further suggest a more explicit definition of environment (people and/or task) which could tend to improve congruence research. SUMMARY John Holland’s assertion that satisfaction, stability and achievement are related to congruence remains intuitively appealing and paramount in career counseling. Researchers have tried to address this assertion, but the work remains incomplete. Researchers should begin to ask the questions differently and to examine different forms of evidence. Further, the research designs should span time to move beyond cross-sectional studies. At a more practical level, the boundaries within which congruence can reasonably be expected to have an impact should be defined and predictions should be refined. Most important, we should develop accurate measures of the environment. If the measurement of the environment is not accurate, or the criterion measure encompasses aspects that extend well beyond interests, then the congruence calculations, will not yield meaningful outcomes. REFERENCES Assouline, M., & Meir, E. I. (1987). Meta-analysis of the relationship between congruence and well-being measures. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 319 –332. Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1994). An evaluation of interest congruence indicies: Distribution characteristics and measurement properties. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 310 –327. Camp, C. C., & Chartrand, J. M. (1992). A comparison and evaluation of interest congruence indicies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 41, 162–182. Chartrand, J. M., Strong, S. R., & Weitzman, L. M. (1995). The interactional perspective in vocational psychology: Paradigms, theories, and research practices. In W. B. Walsh & S. H. Osipow (Eds.), Handbook of vocational psychology (2nd ed., pp.35– 65). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Chartrand, J. M., & Walsh, W. B. (in press). Career assessment: Changes and trends. In F. T. L. Leong and A. Barak (Eds.), Contemporary models of vocational psychololgy: A volume in honor of Samuel H. Osipow. Mahawah, NJ: Erlbaum. Dawis, R. V. (1991). Vocational interests, values, and preferences. In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of industrial & organizational psychology (2nd ed., pp.833– 872). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Day, S. K., & Rounds, J. B. (1998). Universality of vocational interest structure among racial and ethnic minorities. American Psychologists, 53, 728 –736. Donnay, D. A. C., and Borgen, F. H. (1996). Validity, structure, and content of the 1994 Strong Interest Inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43, 275–291. Fitzgerald, L. F., & Betz, N. E. (1994). Career development in cultural context: The role of gender, race, class, and sexual orientation. In M. L. Savickas & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Convergence in theories of career choice and development. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Gottfredson, G. D., & Holland, J. L. (1991). Position Classification Inventory professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Gottfredson, G. D., Holland, J. L., & Ogawa, D. K. (1982). Dictionary of Holland occupational codes. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Harmon, L. W., Hansen, J. C., Borgen, F. H., & Hammer, A. L. (1994). Strong Interest Inventory applications and technical guide. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

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Hogan, R., & Roberts, B. W. (in press). A socioanalytic perspective on person– environment interaction. In W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Person– environment psychology: New directions and perspectives (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Holland, J. L. (1997). Making vocational choices (3rd ed.). Odessa, FL: Psychological Resources, Inc. Krumboltz, J. D. (1996). A learning theory of career counseling. In M. L. Savickas & W. B. Walsh (Eds.), Handbook of career counseling theory and practice. Palo Also, CA: Davies-Black Publishing. Lent, E. B., & Lopez, F. G. (1996). Congruence from many angles: Relations of multiple congruence indicies to job satisfaction among adult workers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 49, 24 –37. Meir, E. I. (1988). The need for congruence between with-in occupation interests and specialty in mid-career. The Career Development Quarterly, 37, 631– 639. Myers, I. B., McCaulley, M. H., Quenk, N. L., and Hammer, A. L. (1998). MBRI Manual: A guide to the development and use of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (3rd ed.). Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Nasar, J. L. (in press). The evaluation image of places. In W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Person– environment psychology: New directions and perspectives (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Pervin, L. A. (1992). Traversing the individual environment landscape: A personal odyssey. In W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Person– environment psychology: Models and perspectives (pp. 71– 88). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Rounds, J. B., Jr., Dawis, R. V., & Lofquist, L. H. (1987). Measurement of person– environment fit and prediction of job satisfaction in the theory of work adjustment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 31, 297–318. Rounds. J. B., & Tracey, T. J. (1993). Prediger’s dimensional representation of Holland’s RIASEC circumplex. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78, 875– 890. Savickas, M. L. (1997). Career adaptability: An integrative construct for life-span, life-space theory. The Career Development Quarterly, 45, 247–259. Schneider, B., Smith, D. B., & Goldstein, H. W. (in press). Attraction-selection-attrition: Toward a person– environment psychology of organizations. In W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Person– environment psychology: New directions and perspectives (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Spokane, A. R. (1985). A review of research on person– environment congruence in Holland’s theory of careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 26, 306 –343. Tranberg, M., Slane, S., & Ekberg, S. E. (1993). The relation between interest congruence and satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 253–264. Walsh, W. B., & Lacey, D. W. (1969). Perceived changes in Holland’s theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 16, 348 –352. Walsh, W. B., & Lacey, D. W. (1970). Further exploration of perceived change in Holland’s theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 17, 189 –190. Walsh, W. B., Vaudrin, D. M., & Hummel, R. H. (1972). The accentuation effect in Holland’s theory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 2, 77– 88. Wampold, B. E., Mondin, G. W., & Ahn, Hejun-nie (1999). Preference for people and tasks. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 35– 41. Wapner, S., & Demick, J. (in press). Person-in-environment psychology: A holistic, developmental, systems-oriented perspective. In W. B. Walsh, K. H. Craik, & R. H. Price (Eds.), Person– environment psychology: New directions and perspectives (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Young, G., Tokar, D. M., & Subich, L. M. (1998). Congruence revisited: Do 11 indices differently predict job satisfaction and is the relation moderated by person and situation variables? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 52, 208 –223. Received: March 8, 1999