Why do millennials stay in their jobs? The roles of protean career orientation, goal progress and organizational career management

Journal Pre-proof Why do millennials stay in their jobs? The roles of protean career orientation, goal progress and organizational career management

Claudia Holtschlag, Aline Masuda, B. Sebastian Reiche, Carlos Morales PII:

S0001-8791(19)30144-7

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.103366

Reference:

YJVBE 103366

To appear in:

Journal of Vocational Behavior

Received date:

13 March 2019

Revised date:

26 November 2019

Accepted date:

30 November 2019

Please cite this article as: C. Holtschlag, A. Masuda, B.S. Reiche, et al., Why do millennials stay in their jobs? The roles of protean career orientation, goal progress and organizational career management, Journal of Vocational Behavior(2019), https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jvb.2019.103366

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© 2019 Published by Elsevier.

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Why Do Millennials Stay in Their Jobs? The Roles of Protean Career Orientation, Goal Progress and Organizational Career Management

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CLAUDIA HOLTSCHLAG CENTRUM Católica Graduate Business School, Lima, Perú Jirón Daniel Alomía Robles 125 Urbanización Los Álamos de Monterrico, Santiago de Surco 15023, Peru e-mail: [email protected]

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ALINE MASUDA EADA Business School C/Aragó 204 08011 Barcelona, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

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B. SEBASTIAN REICHE Carrer d'Arnús i de Garí, nº 3, 7 08034 Barcelona, Spain e-mail: [email protected]

CARLOS MORALES CENTRUM Católica Graduate Business School, Lima, Perú Jirón Daniel Alomía Robles 125 Urbanización Los Álamos de Monterrico, Santiago de Surco 15023, Peru e-mail: [email protected]

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Why Do Millennials Stay in Their Jobs? The Roles of Protean Career Orientation, Goal Progress and Organizational Career Management

ABSTRACT In this paper we report a time-lagged study over six months analyzing the indirect effect of protean career orientation on changes in turnover intentions via personal work goal progress

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in a sample of millennial employees. Consistent with protean career theory and social

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exchange theory, we found that protean career orientation indirectly leads to decreases in turnover intentions over time and this effect was moderated by organizational career

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management practices. This effect was observed because the relationship between goal

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progress and decreases in turnover intentions became less salient when organizations were

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Keywords:

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research and practice.

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perceived to offer high levels of formal career practices. We discuss the implications for

Protean career orientation; millennials; goal progress; organizational career management; turnover intentions

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Millennials, who are individuals born between 1980 and 1996, are assumed to be notorious “job hoppers” (Landrum, 2017), having substantially raised turnover costs for organizations (Adkins, 2016). Academic evidence generally supports this reputation. According to a meta-analysis of 20 studies on generational differences, millennials—compared with other generations—are more likely to report intentions to leave their organizations (Costanza,

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Badger, Fraser, Severt, & Gade, 2012). At the same time, while millennials demonstrate more inter-organizational career transitions than previous generations, the evidence for stark

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differences in career patterns and the “death” of the traditional organizational career is not

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overwhelming (Chudzikowski, 2012). As such, it is important to study what predicts whether

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millennials more or less likely want to leave their employers.

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A promising concept to understand contemporary careers is the protean career orientation (PCO), which reflects the degree to which individuals self-direct their careers and

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are guided by their own values (Briscoe, Hall, & Frautschy DeMuth, 2006; Hall, 1996; Hall, 2002; Hall & Moss, 1998). As with millennials, it is commonly assumed that protean careerists

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are more proactive in searching for alternative career opportunities and hence more inclined to change employers (Baruch, Wordsworth, Mills, & Wright, 2015). Thus far, empirical findings are, however, mixed regarding the association between PCO and mobility preferences (Briscoe & Finkelstein, 2009) such that some researchers found a positive association between PCO and turnover intentions (Supeli & Creed, 2015), whereas others report a negative (Baruch et al., 2015) or non-significant (Baruch, 2014; Cerdin & Le Pargneux, 2014; Redondo, Sparrow, & Hernández-Lechuga, 2019) relationship. These ambivalent findings suggest that the relationship between PCO and turnover intentions might be contingent upon moderating and mediating factors (McElroy & Weng, 2015).

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Journal Pre-proof As Hall, Yip and Doiron (2018) argue, PCO may also lead to positive organizational outcomes, such as lower turnover intentions. For example, the so-called Protean Paradox suggests that protean careerists can be better organizational citizens despite their self-focused career approach. More research is, however, required to understand the organizational settings that promote the positive potential of PCO. In this study, we integrate protean career and social exchange theories to examine how and when millennials’ protean career orientation explains changes in turnover intentions. In line with protean career theory, which holds that

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career agency is a fundamental process that explains the work outcomes of high-PCO

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individuals (Hall et al., 2018), we argue that high-PCO millennials will report a decrease in

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turnover intentions because they are more likely to progress towards their personal work goals. Goal progress is a critical construct for understanding the agency with which individuals

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navigate their careers (Creed, Prideaux, & Patton, 2005). In fact, personal goals are

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fundamental for understanding individuals’ behaviors and attitudes at work (Klug & Maier, 2015; Wiese & Freund, 2005) because they guide thought and action, and provide a standard

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against which to measure individuals’ career accomplishments (Maier & Brunstein, 2001).

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The changes in mobility preferences of protean careerists likely not only depend on their agency, as expressed by the progress towards their self-defined goals, but also by the experienced organizational setting. Specifically, we argue that individuals’ perceptions of organizational career management (OCM), which refers to “the policies and practices deliberately designed by their organizations in order to enhance the career effectiveness of employees” (Pazy, 1988, p. 313), serve as a situational moderator of the indirect relationship between millennials’ PCO and their changes in turnover intentions over time via goal progress. Drawing on social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) we expect that the indirect effect of PCO through goal progress will be less important in predicting a decrease in turnover intentions, if millennials work in organizations that are seen as providing extensive OCM. This is because 4

Journal Pre-proof OCM provides millennials with external benefits such as salary growth and training opportunities and offers them the chance to continue working towards meaningful goals in the future, even if they do not make progress towards their current goals. In turn, millennials will reciprocate by increased loyalty towards their organizations over time. Our study makes several contributions to the careers literature. First, to our knowledge, this is the first study to analyze the mediating and moderating mechanisms by

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which high-PCO individuals experience lower intentions to leave over time. Following Gubler, Arnold and Coombs’ (2014) recommendation, we test the effects of PCO on turnover

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intentions using a longitudinal research design. Specifically, we conducted a time-lagged study

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with three waves over six months. Second, we address the calls to study the context for

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understanding the work implications of PCO (Hall, 2004; Sullivan & Baruch, 2009) and career transitions in general (Guan, Arthur, Khapova, Hall, & Lord, 2019). Taking into consideration

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that individual and situational factors interact to shape individuals’ careers (Guan et al., 2019),

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we combine the agentic and structural careers perspective and recognize that turnover intentions are a function of both individual and situational factors. Third, to our knowledge this

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is the first study that integrates protean career theory and social exchange theory to explain how PCO predicts work attitudes. In this study, we show that career agentic and social exchange behaviors serve as compensatory mechanisms, which calls on future research to simultaneously take into consideration both theoretical mechanisms to better understand work phenomena. Finally, following previous calls by researchers on millennials (Lyons & Kuron, 2014), we provide scientific evidence to prevent the perpetuation of unfounded stereotypes and thus help to uncover the true nature of millennials’ work-related attitudes and preferences. Specifically, our study suggests that not all millennials have a high proclivity for “job hopping” and that personality and situational variables both play a role when predicting 5

Journal Pre-proof turnover intentions over time in this population. Below, we first describe each construct before developing our hypotheses. Figure 1 illustrates our conceptual model. _______________________ Insert Figure 1 about here _______________________

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CORE CONSTRUCTS

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Protean Career Orientation

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Protean career orientation describes an individual attitude towards (1) defining career success according to internal standards and (2) actively managing to achieve these self-set

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success criteria (in comparison to relying on external guidance and direction) (Direnzo &

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Greenhaus, 2011; Hall, 1976). As such, the construct reflects the idea that individuals, instead of organizations, are primarily in charge of their own careers. In line with this

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conceptualization, the construct is comprised of two sub-dimensions (Briscoe et al., 2006): The

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values-driven dimension measures the extent to which individuals are aware of their identity— more specifically, their needs, motivations, abilities, values, interests—and assesses the extent to which individuals rely on their own values in guiding their careers and in interpreting career success. The self-directed dimension measures the degree to which individuals are able and willing to adapt to their career environment and the degree to which they take an active and independent role in managing their careers (Gubler et al., 2014). Personal Work Goal Progress Personally meaningful work goals are an essential construct for understanding the active role that individuals take in their career management (Wiese & Freund, 2005). Compared to assigned goals, which have important implications for job performance (Locke & 6

Journal Pre-proof Latham, 1990), personal work goals are considered to be particularly relevant for understanding job attitudes, particularly turnover intentions, because individuals base their work attitudes on the experiences they gain while advancing toward such work goals (Hülsheger & Maier, 2010). In fact, Direnzo and Greenhaus (2011) explain that goal-oriented behaviors such as making progress towards personally meaningful goals form part of one’s job search. In case of low progress towards their goals, it is likely that individuals will search for a better job elsewhere to help them achieve their desired outcomes. By contrast, at higher levels

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of goal progress individuals will more likely stay with their employer because achieving their

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desired outcomes in the current organization appears more likely. Goal progress has also

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received particular attention in the careers literature (e.g., Holtschlag, Reiche, & Masuda, 2018; Hülsheger & Maier, 2010; Maier & Brunstein, 2001). Goal progress reflects the “small

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wins” (Weick, 1984) that individuals experience during their goal pursuit, and which signal to

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individuals that they are advancing well towards the achievement or completion of their

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personal work goals (Brunstein, 1993). Organizational Career Management

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Organizational career management describes the career management practices that individuals receive from their companies, such as training and developing, mentoring, and personal development plans (Sturges, Guest, Conway, & Davey, 2002). Key to the definition of career management practices is that such practices are implemented by the organization, as opposed to career self-management practices which are under the control of employees themselves. Evidence suggests that formal career management practices such as training and development are positively related to employees’ organizational commitment (Sturges et al., 2002). Additionally, perceived organizational career management practices have been negatively related with turnover intentions (Guan, Zhou, Ye, Jiang, & Zhou, 2015) and turnover

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Journal Pre-proof as long as career opportunities within the company were perceived to be high (Kraimer, Seibert, Wayne, Liden, & Bravo, 2011). THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Protean Career Orientation and Goal Progress PCO is thought to lead to work and career outcomes through three interrelated processes, namely awareness (identity work), adaptability (responding to change) and agency

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(exercising choice and intention) (Hall et al., 2018). Given that personal work goals are an

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important construct for understanding the active role that individuals take in their career

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management (Wiese & Freund, 2005), the research on personal work goals can provide important insights into the work experiences of high-PCO millennials. As Hall et al. (2018)

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outline, the mechanisms of identity awareness and adaptability are insufficient for being

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successful in a career. Central to individuals’ career experiences are the actions that help individuals to realize their career values and goals. In this sense, the pursuit of personal work

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goals reflects the agentic process by which individuals direct their careers.

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Even though no research has empirically investigated how PCO and goal progress are related, several scholars have advocated that protean careerists might be more likely to progress towards their career goals than their low-PCO counterparts (Direnzo, Greenhaus, & Weer, 2015; Sargent & Domberger, 2007). In line with protean career theory, the reasons are twofold. First, the self-driven dimension of protean career theory likely leads to goal progress because it enables career agency and adaptability. By definition, protean careerists are masters of their own careers, taking a more active role in their overall career management and in pursuing their career goals (Hall, 2002). Given their self-driven approach, protean careerists are more likely to engage in career planning, which helps them gain human, social and psychological capital (Direnzo et al., 2015)—all of which are instrumental for achieving 8

Journal Pre-proof personal career goals. Individuals high on PCO are also more likely to self-manage their goaldirected behavior, for example, by engaging in network and visibility strategies (De Vos & Soens, 2008), displaying occupational self-efficacy (Hirschi, Jaensch, & Herrmann, 2017) and showing proactive work behaviors (Gulyani & Bhatnagar, 2017; Herrmann, Hirschi, & Baruch, 2015; Hirschi et al., 2017). The proactive behaviors related to individuals’ goal pursuit in turn promote goal progress (Duffy & Lent, 2009; Lent & Brown, 2006). The self-driven dimension also involves adaptability, which reflects individuals’ ability to change in light of disruptions to

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their environment. Goal pursuit is rarely linear but rather involves facing sudden obstacles and

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the need to respond to changing demands. As such, adaptability should facilitate goal

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progress.

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Second, the values-driven PCO dimension should relate to goal progress through the process of identity awareness. Protean careerists are more likely to follow a calling and a “path

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with a heart” in their careers (Hall, 2004). By definition, individuals high on PCO are more

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aware of their values and use such values to guide their careers (Hall, 1976), instead of relying on external career influences (Briscoe & Finkelstein, 2009). Choosing goals in accordance with

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one’s values has indeed been found to predict goal progress (Judge, Bono, Erez, & Locke, 2005; Sheldon & Houser-Marko, 2001). Individuals high on PCO are more likely to progress towards their personal goals because they might be particularly attentive to situational information to advance toward their valued goals and because they might be more effective in coming up with potential career strategies that guide them towards their career goals (Direnzo & Greenhaus, 2011). Individuals high on values-driven PCO are also more likely to leverage organizational resources, such as the internal network, in order to progress towards their personal work goals in the following six months (Redondo et al., 2019). Further, they are more likely to be in an organization that fits their values and interest (Baruch et al., 2015). In line

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Journal Pre-proof with this reasoning, empirical evidence shows that high-PCO individuals are more likely to display passion for work (Gulyani & Bhatnagar, 2017). In sum, according to protean career theory individuals high on PCO have three characteristics that are beneficial to their goal progress (i.e., agency, awareness, and adaptability). As such, we expect that individuals with high PCO are more likely to progress toward their personal work goals compared with their low-PCO peers. Taken together:

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Hypothesis 1: PCO is positively associated with personal work goal progress.

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Personal Work Goal Progress and Changes in Turnover Intentions

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We expect personal work goal progress to predict changes in turnover intentions,

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defined as a conscious and premeditated willingness to abandon the organization (Tett & Meyer, 1993). Consistent with Direnzo and Greenhaus (2011), we argue that goal-oriented

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behaviors such as making progress towards personally meaningful work goals are linked to

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one’s job search such that they should decrease turnover intentions. This is because individuals who progress towards their personal goals are likely satisfied with their current

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situation and feel no need to move to another company to search for a better job. Additionally, several career researchers have advocated that employees only stay with their organization when they advance toward their career goals and fulfill their career needs (Hall, 2002; Weng & McElroy, 2012). Accordingly: Hypothesis 2: Personal work goal progress predicts decreases in turnover intentions. The Mediating Role of Personal Work Goal Progress Implicit to our previous arguments is that the link between PCO and decreases in turnover intentions is indirect rather than direct, which is in line with protean career theory. Specifically, protean careerists will experience a decrease in their turnover intentions over 10

Journal Pre-proof time because they progress toward their personal work goals. First, the self-driven dimension of PCO should enable high-PCO individuals to self-manage their goal-directed behavior and adapt to necessary changes in the environment in order to progress toward their personal work goals. In fact, empirical research has shown that adaptability is negatively related with turnover intentions since employees who are more adaptable develop a more positive view toward their careers (Zhu et al., 2019). In this sense, due to their adaptability high-PCO employees are likely to view their goal progress in a more positive light, which should reduce

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their turnover intentions.

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Second, the values-driven dimension of PCO should prompt high-PCO individuals to

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choose work goals that are consistent with their values and remain attentive to situational

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information that help advance toward the valued goals (Hall et al., 2018). Additionally, highPCO individuals will be able to follow their passions and values if they progress towards

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personal work goals. Making progress toward personally meaningful goals should in turn

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decrease their intentions to leave because staying with the organization should allow them to achieve their career goals in the future. By contrast, leaving the organization may be a risk to

2010). Hypothesis 3:

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their long-term career development (Maier & Brunstein, 2001; Weng, McElroy, Morrow, & Liu,

Personal work goal progress mediates the relationship between PCO and decreases in turnover intentions.

The Moderating Role of Organizational Career Management Although we expect that, compared to their low-PCO counterparts, individuals with high levels of PCO experience decreases in turnover intentions over time by successfully managing their goal pursuit, we also expect that this indirect effect is contingent on the degree of career support they receive from their organizations. Specifically, we argue that the indirect 11

Journal Pre-proof effect is less pronounced when individuals perceive extensive career support from their companies. Social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) provides the underlying logic for why OCM may moderate the indirect relationship between PCO and decreases in turnover intentions via personal work goal progress. According to social exchange theory, organizational practices that support the employee may signal to the employee that the company cares for and values its

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employees, which in turn creates feelings of obligation to reciprocate the benefits and opportunities provided by the organization by helping the organization (Eisenberger, Fasolo, &

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Davis-LaMastro, 1990; Gouldner, 1960). Previous research shows that OCM can improve

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employees’ work attitudes through positive evaluations and expectancies of career

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development (Guan et al., 2014). When perceiving high levels of OCM, individuals are less likely to switch employers because this would imply to forfeit both symbolic and concrete

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benefits provided by their current employer. The symbolic resources are beyond objective

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worth, such as signals of self-worth and career satisfaction, whereas concrete resources refer to tangible resources related to instrumental needs, such as expected salary growth (Zhu, Cai,

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Buchtel, & Guan, 2019). In this sense, individuals who perceive greater support from their companies are more likely to reciprocate via continued participation in organizational life (Eisenberger et al., 1990; Eisenberger, Huntington, Hutchison, & Sowa, 1986). In line with social exchange theory, empirical research predominantly confirms that perceived organizational support leads to lower turnover intentions (Allen, Shore, & Griffeth, 2003; Dawley, Houghton, & Bucklew, 2010; Guan et al., 2015). Hence, irrespective of their degree of goal progress, individuals who perceive high levels of OCM should develop fewer turnover intentions because they feel valued and have the opportunity to gain human and social capital, which can help them achieve their long-term career goals.

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Journal Pre-proof Further, in the presence of objective benefits and external referents of career success as reflected by OCM, the impact of goal progress, which presents an internal reference of how individuals’ careers are advancing, is likely to be less important for decreasing individuals’ turnover intentions. In fact, while individuals’ career self-management and organizational career support may work together in explaining individuals career outcomes (Guan et al., 2015), previous research has also shown that individuals’ career self-management and organizational career support serve as compensatory mechanisms. Specifically, De Vos, De

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Clippeleer and Dewilde (2009) show that high levels of OCM can compensate for low career

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self-management, such that OCM and career self-management might substitute each other in

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explaining subjective career success. OCM, with its focus on external benefits (e.g., salary growth opportunities, trainings), may thus present an alternative reason for remaining in the

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company. In other words, the prospect of obtaining the external benefits associated with

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OCM, which are both symbolic and tangible in nature, may compensate for low levels of current goal progress, which is an internal measure of advancement in one’s career, in

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predicting changes in individuals’ inclination to leave their employers. Hence, we expect that

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the indirect effect of PCO on decreases in turnover intentions via goal progress will be weaker when individuals experience high OCM. Hypothesis 4: Organizational career management moderates the indirect relationship between PCO and decreases in turnover intentions through personal work goal progress. Specifically, the indirect effect of PCO on decreases in turnover intentions via personal work goal progress will be weaker when individuals perceive high levels of organizational career management.

METHODS Sample and Study Design 13

Journal Pre-proof To test our hypotheses, we conducted a time-lagged study with three measurement waves. We administered the questionnaires each three months apart, following previous research on the relationship between individual differences, personal goals, and work attitudes, which has used time lapses between two and four months (e.g., Judge et al., 2005; Maier & Brunstein, 2001). We invited Alumni, who had previously completed a postgraduate degree at two Spanish business schools, via email to our longitudinal study, offering them in return an individual report, which explained their personal scores and compared them to

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those of the cohort means. We chose this sample because it represents an internationally

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diverse sample of millennials, who had prior work experience and were fluent in English.

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In total, 349 alumni accepted our invitation to participate. In the first measurement

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wave, we assessed individuals’ level of PCO. Data were missing for seven participants, leaving 342 eligible respondents for the Time 2 and Time 3 questionnaires. In the second

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measurement wave, we asked individuals to write down their personal work goals for the next

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3 months and assessed their baseline level of turnover intentions. In the final data collection, we asked for individuals’ assessments of their goal progress and their level of turnover

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intentions. In total, 176 participants responded to all three surveys (follow-up response rate of 51%), of which 138 had no missing data on our study variables. Missing data ranged from a low of 0% for PCO to 9% for goal progress and 13% for organizational career management. Little’s (1988) missing data analysis test suggests that data is missing completely at random (χ2 =66.6, p =.07). In the following analyses, we deleted cases with missing data. We tested the robustness of our findings with full information maximum likelihood, as recommended by Schlomer, Bauman and Card (2010). Results remained substantially the same. On average, the participants in our final sample were 31 years old, and 27% were female. Most of the study participants occupied a managerial position (85%) and worked full time (97%). Participants worked in a variety of industries, such as healthcare, consumer goods, 14

Journal Pre-proof consultancy, construction, IT, and banking. They also worked in a number of different occupations, including as consultant, strategy specialist, civil servant, HR professional, marketing professional and project manager. They had an average work experience of 7 years and an average organizational tenure of 2.5 years. As all Alumni in our study had completed their postgraduate degree in English and therefore were sufficiently proficient in English, we selected English as our survey language to reflect the language in which the original

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measurement scales we adopted were developed.

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Measures

Protean career orientation. In the first measurement wave, we assessed protean

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career orientation using the 14-item scale developed by Briscoe, Hall and Frautschy de Muth

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(2006). The measure of protean career orientation includes two sub-dimensions: the self-

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directed scale (sample item: “In the past I have relied more on myself than others to find a new job when necessary”) and the value-driven scale (sample item: “What’s most important to

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me is how I feel about my career success, not how other people feel about it”). Responses were made on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (to little or no extent) to 5 (to a great

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extent) (α = .77 for the overall PCO scale; α = .65 for values-driven PCO; α = 72 for self-directed PCO). Given that previous research has reported some empirical inconsistencies of the PCO scale (Hall et al., 2018), we tested the construct validity with CFA. According to Hu and Bentler (1999), RMSEA values below .06, SRMR values below .08, and CFI values close to .95 are indicators of good model fit. The results of a CFA modelling the two sub-dimensions of PCO have an acceptable fit (χ (76) = 148.61, p = .00; CFI = .81; RMSEA = .08, SRMR =.08). All items load significantly on their respective factor with the exception of the last item of the valuedriven PCO scale (“In the past I have sided with my own values when the company has asked me to do something I don’t agree with”). Comparing this result to the original study (Briscoe et al., 2006), this item also did not significantly load on the values-driven dimension of PCO in the 15

Journal Pre-proof principal component analysis of Briscoe et al. (2006), although it had significant factor loadings in the CFA. This item seems to be a rather poor indicator of values-driven PCO, which might be due to the fact that the item captures the assumption that all respondents have experienced a situation in which the company has done something they don’t agree with. To be consistent with Briscoe et al.’s study, we nevertheless kept this item in order to use the same validated scale.

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Organizational career management practices. In the first wave, we also measured the formal career management practices respondents received from their organizations using

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Sturges, Guest, Conway and Davey’s (2002) six-item measure (sample item: “I have been given

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training to help develop my career”). Responses were made on a 5-point scale ranging from 1

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(strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) (α = .83). Performing a confirmatory factor analysis with the six OCM items shows that that all factor loadings are significant and that the model fit

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is good, although the RMSEA value is rather high (χ (9) = 21.85, p = .01; CFI = .96; RMSEA = .10).

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Personal work goal progress. We assessed personal work goals following the procedure employed by Hülsheger and Maier (2010) and Brunstein, Schultheiss and Grässman

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(1998). In the second measurement wave we asked respondents to think about the personal work goals they aimed to pursue in the next six months. Personal work goals were defined as “objectives, projects, and plans that are related to your job, career, and occupation” (Maier & Brunstein, 2001, p. 1036). We asked the participants to write down their three most important personal work goals for the following six months. In the third wave, we reminded respondents of the three personal work goals they generated at Time 2 and asked them to rate their progress towards achieving each of the three goals using four items (sample item: “I accomplished what I set out to do with this goal”) (Greguras & Diefendorff, 2010). The goal progress items were rated on a scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). In total, we thus had twelve items measuring goal progress. In line with previous studies on goal 16

Journal Pre-proof progress (e.g., Judge et al., 2005; Wiese & Freund, 2005) we aggregated the twelve items to build an overall goal progress scale (α = .90). Turnover intentions. In the second and third measurement waves, we used Colarelli’s (1984) three-item scale of intention to quit the job to measure individuals’ turnover intentions. A sample item is “I have my own way, I will be working for my company one year from now.” Responses were made on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly

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agree), both with high internal reliabilities (T2: α = .84 and T3: α = 82). We tested whether the turnover intentions scale was invariant across time. Such measurement invariance is a

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prerequisite for assessing change over time. The good fit of the model and the results of the

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chi-square tests indicate that the scales provide full metric invariance and scalar invariance

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(see Table 2). Given that the conventional levels of measurement invariance are met (Lance, Dawson, Birkelbach, & Hoffman, 2010; Pitts, West, & Tein, 1996), we can conclude that the

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meaning of the underlying constructs is unlikely to have changed substantially over time.

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Control variables. We controlled for participants’ business school (dummy variable), age (in years) and gender (0 = male; 1 = female) as these demographic variables might affect

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turnover intentions (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000) or personal work goal progress. Further, to examine whether our hypothesized model holds over and above respondents’ level of objective career success, we controlled for salary (measured in 22 steps from “no salary” to “more than €20,000 per month”). The control variables were assessed at Time 1 with the exception of salary, which was measured at Time 3. Analyses We tested the hypothesized moderated mediation within a path analytic framework using Mplus. We used average scores to represent each study variable. In line with the recommendations of Cohen, Cohen, West, and Aiken (2003), we mean-centered the 17

Journal Pre-proof independent variables and moderator variables before creating interaction terms and plotted the interactions at two values of the moderator (± 1 SD). A 5000-replication bootstrapping was used to obtain bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals (CI) for our postulated indirect effects. We assessed changes in turnover intentions using residual scores. Following the suggestions of Smith and Beaton (2008), we obtained the change scores by regressing the Time 3 scores of turnover intentions on the corresponding Time 2 scores. The differences

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between the predicted and observed scores of turnover intentions at Time 3 are measured as the standardized residual scores, which means that positive (negative) residual scores indicate

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an increase (decrease) in turnover intentions. We performed three regression analyses for

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each turnover intention item as dependent variables. We used these change scores to

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compute the composite construct of change in turnover intentions. For hypothesis testing, we hence used the average score of change in turnover intentions. The method of using residual

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scores as indicators of change is superior to the use of difference scores because it does not

RESULTS

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inflate error (Cronbach & Furby, 1970).

The descriptive statistics of our study variables are presented in Table 1. ________________________ Insert Table 1 about here ________________________ As indicated in Table 2, the model fit indices suggest that the measurement model has a good model fit (χ (59) = 56.68, p = .56; CFI = 1.00; RMSEA = .00) and is superior to an alternative one-factor model in which all constructs load on the same factor. All items loaded significantly onto their respective factor, with the exception of one item of the values-driven 18

Journal Pre-proof PCO sub-dimension (“In the past I have sided with my own values when the company has asked me to do something I don’t agree with”). This result is likely due to semantic reasons and is in line with previously known psychometric properties of the values-driven PCO scale (Hall et al., 2018). Following previous research, we used the full scale in our analyses. _______________________ Insert Table 2 about here

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_______________________

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Hypothesis Testing

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In line with Hypotheses 1-3, we tested whether personal work goal progress mediates

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the relationship between PCO and changes in turnover intentions. The results of the path

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analysis show that PCO was positively associated with goal progress (B = .29, p = .03, Table 3a), thus providing support for Hypothesis 1. An examination at the sub-dimension level revealed

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that the self-directed subscale of PCO is positively associated with goal progress (B = .27, p = .05, Table 3b), whereas the values-driven scale is not significantly related with goal progress (B

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= .16, p = .16, Table 3c).

Further, in line with Hypothesis 2 goal progress was significantly related with decreases in turnover intentions (B = -.45, p <.001, Table 3a). To test Hypotheses 3, which predicts that goal progress mediates the relationship between PCO and decreases in turnover intentions, we used a 5000-replication bootstrapping to obtain bias-corrected 95% confidence intervals. Consistent with Hypothesis 3, PCO leads to decreases in turnover intentions through goal progress (B = -.13; p = .04, 95% CI [-.28; -.02]). The postulated mediation model had a good fit: χ (1) = .11, p =.74, CFI =1.00, RMSEA < .01.

19

Journal Pre-proof To test for partial mediation, we included a path from PCO to changes in turnover intentions. The additional path was not statistically significant (Δ turnover intentions on PCO: B = -.04; p = .73), suggesting that the relationship between PCO and turnover intentions is fully mediated by personal work goal progress. At a subscale level, goal progress also mediates the relationship between the self-directed dimension of PCO and decreases in turnover intentions as the bootstrap CIs excluding zero indicate (B = -.12; p = .07, 95% CI [-.27; -.01], Table 3b). As expected, given the non-significant relationship between the values-driven dimension of PCO

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and goal progress, goal progress does not mediate the relationship between values-driven PCO

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and changes in turnover intentions (B = -.07; p = .17, 95% CI [-.18; .02], Table 3c).

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Hypothesis 4 predicts that organizational career management moderates the indirect

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effects from PCO to decreases in turnover intentions via goal progress. We first simultaneously tested for the possibility of first-stage and second-stage moderation of OCM (Edwards &

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Lambert, 2007). Results show that OCM does not significantly moderate the first stage of the

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indirect effect (i.e., PCO predicting goal progress), even though the interaction term is negative (B = -.18; p = .19, Table 3a). The second stage (i.e., goal progress predicting changes in turnover

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intentions) was moderated, however, by OCM (B = .21; p = .03). Thus, we ran a final model, which only includes the mediation and the moderation of the second stage. The postulated moderated mediation model had a good fit: χ (1) = .01, p =.90, CFI =1.00, RMSEA < .01. In order to ascertain the nature of the moderated relation, we plotted the interactions at two values of the moderator (± 1 SD). As Figure 2 indicates, the relationship between personal work goal progress and decreases in turnover intentions is stronger when OCM is low. We further calculated the region of significance in order to assess for which values of OCM goal progress leads to decreases in turnover intentions. As the region of significance points out, personal work goal progress only leads to decreases in turnover intentions if OCM is low to moderate (< .90 of mean-centered OCM). Accordingly, the indirect effect of PCO on decreases in turnover 20

Journal Pre-proof intentions via goal progress is more pronounced when individuals perceive less organizational career management (see Tables 3a and 4). The results at the sub-dimension level also show that the indirect effect of self-driven PCO is more pronounced when OCM is low (see Table 5). _____________________________________ Insert Tables 3a-c, 4 and 5 and Figure 2 about here

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Additional Analyses

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To test the longitudinal implications of our hypothesized model, we examined the association of our study variables with participants’ number of employer changes 6.5 years

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after having finished data collection for our time-lagged study (M = 1.2, SD = 1.08). To that

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end, we assessed via their LinkedIn accounts how often the study participants had changed their employers and were able to access data for 81 individuals. Correlation results show that

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employer change is positively associated with PCO (r = .28, p = .04), turnover intentions (T2: r =

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.18, ns; T3: r = .36, p <.01), increases in turnover intentions (r = .34, p = .01), and negatively with goal progress (r = -.29, p = .01). Correlations at the sub-dimension level reveal that number of employer changes is marginally positively associated with values-driven PCO (r = .09, p = .06), but unrelated with self-directed PCO (r = .04, p = .29). We subsequently tested the hypothesized moderated mediation model and additionally allowed for a serial mediation from PCO to number of employer changes through goal progress and changes in turnover intentions. The results indicate that the number of employer changes is predicted by an increase in turnover intentions (B = .32; p = .01). This means that increases in turnover intentions during the period of data collection explain subsequent inter-organizational career mobility. As the results from the mediation analysis suggest, high-PCO individuals are indirectly less likely to change employers because they progress toward their personal work goals and 21

Journal Pre-proof hence decreased their turnover intentions (B = -.14; 95% CI [-.39; -.02]). Simultaneously, the results indicate that PCO positively predicts number of employer changes (B = .46; p = .02), which suggests that there might be several parallel mediating mechanisms that can shed light on the mobility behavior of protean careerists. The total effect, i.e. the sum of the indirect and direct effect, of PCO on number of employer changes is non-significant (B = .32; p = .14). These results reflect an inconsistent mediation, which describes a model in which a mediated effect has a different sign than other mediated or direct effects in the model (MacKinnon, Fairchild,

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& Fritz, 2006).

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Running the mediation model with the sub-dimensions of PCO reveals that only the

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values-driven dimension of PCO predicts the number of employer changes (B = .31; p = .02),

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but—as previously shown—does not display an indirect effect through goal progress and turnover intentions (B = -.07; 95% CI [-.25; .01]). The total effect of values-driven PCO is

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positive, but only marginally significant (B = .24; p = .09). The self-directed dimension of PCO

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marginally significantly predicts number of employer changes (B = 36; p = .07), but displays a negative indirect effect through goal progress and changes in turnover intentions (B = -.13;

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95% CI [-.39; -.01]). The total effect is non-significant (B = .22; p = .29). DISCUSSION

Our study demonstrates that protean career theory and social exchange theory work together to explain when and how millennials’ protean career attitudes relate to changes in turnover intentions. Two major findings emerged from this study. First, individuals high in PCO were more likely to experience a decrease in their turnover intentions over a time span of three months. This relationship was indirect rather than direct. Consistent with protean career theory, the indirect relationship between PCO and changes in turnover intentions can be explained by personal work goal progress such that high-PCO individuals are more likely to progress towards their work goals, which in turn explains decreases in their turnover 22

Journal Pre-proof intentions. Second, and in line with social exchange theory, the indirect effect from PCO to decreases in turnover intentions through goal progress was weaker when individuals perceived high levels of organizational career support. Specifically, the relationship between goal progress and decreases in turnover intentions became weaker when organizations were perceived to offer a high degree of formal career practices. Theoretical Implications

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Taken together, we believe our findings contribute to the career literature in several

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aspects. First, this study extends the nomological network of PCO by showing that PCO relates to changes in turnover intention via personal work goal progress. Our findings point to a

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complex relationship between PCO and mobility behavior and may thus shed some light on

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why previous research has found mixed results concerning the mobility preferences of high-

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PCO individuals (Baruch et al., 2015; Cerdin & Le Pargneux, 2014; Supeli & Creed, 2015). Specifically, our results suggest an indirect relationship between PCO and changes in turnover

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intentions. Millennials high on PCO are thus not per se inclined to job hop—as both research on millennials and protean career theory would imply—but their turnover intentions can

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instead be explained by how successful they manage their personal work goal pursuit. In this sense, our research also indicates that millennial employees, even those with a pronounced self-driven career attitude, do not necessarily display lower loyalty to their employers. Analyses on the sub-dimension level show that only the self-directed dimension of PCO is related to goal progress. Although value-driven individuals could also more likely progress towards their work goals due to their internal awareness and propensity to pursue selfconcordant goals (Judge et al., 2005), our study did not find support for potential benefits of value-driven protean careerists in terms of goal progress.

23

Journal Pre-proof Interestingly, using a follow-up of participants’ inter-organizational career movements 6.5 years after finishing this research study, additional analyses point to an inconsistent mediation (MacKinnon et al., 2006) and suggest that the protean career orientation is positively related to number of employer changes, while at the same time displaying an indirect negative effect on number of employer changes via goal progress and changes in turnover intentions. This highlights that contemporary career concepts such as PCO may not be directly associated with reduced employee loyalty (Spell & Blum, 2000) and frequent inter-

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organizational career moves (Sullivan & Baruch, 2009). Instead, there likely are different and

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potentially opposing mechanisms that explain when and why millennials high on PCO are more

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prone to switch organizations.

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We thus advance protean career theory by identifying explanatory mechanisms for the relationship between PCO and changes in turnover intentions. Our results indicate that PCO

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was positively related with personal work goal progress. In this respect, our finding suggests

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that high-PCO individuals are better able to manage their goal pursuits compared with their low-PCO counterparts. Relatedly, our results at the sub-dimension level show that the

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proposed mediation of personal work goal progress only holds for the self-directed—but not the values-driven—dimension of PCO. As such, the processes of adaptability and, in particular, agency seem to be more clearly linked to goal-setting and goal pursuit whereas awareness in and of itself appears insufficient for driving goal progress, and in turn decreases in turnover intentions. This finding contributes to protean career theory by refining our understanding regarding the relative weight of the three protean career mechanisms for explaining relevant work and career outcomes (Hall et al., 2018). It specifically underlines that a differentiated view on the sub-dimensions of PCO is important for understanding mobility behavior. As of now, most research studying PCO and turnover intentions used an overall scale of PCO (Baruch et al., 2015) or the self-driven scale (Redondo et al., 2019). 24

Journal Pre-proof Second, this study responds to earlier calls (e.g., Hall, 2004; McElroy & Weng, 2015; Sullivan & Baruch, 2009) to examine the interplay between PCO and career situations when predicting career outcomes. When the organization is seen to provide high career management practices, the indirect effect of PCO on changes in turnover intentions via personal work goal progress diminishes. On the contrary, in situations of low organizational career management, goal progress is a more important internal referent for understanding changes in turnover intentions. This suggests that the work advantages typically associated

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with high-PCO individuals are especially strong in career environments in which individuals

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predominantly need to rely on their own resources to guide their careers, instead of relying on

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external referents, such as organizational career support, for making turnover decisions. Considering that low-PCO individuals, who prefer the company to take care of their careers,

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have increasingly been found to be at risk (Baruch, 2004; Sullivan & Baruch, 2009), our findings

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suggest that low PCO does not necessarily need to be associated with disadvantages at work. Specifically, high degrees of OCM can partly compensate for the lack of goal progress that is

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associated with low PCO, such that individuals low on PCO could also experience a variety of

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positive job attitudes related with goal progress, including job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and engagement (Maier & Brunstein, 2001; Masuda, Holtschlag, & Nicklin, 2017), when they perceive obtaining high OCM. Third, our study integrates protean career theory and social exchange theory arguments to explain high-PCO individuals’ changes in intentions to leave, and show that they imply alternative and interacting mechanisms through which these job attitudes evolve. Our finding that individuals’ personal work goal progress is less likely to decrease turnover intentions, and that the indirect effect of PCO on decreases in turnover intentions via goal progress is less pronounced at high levels of OCM, points to boundary conditions of selfdirected behavior and hence career agency. Our results thus contribute to the discussion of 25

Journal Pre-proof the bounded nature of careers by hinting at an interactive effect of individual agency and situational variables, such that a high degree of external support can compensate for selfdirected behavior, specifically goal progress. In this sense, OCM provides a career boundary that alters the importance of individuals’ goal pursuit, showing that career agency is not equally important across career contexts. Our study shows that personal work goal progress only decreases turnover intentions as long as OCM is not very high.

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The finding also points to a relative importance of social exchange theory explanations and hence perceived organizational career support for influencing individuals’ turnover

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intentions. It suggests that organizations may only need to actively reduce turnover intentions

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if employees perceive that they currently do not progress toward their personal work goals.

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The interplay of PCO, goal progress, and organizational career management further adds to recent research on the contingencies of social exchange theory, which shows that

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organizational career support only leads to lower voluntary turnover when employees

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Practical Implications

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perceive high career growth opportunities (Kraimer et al., 2011).

Our findings have several practical implications. First, our results show the importance of personal work goal progress for reducing employees’ conscious desire to leave their organizations. The findings suggest that millennials are not necessarily more inclined to switch employers. An important factor to tie them to the organization might be to allow them to advance toward their individually valued goals. This seems particularly important given how much millennial employees are attracted toward meaningful work goals more broadly. Based on our

research, companies can create interventions to help employees set effective goals

and support them in their goal pursuit. These practices could consist of formal career management practices, development and training opportunities or coaching and mentoring. The pursuit and progress towards effective goals

does not only lead to performance, as 26

Journal Pre-proof goal-setting research has shown (Locke & Latham, 1990), but can also improve their proclivity to stay with their employer. Second, our findings point to the importance of providing career management practices especially for individuals low on PCO. These individuals will particularly benefit from having a structured career management environment in their organizations. Although our findings suggest that low-PCO individuals were still less likely to advance toward their personal

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work goals even if they received extensive OCM, our results indicate that OCM can at least compensate for the lack of goal progress. This is potentially because OCM already signals

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recognition and helps individuals fulfill their need of achievement. Our study also suggests that

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it might not necessarily be important for companies to recruit employees that are high on PCO,

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if the organization provides practices that support employees’ career development.

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Limitations and Conclusions

The limitations of this study should be acknowledged. First, although the time-lagged

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nature of our research allows us to overcome the shortcomings of most studies examining

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protean career orientations, namely the use of cross-sectional data (Gubler et al., 2014), the nature of our data does not allow us to draw causal inferences. Future studies could further build on our findings and either manipulate goal appraisals or use cross-lagged designs, measuring protean career orientation, goal appraisals, and work attitudes multiple times. We also note that our sample size is somewhat limited, thereby restricting our statistical power. We encourage future studies with larger time-lagged samples to replicate and further establish these findings. Second, we used self-reported measures in this study, which raises questions of common-method bias. To reduce problems associated with common-method bias we temporally separated the measurement of the independent, mediator and dependent variable 27

Journal Pre-proof (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Podsakoff, 2012). Considering that employees themselves have the clearest idea about their career orientation, personal work goal progress, and intentions to leave, it would have been difficult to obtain accurate information with a different method other than self-report (Spector, 2006). However, future research could obtain multi-source data by asking colleagues or significant others to assess individuals’ protean career orientation. Further, future studies would contribute to the literature by testing the indirect effect of PCO on actual turnover via goal progress. By examining goal progress as a potential mediator

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between these relationships we could better understand the contradictory findings in this

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literature. Further, while it would have been valuable to have an additional external measure

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of managerial career practices, researchers have argued that individual perceptions of the situation (the so-called “functional” view of situations, Block & Block, 1981) are more

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appropriate for understanding the impact of situational variables than objective characteristics

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of situations (i.e., the “psycho-biological view of situations”) (e.g., Meyer et al., 2014).

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Third, we argued that high-PCO individuals are better able to manage goal pursuit than low-PCO individuals. However, we did not test why protean careerists make more progress

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toward their personal work goals. Future studies could look at other measures of goal pursuit such as goal appraisals, goal congruency, and goal content (i.e. difficult versus specific goals) as potential mediators of the relationship between PCO, goal progress, and changes in job attitudes. For example, the indirect relationship between PCO and changes in turnover intentions could also be explained by the fact that high-PCO individuals are more likely to network, seek career guidance, and actively cope with change (Briscoe, Henagan, Burton, & Murphy, 2012; De Vos & Segers, 2013; De Vos & Soens, 2008). The purpose of this paper was, first, to examine the indirect effect of PCO on changes in turnover intentions via personal work goal progress and, second, to analyze how organizational career management moderates this effect. We showed that high PCO predicted 28

Journal Pre-proof decreases in turnover intentions via goal progress particularly when organizations did not provide a high extent of formal career management practices. We hope that future studies can build on these findings to further examine the explanatory mechanisms and contingencies

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under which PCO leads to job attitudes.

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Journal Pre-proof Lance, C. E., Dawson, B., Birkelbach, D., & Hoffman, B. J. (2010). Method effects, measurement error, and substantive conclusions. Organizational Research Methods, 13(3), 435455.doi:10.1177/1094428109352528 Landrum, S. (2017). Millennials And Job-Hopping: What's Really Happening And What It Means, 2018, from https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarahlandrum/2017/06/02/millennials-and-jobhopping-whats-really-happening-and-what-it-means/#32f283883fbf Lent, R. W., & Brown, S. D. (2006). Integrating person and situation perspectives on work satisfaction: A social-cognitive view. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69(2), 236247.doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2006.02.006

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Journal Pre-proof Supeli, A., & Creed, P. A. (2015). The Longitudinal Relationship Between Protean Career Orientation and Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment, and Intention-to-Quit. Journal of Career Development, 43(1), 66-80.doi:10.1177/0894845315581686 Tett, R. P., & Meyer, J. P. (1993). Job satisfaction, organizational commitment, turnover intention, and turnover: Path analysis based on meta-analytic findings. Personnel Psychology, 46(2), 259-293.doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.1993.tb00874.x Weick, K. (1984). Small wins: reflecting the scale of social problems. American Psychologist, 39, 40-49

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Weng, Q., McElroy, J. C., Morrow, P. C., & Liu, R. (2010). The relationship between career growth and organizational commitment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 77(3), 391400

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TABLE 1 Descriptive Statistics of Study Variables Mea n

SD

31.3 4

3.7 1

2 Gender

.29

.46

.18*

3 Group

.48

.50

.35*

.19 *

4 Salary

6.39

3.8 3

.30*

.14

5 PCO

3.89

.45

6 PCO (VD)

3.66

.60

7 PCO (SD)

4.06

.46

1 Age

1

2

3

4

10 5

.1 4

n r u

l a

o J

6

7

.05

.0 3

.0 9

.15

.05

.0 2

.0 2

.85* *

.06

.04

.0 7

.1 3

.86* *

f o

8

9

o r p

e

r P

.12

11

.46* * 37

Journal Pre-proof 8 OCM

3.53

.80

-.20

.01

.1 3

.1 2

-.13

-.14

.08

9 Goal progress

3.50

.80

-.02

.15

.2 6

.0 2

.17*

.12

.17 *

.15

10 TI (T2)

2.61

1.1 6

.18*

.07

.0 5

.0 5

-.04

-.01

.08

.18*

11 TI (T3)

2.77

1.1 6

.14

.20 *

.0 3

.0 8

-.09

112 Δ TI

.01

.78

.03

.23 *

.0 2

.0 7

-.08

l a

-.02

.14

r P

p e

ro

-.03

.11

f o

.21*

-.13

-

.24

**

.48* *

.67* *

.44**

.07

.78* *

n r u

o J

Note: TI = Turnover intentions; PCO (VD) = values-driven PCO; PCO (SD) = self-driven PCO; N = 138, ** p < .01; * p < .05

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TABLE 2 Confirmatory Factor Analyses χ2

df

Configural Invariance

3.06

5

Metric Invariance

4.34

7

1.28

Scalar Invariance

9.48

10

l a

Model

Δ χ2

CFI

RMSEA

e

1.00

5.14

f o

o r p

Measurement Invariance

r P

.00

1.00

.00

1.00

.00

n r u

Note. N =138. df = degrees of freedom; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation; CFI = comparative fit index, ** p < .01

o J

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f o

l a

o r p

r P

e

n r u

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Journal Pre-proof TABLE 3a Results of Moderated Mediation with Overall PCO Scale

Indirect Effect Model

Moderated Mediation Model

Final model

B

SE

f o

β

T

B

SE

β

T

B

SE

β

T

University

.42

.14

.26

3.07*

.40

.14

.25

3.07*

.42

.14

.26

3.02*

Gender

.21

.15

.12

1.41

.21

.14

.12

1.41

.21

.15

.12

1.41

Age

.02

.02

.08

.99

Salary

.00

.02

.00

-.03

PCO

.29

.13

.16

o r p

Mediator: Goal progress

OCM PCO*OCM R2

n r u

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.11

l a

e

r P

.02

.02

.11

.99

.02

.02

.08

.99

-.01

.02

-.04

-.44

.00

.02

.00

-.44

.94

.48

.52

1.96*

.29

.15

.16

1.99*

.88

.53

.89

.09

-.18

.14

-.76

-1.35 .15*

.11*

DV:

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.31

.13

.19

2.36

.29

.13

.19

2.36

.29

.13

.19

2.36

Gender

-.32

.13

-.19

-2.48

-.35

.13

-.20

-2.71**

-.33

.13

-.19

-2.57*

Age

.01

.02

.05

.62

.00

.02

.00

.03

.00

.02

.02

.20

Salary

.01

.01

.05

.74

.02

.02

.09

1.12

.02

.02

Goal progress

-.45

.08

-.46

-5.66**

-1.21

.35

-1.23

-3.52**

OCM

-.85

.34

-.86

-2.49*

Goal progress* OCM

.22

.09

1.19

R2

l a

.26*

n r u

N = 138, ** p < .01; * p < .05

o r p

e

r P

2.27*

.29**

f o

.08

1.12

-1.14

.34

1.17

-3.34**

-.78

.34

-.80

-2.31*

.20

.09

1.09

2.11*

.29**

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TABLE 3b Results of Moderated Mediation with Self-Directed PCO Subscale

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Indirect Effect Model

Moderated Mediation Model

Final model B

B

SE

β

T

B

SE

β

T

University

.41

.14

.26

3.01**

.39

.14

.25

2.88*

Gender

.21

.15

.12

1.41

.19

.14

.12

1.34

Age

.02

.02

.09

1.17

.03

.02

.11

1.50

Salary

.-01

.01

-.12

-.13

-.01

.02

-.04

PCO_SD

.29

.13

.16

2.00

1.05

.51

.52

SE

Β

T

Mediator:

f o

Goal progress

rn

OCM

1.05

u o

PCO_SD* OCM R2

l a

-.22

J .11

o r p .41

.14

.26

2.97*

.21

.15

.12

1.45

.02

.02

.08

1.02

-.57

.00

.02

.00

-.15

2.04*

.27

.14

.16

1.92*

e

r P

.59

.89

1.77

.14

-.76

-1.51

.15*

.11*

DV: Δ Turnover intentions

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Journal Pre-proof University

.31

.13

.19

2.36

.29

.13

.19

2.36

.29

.13

.19

2.36

Gender

-.32

.13

-.19

-2.48

-.35

.13

-.2

-2.71**

-.33

.13

-.19

-2.57*

Age

.01

.02

.05

.62

.00

.02

.00

.21

.00

.02

.02

.21

Salary

.01

.01

.05

.74

.02

.02

.09

1.03

.02

.02

.08

1.02

Goal progress

-.45

.08

-.46

-5.66**

-1.14

.34

-1.23

-3.34**

-1.14

.34

OCM

-.78

.34

-.86

-2.31*

Goal progress *OCM

.20

.09

1.09

2.11*

R2

.26*

l a

N = 138, ** p < .01; * p < .05

o r p

e

r P

.29**

f o

-1.17

-3.34**

-.78

.34

-.80

-2.31*

.20

.09

1.09

2.11*

.29**

n r u

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TABLE 3c

Results of Moderated Mediation with Values-Driven PCO Subscale

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Journal Pre-proof Indirect Effect Model

Moderated Mediation Model

Final model

B

SE

β

T

B

SE

β

T

B

SE

University

.43

.14

.27

3.21*

.42

.14

.26

3.06*

.43

.14

Gender

.21

.15

.12

1.38

.22

.14

.12

1.52

Age

.02

.02

.08

.98

.03

.02

.11

1.24

Salary

.00

.02

.01

-.09

-.01

.02

-.02

-.25

PCO_VD

.16

.11

.12

1.40

.55

.38

.42

1.48

.39

.56

1.43

.10

-.46

-1.04

β

T

Mediator: Goal progress

OCM

l a

.56

rn

PCO_VD*OCM

-.11

u o

R2

.10

o r p

e

r P

f o

.27

3.12*

.21

.15

.12

1.41

.02

.02

.08

.89

.00

.02

.01

-.10

.16

.11

.12

1.45

.13*

.10*

J

DV: Δ Turnover intentions University

.31

.13

.19

2.36

.29

.13

.19

2.36

.29

.13

.19

2.36

Gender

-.32

.13

-.19

-2.48

-.33

.13

-.20

-2.57*

-.33

.13

-.19

-2.57*

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Journal Pre-proof Age

.01

.02

.05

.62

.00

.02

.02

.21

.00

.02

.02

.21

Salary

.01

.01

.05

.74

.02

.02

.08

1.03

.02

.02

.08

1.02

Goal progress

-.45

.08

-.46

-5.66**

-1.14

.34

-1.17

-3.39**

-1.14

.34

-1.17

-3.34**

OCM

-.78

.34

-.80

-2.31*

-.78

.34

-.80

-2.31*

Goal progress*OCM

.20

.09

1.09

2.11*

.20

.09

R2

.26*

.29**

N = 138, ** p < .01; * p < .05

l a

p e

ro

f o

1.09

2.11*

.29**

r P

n r u

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TABLE 4 Conditional Indirect Effect of PCO on Changes in Turnover Intentions at Values of Organizational Career Management

Organizational career management

Effect

E

Bootstrap CI

Goal progress

Low

-.38

.24

[-1.01; -.04]

Goal progress

High

-.28

.17

of

Mediator

-p

ro

[-.72; .-.04]

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TABLE 5

Goal progress Goal progress

Organizational career management

E

Bootstrap CI

Low

-.35

.24

[-1.03; -.01]

High

-.29

.17

[-.76; -.03]

na

Effect

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Mediator

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Conditional Indirect Effect of Self-Directed PCO on Changes in Turnover Intentions at Values of Organizational Career Management

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FIGURE 1 Conceptual Model

ro

H4

of

Organizational Career Management

Goal Progress

H1

H2

Δ Turnover Intentions

lP

re

Protean Career Orientation

-p

Indirect effect: H3

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Goal progress and changes in turnover intentions are controlled for by age, gender, salary and university.

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FIGURE 2

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Interaction of Goal Progress and OCM in Explaining Changes in Turnover Intentions

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Journal Pre-proof Author Contribution

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Claudia Holtschlag: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – Orginal Draft. Aline Masuda: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing - Review & Editing. B. Sebastian Reiche: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Writing - Review & Editing. Carlos Morales: Formal analysis, Writing- Reviewing and Editing,

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Highlights: -

Protean career orientation (PCO) is indirectly related to decreases in turnover intentions

-

The indirect relationship is explained by protean careerists’ higher level of goal progress

-

Organizational career management (OCM) moderates the indirect effect of PCO

ro

The less OCM millennials receive, the more pronounced is the indirect effect

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from PCO to decreases in turnover intentions

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to decreases in turnover intentions

5