Why girls go pink: Game character identification and game-players’ motivations

Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Computers in Human Behavior journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Why girls go pink: Game character identification and game-players’ motivations Eva A. van Reijmersdal a,⇑, Jeroen Jansz b, Oscar Peters c, Guda van Noort a a

Amsterdam School of Communication Research ASCoR, University of Amsterdam, Kloveniersburgwal 48, 1012 CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands Erasmus School of History, Culture and Communication, Erasmus University Rotterdam, P.O. Box 1738, 3000 DR Rotterdam, The Netherlands c Department of Media, Communication and Organisation, Faculty of Behavioural Sciences, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands b

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Available online 27 July 2013 Keywords: Game Girl Identification Motivation Uses and gratifications Social role theory

a b s t r a c t Based on social role theory and uses and gratifications, this study provides insights into the popularity of so-called pink games. This study is the first to examine the roles of identification, playing time, and age in the experience of motivations while playing an online role-playing game. Drawing upon a survey among 2261 girls between10 and 17 of age, our results show that identification with characters in the game is an important process in explaining girls’ gaming motivations. In addition, identification and motivations are intensified with playing time. Although age affects identification negatively, age is not related to the most important motive in playing pink games: social interaction. This study has important theoretical and practical implications for the popularity of pink games among girls. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Although playing video games is one of the most popular leisure time activities among children and adolescents, large-scale surveys investigating playing habits continuously affirm that the gaming population is dominated by boys and young men. Reports issued by the game industry claim that the minority of female gamers is substantial and possibly growing (ESA, 2012; ISFE, 2012), but academic research shows that girls still play less frequent and in shorter sessions (Chen, 2010; Homer, Hayward, Frye, & Plass, 2012; Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). In addition, research shows that girls are likely to stop playing video games at the beginning of early adolescence, when most boys continue (Agosto, 2004; Chou & Tsai, 2007). This ‘gender rift’ in gaming has also beenobserved with respect to game genre preference; games that are successful in attracting girls, even after the age of 12, are socalled pink games (Cassell & Jenkins, 1998; Jansz & Vosmeer, 2009). Whereas so-called green–brown games, such as war and sports games, are normally highly competitive and targeted at boys, pink games, such as cooking, dress-up and makeover games, contain more social game elements and are targeted at girls (Jansz & Vosmeer, 2009). Mattel’s Barbie Fashion Designer, (1995) is the classic example of a successful pink game, which has led to the mushrooming of many similar small, fast-paced (online) ‘casual games’ (e.g., www.games2girls.com) increasingly so onsocial ⇑ Corresponding author. Present address: ASCoR, Kloveniersburgwal 48, 1012CX Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Tel.: +31 20 525 3986. E-mail address: [email protected] (E.A. van Reijmersdal). 0747-5632/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.046

networks like Facebook (Lee & Wohn, 2012; Pratchett, 2005). It has also led to the expansion of pink online role-playing games, including goSupermodel (Van Reijmersdal, Jansz, Peters, & Van Noort, 2010; Wu, Wang, & Tsai, 2010). The Sims is generally subsumed under the pink label as well. This virtual dollhouse has lasting success among female players (Jansz, Avis, & Vosmeer, 2010), which is also due to the fact that its design team included women (Jenson & De Castell, 2010). The question why pink games are successful in attracting girls has received scant attention in previous research. It has been proposed that the content concerned with traditional female gender roles draws girls to playing pink games (Jenkins & Cassell, 2008), but this has not been studied empirically. It has been established, however, that female gamers dislike the dominance of stereotypical male interests in video games, which are often presented in a violent context with a depiction of female characters in an overly sexualized manner (Downs & Smith, 2010; Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006). This study aims to fill the gap in the literature by empirically studying the attractions of the popular pink online game goSupermodel. Following Jenkins and Cassell (2008) we assume that its playful representation of the fashion industry is attractive for girls. Empirically, we concentrate on the audience’s reception of the content, rather than on the content as such. We focus on two psychological processes involved in the girls’ reception of goSupermodel’s content. The first one is identification. We embrace social role theory (Eagly & Koenig, 2006), to argue that pink games provide an opportunity for game-playing girls to identify with the game character and its social role. We assume that the gender stereotypic

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

portrayals in pink games ‘‘affect behavior by becoming internalized as part of individuals’ self-concepts (Eagly & Wood, 1999, p. 413). This identification can be described as the feeling to become the key person in the game, a fashion model in the present case (e.g., Cohen, 2001). Prior studies that examined identification with game characters focused mainly on male players of green–brown games. Gender differences were hardly ever observed, which is due to the absence or small number of females in most studies (Klimmt, Hefner, Vorderer, Roth, & Blake, 2010; Konijn, Bijvank, & Bushman, 2007; MacDonald & Kim, 2005; Trepte & Reinecke, 2010; Van Looy, Courtois, De Vocht, & De Marez, 2012). To date, there is no research on the identification with pink game characters. This study aims to fill that gap. The second psychological process that can explain the appeal of pink games is motivational. We follow the uses and gratifications perspective (Rubin, 2002; Ruggiero, 2000) to uncover which game-play motivations are prevalent. We expect that girls play pink games because they experience playing as fulfilling multiple needs. The actual motivations involved in playing a pink game will be derived from previous research and tested empirically in this study (Sherry, Lucas, Greenberg, & Lachlan, 2006). As suggested by Boyle, Connolly, Hainey, and Boyle (2012), this study advances the understanding of the role of game motivations by examining in more detail the characteristics of a specific kind of game, namely, a pink game. The conceptualization of identification and motivation as the key psychological processes involved in the appreciation of game content implies the integration of insights from social role theory and uses and gratifications in our theoretical model. Specifically, the substantial relation between identification and motivation is examined in order to find out whether identification is the mechanism that explains motivation strength, that is, the extent to which game-playing needs are being fulfilled. In addition to the girls’ identification and motivations, we examine the role of game-player characteristics, because the same game may fulfill different needs for different girl players. First, we look at age, as it has been suggested that game character identification and game-play motivations are age sensitive (Greenberg, Sherry, Lachlan, Lucas, & Holmstrom, 2010; Smahel, Blinka, & Ledabyl, 2008), that is, identification declines with age (Hefner, Klimmt, & Vorderer, 2007; McDonald & Kim, 2001). Second, playing time is examined, as Klimmt et al. (2010) suggested that game-character identification may emerge from playing time and that this relation requires further investigation. Moreover, game-play motivations may differ for different levels of game play intensity (Greenberg et al., 2010). Therefore, testing the relationships between age and play behavior on the one side and game character identification and motivations to play on the other is crucial in understanding why girls play pink games. In sum, using the conceptual background of social role theory (Eagly & Koenig, 2006) and the uses and gratifications perspective (Rubin, 2002; Ruggiero, 2000), this study examines why girls play pink games. We build a theoretical model based on these two perspectives to explain why pink games are successful and relate these perspectives to game features to understand what is important for pink game players. The model is empirically tested among girls aged 10–17 to examine the relations between identification with characters in pink games, motivations to play pink games, and game-players’ age and playing behavior. Our focus on girls and the inclusion of a substantial group of girls under age 12 significantly adds to the existing literature on young children’s media use and on gaming behavior in particular (Hasebrink, Livingstone, Haddon, & Olafsson, 2009).

2641

2. The present case: goSupermodel This study focuses on a specific pink game: goSupermodel. This simple role-playing game is available free online. Game play amounts to assuming a model’s role: players can create a virtual model (avatar) that interacts with other virtual models. GoSupermodel is targeted at young girls and is available in 11 countries. The present study focused on the Dutch version, which is comparable to versions in other countries. At the time of this study, 1.2 million virtual models had been created by girls using the Dutch version of goSupermodel. The aim of the game is both social and competitive. In terms of the social goal of the game, players can communicate with other models, create social groups, post usergenerated content, and find new friends. On the competitive side, the aim is to earn as many points as possible by participating in modeling contests, dance competitions, designing clothes, and other contests. The more points you earn, the more popular your model becomes. In some of the contests, players can earn virtual money, called G money. With G money, players can buy clothes and accessories for their model or have virtual photo shoots. We chose the pink game goSupermodel as a research context for two reasons. First, the game is very popular among (young) girls in different countries. Second, it offers an interesting case because its emphasis on social aspects of play and stereotypic female gender roles is much like other pink games but is also characterized by competitive play. However, it has been shown that female players are not particularly attracted to competition (Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006). The fact that competition is a game element in this pink game allows for testing the relative importance of motivations to play pink games. In the following sections, social role theory and the uses and gratifications perspective are first related to pink game features in general and then to features of goSupermodel more specifically to explain why girls are attracted to pink games. Finally, gamer characteristics, age and game-play behavior are related to identification and motivations.

3. Theory 3.1. Social role theory and pink games The observed gender differences in gaming largely reflect gender stereotypes and norms regarding gender appropriate behavior in Western societies. In the wider social context, the female/male differentiation coincides with dualities such as nature/culture, private/public, leisure/work, care/competition and emotional/rational (Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004; Van Zoonen, 2002). Social role theory provides an explanation for the persistence of these dualities emphasizing the different social roles in which women and men are socialized (Eagly, 1987; Eagly & Koenig, 2006). In the distant past, gender roles were largely determined by the distinct physical capacities of women (e.g., child bearing) and men (e.g., protecting the family). In modern society, gender roles have evolved into roles that are related to these capacities. Women are more likely than men to perform the domestic roles of the primary caretaker because they bear and nurture children, and men are more likely than women to engage in roles in the paid economy. This particular pattern of sexual division of labor dominates Western societies and is reflected in gender stereotypes and norms regarding gender appropriate behavior (Eagly & Wood, 1999). When a girl grows up, she is socialized into multiple social roles, including a gender role. In interacting with others, she develops a female gender identity, that is to say, she comes to understand what being a girl amounts to. Gender role socialization unfolds

2642

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

naturally in day-to-day social interaction within the confines of already established gender identities. The social construction of identity is a dynamic process that comes with conflicts and insecurities, particularly during adolescence when youngsters must adjust to physical growth, increasing sexual feelings, new cognitive and socio-emotional challenges at school, and changes in their emotional and social relations with their parents and peers (Bosma & Kunnen, 2001; Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Girls in early adolescence were found to be very sensitive to gender issues, preferring activities that are stereotypically portrayed as belonging to their own sex (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Media are generally perceived as an important agent of socialization in addition to and in interaction with the activities of parents, peers and school. From the perspective of (gender) identity development, it is particularly important that media content enables users to identify with roles and characters. Identification with a media character is defined as the imaginary process in which ‘‘an audience member imagines him- or herself being that character and replaces his or her personal identity and role as audience member with the identity and role of the character within the text’’ (Cohen, 2001, p. 251). With respect to soaps and television serials, it was indeed found that adolescents related media content to the construction of their own identities (Brown, Dykers, Steele, & White, 1994; Cohen, 1999; De Bruin, 2005). Spectators may identify for many different reasons, such as because they aspire to the character’s role or because of similarities between the character and themselves (Cohen, 2001). Obviously, identification can also be inspired by a lack of similarity. In this kind of wishful identification, spectators desire to identify with features of the character precisely because they themselves do not possess these features (Hoffner & Buchanan, 2005; Konijn & Hoorn, 2005). Identification with game characters is rather different from identification with television or film characters because games are interactive. Klimmt, Hefner, and Vorderer (2009) argued that gamers may identify especially closely with game characters or the role they occupy because of the perspective they take while playing: ‘‘Players do not perceive the game (main) character as a social entity distinct from themselves, but experience a merging of their own self and the game protagonist’’ (p. 354). Identifying with a game character or role (for example, as a fighter pilot, a small-time crook, the world’s best soccer player, or a fashion model) means perceiving oneself differently from a non-gaming situation for as long as the game lasts (Klimmt et al., 2010). Empirical research on boys (Olson, 2010) and male young adults (Klimmt et al., 2010; Van Looy et al., 2012) has established that male players indeed temporarily identify themselves with game characters and roles, experiencing both similarity identification and wishful identification (Van Looy et al., 2012). In their study among young adults Trepte and Reinecke (2010) have found that game genre matters. Players of non-competitive games prefer avatars similar to their own personality and competitive gamers prefer to play with dissimilar avatars. MacDonald and Kim’s survey (2001) among younger players suggests that children identify with characters of all sorts (i.e., across game genres). We conclude from these findings that it is safe to assume that pink games provide (young) female players with sources of identification. The game-play in the pink game goSupermodel is concerned with the gendered practice of modeling, which offers female players ample opportunities to identify with an unequivocal female gender role. In a previous study, it was established that the game is very popular among females in early adolescence (Van Reijmersdal et al., 2010). Additionally, it was found that girls of this age are very sensitive to gender issues (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Therefore, on theoretical grounds, we assume that the popularity among young girls of pink games, and of goSupermodel in particular, can be partly attributed to the opportunities these games offer for

identification with a female gender role. Regarding game-player characteristics, McDonald and Kim (2001) established that identification is age sensitive: younger children (boys and girls) in their sample showed a higher level of identification with game characters than did older children. Hence, we assume that identification will be strongest among younger players of pink games. Finally, Klimmt et al. (2010) argued that time investment requires further investigation: ‘‘video game identification may emerge as a relevant determinant of game enjoyment only if it can unfold over longer periods of playing time and/or multiple playing sessions’’ (p. 334). We translated their suggestion into the assumption that identification is positively related to the time spent playing pink games. Based on Social Role theory and previous game research among male game players, we formulated the following hypotheses concerning identification. H1. Players of a pink game identify with the game characters. H2a. Age is negatively related to identification with characters in a pink game. H2b. Playing time is positively related to identification with characters in a pink game. 3.2. Motivations for playing pink games The second part of our theoretical analysis of pink game popularity is concerned with girls’ motivations for playing these games. It supplements previous analysis of identification with a theoretical account of the needs that can be fulfilled by playing pink games in general and goSupermodel in particular. The focus on need fulfillment is drawn from the uses and gratifications approach to understanding media selection and use (Rubin, 2002). This approach emphasizes the active role of the media user, arguing that selecting and using any medium is a determined, goal-directed activity that is largely determined by the user’s motivations (Ruggiero, 2000). In the case of digital entertainment games, the active role of users is beyond doubt: games can only function if users engage in a continuous exchange of messages. Hence, uses and gratifications are considered to provide a cutting-edge approach for gaining insight into the impact of new communication technologies, including games (Ruggiero, 2000; Wu et al., 2010). The emerging tradition of uses and gratifications research on gaming includes studies that have investigated titles and genres with a substantial female player base, for example, online roleplaying games, social network games and The Sims (Jansz et al., 2010; Lucas & Sherry, 2004; Lee & Wohn, 2012; Wu et al., 2010; Yee, 2006). We relied on previous uses and gratifications research on female gamers to develop our motivational theory for playing pink games. We assume that girls play pink games, such as goSupermodel, because they experience playing as satisfying multiple needs. As there are few studies about pink games, we incorporated research on games with a substantial female player base. Previous research is not conclusive about the number and kind of motivations that could be involved. The motivations fantasy, challenge, escapism, diversion, social interaction, competition and arousal have been found as predictors of female gaming across genres (Greenberg et al., 2010; Jansz et al., 2010; Lucas & Sherry, 2004). In his research on Massive Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games (MMORPG), Yee (2006) established a parsimonious model of three motivations: achievement, immersion and sociability. Women playing MMORPGs were particularly pushed by social motivations, which was confirmed in later MMORPG research (Ghuman & Griffiths, 2012; Williams, Yee, & Caplan, 2008; Wu et al., 2010; Yee, 2006). As the game-play in goSupermodel is very different from a

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

MMORPG, we decided to base our motivational theory on our own research of the rather similar pink game The Sims (Jansz et al., 2010) and Lucas and Sherry’s (2004) general analysis of gender differences in motivations for gaming. It resulted in four motivations to play pink games (fantasy, challenge, escapism, and social interaction) that were drawn from previous research and a fifth, interest, that was included on theoretical grounds. We will now briefly describe each motivation. 3.2.1. Fantasy The fantasy motivation is defined as playing a game because ‘‘it enables you to do things you cannot do in real life’’ (Jansz et al., 2010, p. 243). Girls may be motivated to play pink games because they enable them to virtually engage in activities that are desirable but in real life difficult, or even impossible, to do (Lucas & Sherry, 2004). Playing is appealing because it results in what Olson (2010) called ‘‘the fun of ‘unreality’’’ (p. 183). 3.2.2. Challenge This motivation is defined as playing a game because players can accomplish tasks and assignments pushing themselves to attain a higher level of skill in the game (Jansz, Avis, & Vosmeer, 2010). In goSupermodel, being challenged is embedded in a competitive context. Lucas and Sherry (2004) found that both male and female adult players were particularly driven by challenge, although men scored significantly higher. Similarly, Karakus, Inal, and Cagiltay (2008) showed that males possess a stronger preference for competition and challenge in a game than do women. The same pattern was found among young adult players of the Sims and role-playing games, although challenge was less powerful than other motivations (Jansz et al., 2010; Yee, 2006). Thus, challenge could be experienced by girls while playing pink games, but this motive is expected to be less prevalent as compared to other motives. Escapism is defined as players’ urge to play games to take their minds off their usual concerns by doing something completely different (Jansz et al., 2010). It has also been labeled ‘diversion’ (Lucas & Sherry, 2004) and was found to be a moderately important motivation in previous studies across genres for male and female players (Jansz et al., 2010) and for young adult female players (Lucas & Sherry, 2004). Similarly, we expect that escapism is a motive for girls playing pink games, and that this motive is relatively less prevalent. Social interaction is defined as the motivation to engage in collaborative or competitive play with others (Jansz et al., 2010). Social motivation is applicable both to playing the game in the company of friends and to social interaction within the virtual world of most pink games, particularly goSupermodel. Also, Hartmann and Klimmt (2006) demonstrated that young adult female gamers appreciated social interaction between game characters and between players. The importance of social interaction for early female adolescents was corroborated by research showing that these girls are very active users of social networking sites (Courtois, Mechant, De Marez, & Verleye, 2009; Rideout et al., 2010), which provides a perfect fit with established andculturally approved patterns of gendered social interaction (Hayes, 2008). The relative importance of social motivations compared to other motivations for gaming turned out to be somewhat puzzling. Two studies established that female players were socially motivated but also found that other motivations were more important (Jansz et al., 2010; Lucas & Sherry, 2004). Lucas and Sherry’s (2004) results actually contradicted gender stereotypes: social interaction was the second most important motive for male gamers, whereas it was the least important for women. However their study was for various games. Women’s high score for social motivation in Yee’s (2006) survey of MMORPG players confirmed the stereotype

2643

that women are socially motivated. This difference comparedto the other studies can likely be attributed to the fundamental social features of online role-playing. As pink games offer a social experience, it is expected that social interaction is a relative important motive for girls while playing goSupermodel. Interest is the final motivation considered applicable to playing pink games. It is defined as the cognitive need to know more about what is represented in the game (Jansz & Tanis, 2007). As such, interest was not addressed in previous research on female players. Nevertheless, we followed Tan and Jansz’s (2008) theoretical argument in favor of interest as a fundamental aspect of the game experience. In the case of goSupermodel, we assume that girls are motivated to play because they are curious about the world of modeling. Based on the uses and gratifications approach and results from previous studies, we developed a motivational theory for playing pink games. This theory led to the following hypotheses. H3a. Girls play pink games to experience fantasy, challenge, escapism, social interaction and interest. H3b. Girls are more less to play pink games to experience challenge and escapism, than to experience social interaction. In the previous section on identification with game characters, we established that the age of (young) players and the time invested in playing are considered to be important factors in game research. There is no published research on the relation between motivations and age for the age bracket of goSupermodel players. However, the results of Greenberg et al. (2010) show that it is crucial to study age to obtain a full understanding of patterns of play. They showed that physical and imagination games were preferred most by female 8th and 11th graders and less so by 5th graders. These differences in preferences between age groups are likely to be caused by the needs that are fulfilled by the different games. Based on these findings, we explore how age is related to the type of motivations that play a role while playing goSupermodel. To do so, the following research question is formulated. RQ1. How are the motivations experienced while playing a pink game related to a player’s age? In addition, the time invested in playing goSupermodel obviously indicates the girls’ enthusiasm for the game, and it is safe to assume that playtime is positively related to their motivations to play. However, the causality is difficult to determine on theoretical grounds. Game researchers have argued that (the strength of) motivations obtained during game play predict(s) motivations sought in future game-play and, thereby, future game play behavior, particularly playing time (e.g., Poels, Van den Hoogen, IJsselsteijn, & De Kort, 2012). However, our study does not examine what drives game play behavior but rather examines which motivations are prevalent while playing a pink game among a sample of experienced players. Among this group, it is conceivable that playtime predicts the strength of motivations. Therefore, we predict that playtime influences the strength of the motivation experienced while playing the game. H4. Playing time is positively related to the strength of motivations experienced while playing a pink game. Our final hypothesis is concerned with the relation between motivations and identification. Because identification in goSupermodel is concerned with assuming and performing a role, which includes creating a particular kind of avatar according to the player’s fantasy, we assume that the extent to which a player actually embraces the virtual role (of her avatar) predicts the strength of the motivations experienced while playing goSupermodel.

2644

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

Frequency of playing

Duration of game membership

H4

Playing time

Challenge H3ab

H2b H4 Interest H3a

RQ1 RQ1 Age

H2a RQ1

H5H5 Identification H1

H5

H4

H5 RQ1 RQ1

H4

Social Interaction H3ab

H5 Fantasy H3a H4 Escapism H3ab Fig. 1. Conceptual model.

H5. Players’ identification with game characters in a pink game is positively related to the strength of players’ motivations experienced while playing the game. The complete conceptual model that will be tested is presented in Fig. 1. 4. Method

Table 1 Measures for identification.

‘My model looks like me.’ ‘I recognize myself in my model.’ ‘When I play with my model, it feels like the things that are happening to her are actually happening to me.’ ‘When I play goSupermodel, I imagine that I am part of the game.’

Factor loading b

R2

.73 .80 .77

.53 .64 .59

.66

.43

Factor loading b

R2

.73 .80 .77 .66 .87

.53 .64 .59 .43 .76

.79

.62

.94 .91

.89 .83

.61 .87 .80

.37 .75 .63

.45 .50 .50 .66

.20 .25 .25 .43

.59 .45

.35 .21

4.1. Procedure and respondents Respondents were invited to participate in the research via a link on the goSupermodel website. The link gave direct access to the online questionnaire. Before filling out the questionnaire, respondents were informed that filling out the questionnaire was voluntary and that they could stop anytime they wanted. In addition, the respondents were told that the questionnaires were anonymous and that they would only be used for analyses by the researchers. First, general questions about demographics and gaming behavior were posed. Questions about motivations to play goSupermodel and identification with the avatar followed. Finally, the girls were debriefed and thanked for their cooperation. A total of 2261 girls between ages 10 and 17 (M = 12.93, SD = 1.57) filled out the questionnaire. More than one-third of the children were in primary school (40.3%). 4.2. Measures 4.2.1. Identification Identification with the gamers’ avatar, the virtual model, was measured with four items on a scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree), see Table 1 for all items. As our participants were rather young, we used a short and simple measure focusing on similarity identification (Van Looy et al., 2012). The items were adapted from previous research (Konijn et al., 2007; Von Feilitzen & Linne, 1975). To establish convergent and discriminant validity, both Composite Reliability (CR) and Average Variance Extracted (AVE) are calculated, see Table 1. Hair, Black, Babin, and Anderson(2010) suggested the following thresholds: CR > .70, AVE > .50, CR > AVE. To create one measure of identification, mean scores were calculated (Cronbach’s

Table 2 Measures for game play motivations.

I play goSupermodel: Challenge ‘To be the most famous model.’ ‘To be the best dancer.’ ‘To spend most money as a model.’ ‘To have the largest wardrobe.’ ‘To be the most popular model.’ Interest ‘Because I want to know what is important for being a model.’ ‘Because I think the modeling business is exciting.’ ‘Because I want to know what it is like to be a model.’ Social interaction ‘To make friends.’ ‘Because I have a lot in common with the other players.’ ‘To connect with other goSupermodel gamers.’ Escapism ‘To kill time.’ ‘To do things I cannot do (yet) in real life.’ ‘To be someone else.’ ‘Because in the game I can do things without consequences for my own life.’ ‘To take my mind of my usual concerns.’ ‘To do something else (than for example homework).’

Alpha = .82, Composite Reliability (CR) = .83, Average Variance Extracted (AVE) = .73, M = 4.33, SD = 1.73).

2645

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

Frequency of playing

Duration of game membership .48

.71 .09

Playing Time

Challenge .30

.31

-.05

.25

Interest

-.10 Age

ns

-.19

.05

.48 .16

Identification .28

.25

.37

ns Social Interaction

ns

.25

.35 .07 .26

Escapism Fig. 2. Path model with standardized path coefficients. Note: p < .05. Dotted lines are non-significant paths (ns).

4.2.2. Motivations Based on the literature, five different motivations for playing goSupermodel were measured with a total of 16 items on a scale ranging from 1 (totally disagree) to 7 (totally agree). Factor analysis with varimax rotation for all16 items yielded five motivations with an Eigenvalue larger than one, with a total explained variance of 76.58%. The first motive comprised five items measuring challenge, see Table 2 (adapted from Jansz et al., 2010; Lucas & Sherry, 2004). Mean scores were calculated to create a single measure of challenge (EV = 5.93, R2 = .37, Cronbach’s Alpha = .96, CR = .96, AVE = .96, M = 3.92, SD = 2.01). The second motive was interest in being a model and was measured with three items (adapted from Jansz & Tanis, 2007), see Table 2. Again mean scores were calculated (EV = 2.45, R2 = .15, Cronbach’s Alpha = .91, CR = .91, AVE = .89, M = 4.83, SD = 1.92). The third motive was social interaction and was measured with three items, see Table 2 (adapted from Jansz et al., 2010; Lucas & Sherry, 2004; EV = 1.53, R2 = .10, Cronbach’s Alpha = .79, CR = .82, AVE = .75, M = 5.38, SD = 1.50). The fourth and fifth motivations were escapism (EV = 1.33, R2 = .08) and fantasy (EV = 1.07, R2 = .07), measured with three items each (adapted from Jansz et al., 2010; Lucas & Sherry, 2004). The two scales were not reliable as separate scales (Cronbach’s Alpha = .66 and .61, respectively). Consequently, we compared the items composing each scale. We concluded that the items in each scale were less different than we assumed when constructing the original scales. All items are concerned with distancing oneself from ordinary life during play, so we decided to merge the items into one scale labeled ‘escapism’ (Cronbach’s Alpha = .69, CR = .70, AVE = .32, M = 4.66, SD = 1.31). Therefore, fantasy is not present in the path model depicted in Fig. 2. Although, the average variance extracted is below aspiration level (AVE > .50), indicating less convergent validity of the scale, CR and Cronbach’s Alpha are good. Therefore, this composite measure was included in the analyses, for items see Table 2.

4.2.3. Gamer characteristics Several background characteristics were measured. Duration of goSupermodel membership was measured on a scale ranging from 1 (less than three months) to 4 (longer than 12 months) (M = 2.99, SD = 0.93). Frequency of playing the game was measured on a scale

ranging from 1 (less than one day a month) to 5 (six to seven days a week) (M = 4.58, SD = 0.70). Duration of membership and frequency are used as indicators of playing time in our model. In addition, age in years and level of education were measured.

4.3. Data analysis Structural equation analysis using Amos 19.0 with maximum likelihood estimation was used to test the hypothesized model. In this study, as suggested by Holbert and Stephenson (2002), the following model fit indices were used: chi-square estimates with degrees of freedom, as it is the most commonly used index to make comparisons across models (Hoyle & Panter, 1995). The ratio between chi-square and degrees of freedom should not exceed three for models with a good fit (Ullman, 2001). Additionally, the standardized root mean squared residual (SRMR) as a second absolute fit statistic (Hu & Bentler, 1999) in combination with the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) as incremental index and the root mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA; Browne & Cudeck, 1993) are reported. Hu and Bentler (1999) recommend using a cutoff value close to .95 for TLI in combination with a cutoff value close to .09 for SRMR to evaluate model fit and the RMSEA close to .06 or less.

5. Results With respect to our first hypothesis on girls’ identification with the game character, we examined the means. The results show that girls identify with the game character but not very strongly (M = 4.33, SD = 1.73). A t-test showed that the mean was significantly different from neutral, that is from 4, the mid-point of the scale, t(2267) = 9.22, p < .001. Thus H1 is confirmed. To test hypotheses 2a, 2b, 4, 5 and research question 1, a zero-order correlation was computed (see Table 3) followed by a second-order confirmatory factor analysis. The results obtained from testing the validity of a causal structure of the hypothesized model showed a good fit, v2(6) = 9.11; p = .168; v2/df = 1.52; SRMR = .010; TLI = .995; RMSEA = .0151 (90% confidence interval, CI = .000, .034). 1

GFI = .999; AGFI = .994; NFI = .997; and CFI = .999.

2646

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

Table 3 Correlation matrix of the measures.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Challenge Interest Social interaction Escapism Frequency of playing Duration of game membership 7. Identification 8. Age

6. Discussion 1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

–

.42 –

.20 .32 –

.35 .38 .36 –

.05 .06 .22 .07 –

.14 .13 .30 .11 .34 –

.35 .51 .38 .36 .10 .19

.11 .19 .07 ns ns ns

–

.19

This study aimed to gain a better understanding of why pink games are successful in attracting girls. More specifically, this study examined the prevalence of girls’ identification with game characters and a range of motivations experienced while playing the pink game goSupermodel among a large sample of girls between ages 10 and 17. In addition, we aimed to understand how two important gamer characteristics (age and playing time) are related to identification and gaming motivations.

–

Note: p < .05; ns: non-significant.

The path model with standardized path coefficients is featured in Fig. 2. With respect to H2a and H2b of the relation between identification with the characters and (a) player’s age and (b) the amount of time she spends on GSM, the standardized path coefficients in Fig. 2 show a negative effect of age and a positive effect of playing time on identification. This result means that older girls and girls who play the game less often report less identification with game characters than younger girls or girls who play more often. Therefore, H2a and H2b are confirmed. With respect to H3a and H3b on the strength of motivations experienced during the game, we examined mean scores. The scores show that social interaction (M = 5.38, SD = 1.50) was experienced most strongly, followed by interest (M = 4.83, SD = 1.92) and escapism (M = 4.66, SD = 1.31). Challenge was experienced least by the girls (M = 3.92, SD = 2.01). Based on these means we conclude that H3a was largely confirmed. To test H3b, repeated measures ANOVA was conducted. As predicted, social interaction was experienced significantly more strongly than challenge, F(1, 2267) = 939.48, p < .001, eta2 = .29, and escapism, F(1, 2267) = 461.55, p < .001, eta2 = .17, thus supporting H3b. Our research question asked how the girls’ age and the motivations are related, and H4 predicted that playing time is positively related to the motivations. The path model shows that age has a small negative effect on challenge and interest, which means that when girls grow older, challenge and interest are experienced to a lesser extent. Interestingly, social interaction and escapism are not related to age, which means that these motivations are equally experienced by all girls. With respect to playing time, the path model shows a rather strong relation with social interaction, which means that when girls play the game more often, social interaction is experienced more strongly. Similarly, there are positive relations between playing time and challenge and escapism. There is no significant relation between playing time and interest, which means that the amount of time the girls spend playing the game does not increase or decrease the motive interest in modeling. Hypothesis 4 is therefore, partially confirmed. Hypothesis 5 concerns the relation between identification with the game character and motivations experienced while playing. The standardized path coefficients in Fig. 2 show a significant positive direct effect of identification on challenge, interest, social interaction, and escapism. This finding means that the extent to which a player identifies with the game character positively predicts the strength of all motivations experienced while playing the game. Thus, H5 is confirmed. The relation between identification and interest is the strongest: girls who strongly identify with the game character also experience strong interest in modeling while playing the game. Squared multiple correlations provide information about the variance accounted for by the complete set of variables and showed that identification accounted for 10% of the variance; challenge accounted for 13%; interest accounted for 27%; social interaction accounted for 27%; and escapism accounted for 13%.

6.1. The role of identification This study extends our knowledge of the importance of identification in pink games by examining the level of identification with the game character. With respect to identification, two important conclusions can be drawn. First, girls reported identifying with the game characters in goSupermodel to a limited extent. This is somewhat in contrast to research on green–brown games, which showed that male game players identified strongly with the game character (Klimmt et al., 2010; Van Looy et al., 2012). However, age and playing time were related to identification in this study. Younger girls reported higher levels of identification with the virtual fashion models in the game. This finding corresponds to research conducted by McDonald and Kim (2001) who also showed that younger children (boys and girls) identified more withcharacters in a videogame than did older children. In addition, girls who spent more time playing goSupermodel reported more identification. Thus, as Klimmt et al. (2010) hypothesized, identification becomes stronger when it unfolds over longer periods of playing time and multiple playing sessions. Second, the results demonstrate that identification is an important process that explains the degree to which game-playing needs are fulfilled. Identification with the game character was positively related to four gaming motivations: challenge, interest, social interaction and escapism, which confirmed the positive relation between identification and motivation found among male gamers (Van Looy et al., 2012). This finding means that when girls identify with the game character, all motivations are more intensely experienced. Thus, identification is not important only for boys, in green–brown games, and for influencing gaming responses such as game enjoyment (Klimmt et al., 2010) or aggression after game exposure (Konijn et al., 2007) but is also important for girls, and for increasing gaming motivations. Therefore, future studies must continue to use social role theory in the context of video games and investigate identification as a psychological mechanism that explains (pink) game effects. 6.2. The role of motivations This study provides insights into the popularity of pink games, such as goSupermodel, by examining the motivations that are important for game play. Building on uses and gratifications research, our study leads to four important conclusions about girls’ motivations for playing pink games that are similar to goSupermodel. First, this study shows that social interaction is the most important motive to play the pink game goSupermodel. The opportunity to interact with other virtual models and to become friends with other gamers leads to a strong fulfillment of the girls’ needs for social interaction. This finding is in line with the observation by Poels, De Cock and Malliet (2012) that ‘social’ particularly means ‘relational’ for female gamers. Our finding also underlines Hartmann and Klimmt’s (2006) result that the lack of social interaction was the main reason for females to dislike videogames in general. Similarly, research among female players of World of Warcraft and

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

other MMORPGs showed that they scored higher on social motivations than men (Ghuman & Griffiths, 2012; Williams et al., 2008; Wu et al., 2010; Yee, 2006). In addition, our study shows that social interaction becomes even more significant when game players identify with the game character or when they play more frequently. Importantly, social interaction is not related to age, which means that this motive is important for all girls and does not decrease when girls become older. These results strongly underscore the importance of social interaction in pink games like goSupermodel for young girls and girls in adolescence. Second, another important motive for playing goSupermodel is interest in the fashion industry. Previous research on female gamers did not examine the role of interest in what is represented in the game. Our study, however, shows that interest is an important motive for the female gamers in our sample. Taking on the role of a virtual fashion model gives girls the opportunity to learn what it is like to be a model. Although this pink game restricts girls to a stereotypical role, they appreciate the information that they get from experiencing this role. Similarly, Jansz and Tanis (2007) showed that interest was an important motive among male players of first person shooter games. Our results showed that interest becomes slightly less important when girls get older and is not related to playing time. An obvious explanation would be that an interest in games must compete with an increasing number of other interests when girls grow older. Third, similar to previous studies among male and female players (Jansz et al., 2010) and across genres among young adult female players (Lucas & Sherry, 2004), our results show that escapism was a motivation for girls to play goSupermodel, but not the most important motivation. The game offers girls the opportunity to escape real life and to engage in activities that are difficult or even impossible to do in real life. Escapism is not related to the gamer’s age but increases slightly with playing time. The positive relation with playing time is not surprising, but the lack of a relation with age is. One would expect younger girls to be more inclined to escape in a game, as they have less freedom to engage in real-life activities. Fourth, our study shows that challenge is the least important motive for girls to play goSupermodel. Challenge becomes (slightly) more important when playing time increases and is more important for younger than for older children, but the game’s opportunities to participate in competitions and contests is overall relatively unimportant to the players. This finding corresponds to research by Hartmann and Klimmt (2006) who identified that females are less attracted to competitive game elements. Similarly, prior research showed that male players are more strongly driven by challenge than are female players (Jansz et al., 2010; Lucas & Sherry, 2004; Yee, 2006). Theoretically, our study shows that the uses and gratification approach provides an important theoretical basis for understanding the popularity of pink games among girls. Based on previous uses and gratifications research (Ruggiero, 2000; Sherry et al., 2006), our study was able to shed light on the relative importance of a range of motivations experienced while playing goSupermodel. More specifically, this study shows that being incited by social interaction, escapism and challenge confirms what was found among women playing various game genres, but fundamentally different from male game players. Moreover, interest was added as motive for girls playing pink games. 6.3. Conclusion, implications, and future research We used social role theory (Eagly & Koenig, 2006) to argue that gendered gaming must be understood within a wider social context because it reflects gender differences that are deeply

2647

embedded in society. With respect to content, we discussed opportunities that pink games offer for game character identification as a game feature appealing to girls. The second part of our analysis moved from the content of pink games to the activity of playing games. A uses and gratifications (Rubin, 2002; Ruggiero, 2000) approach was used to develop a motivational account of play, arguing that goSupermodel enables girls to fulfill a rich set of needs while playing the game. Our study indicates that social interaction and interest in the game’s topic (i.e., modeling) are the most important motivations for playing pink games such as goSupermodel, whereas challenge is the least important. In addition, identification is a strong reinforcer of all gaming motivations, as is playing time, whereas the role of age in explaining the success of goSupermodel is small. An implication of our study is that goSupermodel shows that pink games can be successful in attracting girls between 10 and 17 years of age when they offer opportunities for social interaction. Creating a game that makes it possible to bond, become friends, and connect with other players is likely to be popular among girls. In addition, the topic of the game is important. Successful games must treat topics that girls wish to learn more about, which involved being a fashion model in this case. In addition, facilitating identification with the game character by, for example, enabling girls to create their own character, amounts to a positive experience of gaming motivations while playing. Moreover, our study shows that not all motivations to play pink games such as goSupermodel decrease with age. This finding means that some of the needs of the older girls in our sample are fulfilled by goSupermodel to the same extent as those of the younger girls. Despite the gender rift in gaming, our study implies that a pink game that focuses on online role playing and social interaction can be successful in attracting girls between the ages of 10 and 17. Another implication of this study is that the results contribute to the discussion of whether playing (pink) games implies social threats for girls or rather affords social opportunities. By examining girls’ motivations to play goSupermodel, this research provides insights into the type of game content that girls appreciate. Although pink games in general and goSupermodel in particular may be criticized for restricting girls to stereotypical roles (Jenkins & Cassell, 2008), these games also offer opportunities that are not necessarily stereotypical. For example, goSupermodel provides a platform for girls to create their own social reality with likeminded players and to experiment with friendships and other kinds of social relations. The fact that game-play unfolds in a competitive context helps the players to learn how to cope with social challenges. Additionally, pink games similar to goSupermodel may contribute to developing the girls’ creative potential. Game play invites the girls to be creative with dancing and clothing, for example, but also with how to engage socially. These creative efforts are not confined to the game’s virtual world, as the creative aspects of modeling can also inspire real-life activities. So far, only a few studies investigated girl’s motivations for playing videogames. Research concentrating on pink games is even more scarce. Our study was among the first to provide valuable insights into the motivations of girls to play a pink game. We consider it to be a major asset of our study that we could investigate a large sample of girls ranging from 10 to 17 year olds with various backgrounds playing one particular title, that is, goSupermodel. However, future research is needed to show whether our findings also hold for younger and older girls. Different processes and different motivations may be prevalent among younger children and young adults. In addition, future research may show whether our findings are generalizable to samples from other countries (Okazaki & Taylor, 2013). GoSupermodel would be a good case to study across nations, because of its global popularity.

2648

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649

Although our study included a broad sample of girls with different levels of play time, the overall play time was rather high. Our model shows to what extent play time is related to the different motives. Nevertheless, for future research it could be interesting to specifically focus on girls who play very little or girls do not or do no longer play goSupermodel, to get insights into their motives as well. GoSupermodel was chosen in this study because of its large player base, but also because it incorporates aspects that are typical for many pink games, including the emphasis on social aspects of play and stereotypic female gender roles. Therefore, we may expect our findings to be generalizable to other pink games that resemble goSupermodel. However, future research is needed to test this expectation. In addition, we have built our model by carefully selecting relevant motivations based on theory and previous research. All motivations in our model played an important role in explaining girls’ use of goSupermodel. Future research could take a different approach and include all motivations that can be found in the game play literature and demonstrate not only which motivations do, but also which motivations do not play a role in girls’ game play. References Agosto, D. (2004). Girls and gaming. A summary of the research with implications for practice. Teacher Librarian: TL Magazine, 31(3), 1–8 (online). Barbie Fashion Designer. [Digital Game] (1995). El Segundo, CA: Mattel. Bosma, H. A., & Kunnen, E. S. (2001). Determinants and mechanisms in ego identity development: A review and synthesis. Developmental Review, 21, 39–66. Boyle, E. A., Connolly, Th. M., Hainey, Th., & Boyle, J. M. (2012). Engagement in digital entertainment games: A systematic review. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 771–780. Brown, J. D., Dykers, C. R., Steele, J. R., & White, A. B. (1994). Teenage room culture: Where media and identities intersect. Communication Research, 21, 813–827. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cassell, J., & Jenkins, H. (1998). Chess for girls? Feminism and computer games. In J. A. Cassell & H. Jenkins (Eds.), From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and computer games (pp. 2–45). Cambridge, USA, Francis, London: The MIT Press. Chen, L. C. (2010). The impact of perceived risk, intangibility and consumer characteristics on online game playing. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1607–1613. Chou, C., & Tsai, M. (2007). Gender differences in Taiwan high school students’ computer game playing. Computers in Human Behavior, 23, 812–824. Cohen, J. (1999). Favorite characters of teenage viewers of Israeli Serials. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 43, 327–345. Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences with media characters. Mass Communication & Society, 4(3), 245–264. Courtois, C., Mechant, P., De Marez, L., & Verleye, G. (2009). Gratifications and seeding behavior of online adolescents. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 15(1), 109–137. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.10836101.2009.01496.x. de Bruin, J. (2005). Multicultureel drama? Populair Nederlands televisiedrama, jeugd en etniciteit. Amsterdam: Otto Cramwinkel. Downs, E., & Smith, S. (2010). Keeping abreast of hypersexuality: A video game character content analysis. Sex Roles, 62, 721–733. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ s11199-009-9637-1. Eagly, A. H. (1987). Sex differences in social behavior: A social-role interpretation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Eagly, A. H., & Koenig, A. M. (2006). Social role theory of sex differences and similarities: Implication for prosocial behavior. In K. Dindia & D. J. Canary (Eds.), Sex differences and similarities in communication (2nd ed., pp. 161–177). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54, 408–423. Entertainment Software Association (ESA) (2012). Essential facts about the computer and video game industry. (Accessed 04.03.13). Fischer, A. H., Rodriguez Mosquera, P. M., van Vianen, A. E., & Manstead, A. S. (2004). Gender and culture differences in emotion. Emotion, 4, 87–94. Ghuman, Davinder, & Griffiths, Mark D. (2012). A cross-genre study of online gaming. International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning, 2(1), 13–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijcbpl.2012010102. Greenberg, B. S., Sherry, J., Lachlan, K., Lucas, K., & Holmstrom, A. (2010). Orientations to video games among gender and age groups. Simulation & Gaming, 41(2), 238–259. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C. , Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis: A Global Perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Hartmann, T., & Klimmt, C. (2006). Gender and computer games: Exploring females’ dislikes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11, 910–931. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1083-6101.2006.00301.x. Hasebrink, U., Livingstone, S., Haddon, L., & Olafsson, K. (2009). Comparing children’s online opportunities and risks across Europe: Cross-national comparisons for EU kids online (2nd ed.). London: EU Kids Online. Hayes, E. (2008). Girls, gaming, and the trajectories of IT expertise. In Y. B. Kafai, C. Heeter, J. Denner & J. Y. Sun (Eds.), Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat. New perspectives on gender and gaming (pp. 217–230). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Hefner, D., Klimmt, C., & Vorderer, P. (2007). Identification with the player character as determinant of video game enjoyment. In L. Ma, R. Nakatsu, & M. Rauterberg (Eds.), International conference on entertainment computing 2007 (pp. 39–48). Berlin: Springer (Lecture Notes in Computer Science 4740). Hoffner, C., & Buchanan, M. (2005). Young adults’ wishful identification with television characters: The role of perceived similarity and character attributes. Media Psychology, 7, 325–351. Holbert, R. L., & Stephenson, M. T. (2002). Structural equation modeling in the communication sciences, 1995–2000. Human Communication Research, 28(4), 531–551. Homer, B. D., Hayward, E. O., Frye, J., & Plass, J. L. (2012). Gender and player characteristics in video game play of preadolescents. Computers in Human Behavior (advance online publication). Hoyle, R. H., & Panter, A. T. (1995). Writing about structural equation models. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modeling: Comments, issues, and applications (pp. 158–176). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Hu, L.-T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6(1), 1–55. Interactive Software Federation Europe (ISFE) (2012). Videogames in Europe: Consumer study. (Accessed 04.03.13). Jansz, J., Avis, C., & Vosmeer, M. (2010). Playing the Sims2: An exploration of gender differences in players’ motivations and patterns of play. New Media & Society, 12(2), 235–251. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1461444809342267. Jansz, J., & Tanis, M. (2007). Appeal of playing online first person shooter games. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 10(1), 133–136. Jansz, J., & Vosmeer, M. (2009). Girls as serious gamers: Pitfalls and possibilities. In U. Ritterfeld, M. Cody, & P. Vorderer (Eds.), Serious games: Mechanisms and effects (pp. 236–248). London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis. Jenkins, H., & Cassell, J. (2008). From quake grrls to desperate housewives: A decade of gender and computergames. In Y. B. Kafai, C. Heeter, J. Denner, & J. Y. Sun (Eds.), Beyond Barbie and Mortal Kombat. New perspectives on gender and gaming (pp. 5–20). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Jenson, J., & De Castell, S. (2010). Gender, simulation, and gaming: Research review and redirections. Simulation & Gaming, 41(1), 51–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1046878109353473. Karakus, T., Inal, Y., & Cagiltay, K. (2008). A descriptive study of Turkish high school students’ game-playing characteristics and their considerations concerning the effects of games. Computers in Human Behavior, 24, 2520–2529. Klimmt, C., Hefner, D., & Vorderer, P. (2009). The video game experience as ‘true’ identification: A theory of enjoyable alterations of players’ self perception. Communication Theory, 19, 351–373. Klimmt, C., Hefner, D., Vorderer, P., Roth, C., & Blake, C. (2010). Identification with video game characters as automatic shift of self-perceptions. Media Psychology, 13(4), 323–338. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2010.524911. Konijn, E. A., Bijvank, M. N., & Bushman, B. J. (2007). I wish I were a warrior: The role of wishful identification in the effects of violent video games on aggression in adolescent boys. Developmental Psychology, 43(4), 1038–1044. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.1038. Konijn, E. A., & Hoorn, J. F. (2005). Some like it bad: Testing a model for perceiving and experiencing fictional characters. Media Psychology, 7(2), 107–144. Lee, Y.-H., & Wohn, D. Y. (2012). Are there cultural differences in how we play? Examining cultural effects on playing social network games. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(4), 1307–1314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.chb.2012.02.014. Lucas, K., & Sherry, J. (2004). Sex differences in video game play: A communicationbased explanation. Communication Research, 31(5), 499–523. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/0093650204267930. McDonald, D. G., & Kim, H. (2001). When I die, I feel small: Electronic game character and the social self. Journal of Broadcasting, & Electronic Media, 45(2), 241–258. Okazaki, S., & Taylor, C. R. (2013). Social media and international advertising: Theoretical challenges and future directions. International Marketing Review, 30(1), 56–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02651331311298573. Olson, C. K. (2010). Children’s motivations for video game play in the context of normal development. Review of General Psychology, 14(2), 180–187. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018984. Poels, K., De Cock, N., & Malliet, S. (2012). The female player does not exist: Gender identity relates to differences in player motivations and play styles. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(11), 634– 638. Poels, K., Van den Hoogen, W., IJsselsteijn, W., & De Kort, Y. (2012). Pleasure to play, arousal to stay: The effect of player emotions on digital game preferences and playing time. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15(1), 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0040.

E.A. van Reijmersdal et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 29 (2013) 2640–2649 Pratchett, R. (2005). Gamers in the UK. Digital play, digital lifestyles. London: BBC New Media & Technology (Consulted 22.12.11). . Rideout, V. J., Foehr, U. G., & Roberts, D. F. (2010). Generation M2: Media in the lives of 8- to 18-year-olds. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation. Rubin, A. M. (2002). The uses and gratifications perspective of media effects. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 525–549). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Ruggiero, T. E. (2000). Uses and gratifications theory in the 21st century. Mass Communication and Society, 3(1), 3–37. Sherry, J. L., Lucas, K., Greenberg, B. S., & Lachlan, K. (2006). Videogame uses and gratifications as predictors of use and game preferences. In P. Vorderer & J. Bryant (Eds.), Playing videogames – Motives, responses, and consequences (pp. 213–224). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Smahel, D., Blinka, L., & Ledabyl, O. (2008). Playing MMORPGs: Connections between addiction and identifying with a character. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 11(6), 715–718. Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 83–110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.83. Tan, E. S., & Jansz, J. (2008). The game experience. In H. N. Schifferstein & P. P. Hekkert (Eds.), Product experience (pp. 531–556). San Diego: Elsevier. Trepte, S., & Reinecke, L. (2010). Avatar creation and video game enjoyment: Effects of life-satisfaction, game competitiveness, and identification with the avatar. Journal of Media Psychology, 22, 171–184.

2649

Ullman, J. B. (2001). Structural equation modeling. In B. G. Tabachnick & L. S. Fidell (Eds.), Using multivariate statistics (4th ed., pp. 653–771). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Van Looy, J., Courtois, C., De Vocht, M., & De Marez, L. (2012). Player identification in online games: Validation of a scale for measuring identification in MMOGs. Media Psychology, 15(2), 197–221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 15213269.2012.674917. Van Reijmersdal, E. A., Jansz, J., Peters, O., & Van Noort, G. (2010). The effects of interactive brand placements in online games on children’s cognitive, affective, and conative brand responses. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1787–1794. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.07.006. Van Zoonen, L. (2002). Gendering the Internet: Claims, controversies and cultures. European Journal of Communication, 17, 5–23. Von Feilitzen, C., & Linne, O. (1975). Identifying with television characters. Journal of Communication, 25, 51–55. Williams, D., Yee, N., & Caplan, S. E. (2008). Who plays, how much, and why? Debunking the stereotypical gamer profile. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 13(4), 993–1018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.10836101.2008.00428.x. Wu, J., Wang, S., & Tsai, H. (2010). Falling in love with online games: The uses and gratifications perspective. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1862–1871. Yee, N. (2006). Motivations for play in online games. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 9(6), 772–775.