Why is Music Therapeutic for Neurological Disorders? The Therapeutic Music Capacities Model

Journal Pre-proof Why is Music Therapeutic for Neurological Disorders? The Therapeutic Music Capacities Model Olivia Brancatisano, Amee Baird, William Forde Thompson

PII:

S0149-7634(19)30243-X

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.008

Reference:

NBR 3691

To appear in:

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Received Date:

25 March 2019

Revised Date:

4 February 2020

Accepted Date:

8 February 2020

Please cite this article as: Brancatisano O, Baird A, Thompson WF, Why is Music Therapeutic for Neurological Disorders? The Therapeutic Music Capacities Model, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.02.008

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Why is Music Therapeutic for Neurological Disorders? The Therapeutic Music Capacities Model

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Olivia Brancatisano, Amee Baird & William Forde Thompson* [email protected]

Department of Psychology and Centre for Scaffolding the Ageing Mind ,

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Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

William Thompson

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Department of Psychology

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*Corresponding author:

Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

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Highlights

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Music contains powerful ingredients that can be used to treat neurological disorders • Music confers benefits for dementia, stroke, Parkinson’s disease and Autism • Music brings back memories, facilitates movement, and nurtures social bonds • Music triggers a range of neural mechanisms that lead to observable benefits • A new framework is offered that will assist in designing effective music treatments

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Abstract Music has cognitive, psychosocial, behavioral and motor benefits for people with neurological disorders such as dementia, stroke, Parkinson’s disease and Autism Spectrum

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Disorder. Here we discuss seven properties or ‘capacities’ of music that interact with brain function and contribute to its therapeutic value. Specifically, in its various forms, music can be engaging, emotional, physical, personal, social and persuasive, and it promotes

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synchronization of movement. We propose the Therapeutic Music Capacities Model

(TMCM), which links individual properties of music to therapeutic mechanisms, leading

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to cognitive, psychosocial, behavioral and motor benefits. We review evidence that these

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capacities have reliable benefits for people with dementia, stroke, PD and ASD when employed separately or in combination. The model accounts for the profound value that

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music affords human health and well-being and provides a framework for the development of non-pharmaceutical treatments for neurological disorders.

Key words: neurological disorders, music therapy, therapeutic, emotion, social, cognitive,

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psychosocial, behavioral, motor.

1. Introduction There is increasing recognition of the potential of music to improve psychological, motor and behavioral functions in people with neurological disorders (for reviews see

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Särkämö, 2017, 2018; Särkämö, Altenmüller, Rodríguez-Fornells, & Peretz, 2016; Thompson & Schlaug, 2015). For example, music is frequently used as a catalyst for regaining freedom of movement in people with Parkinson’s Disease (PD, Thaut et al., 1996; de Bruin et al., 2010) and speech fluency after stroke (Schlaug, Marchina & Norton, 2008). Music can also reduce mood symptoms, alleviate agitation and evoke personally meaningful memories in people with dementia (Baird & Samson, 2015). Further, it can facilitate communication and emotional functions in people with Autism Spectrum

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Disorder (ASD) (Katagiri, 2009; Wan & Schlaug, 2010b). These and other findings suggest that music interventions can be an effective and convenient alternative to

traditional therapies (e.g., Francois, Grau-Sanchez, Duarte & Rodriguez-Fornells, 2015;

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Li, Dong, Cheng & Le, 2016; Takeda, Tanaka, Okochi & Kazui, 2016), but there is little understanding of why music instigates such benefits for neurological populations.

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The efficacy of music-based interventions can be investigated on four levels of

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analysis: therapeutic contexts, active ingredients, neural mechanisms, and benefits. Most research on music-based treatments has been restricted to confirming that interventions associated with particular therapeutic contexts confer tangible benefits, with speculations

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on the underlying mechanisms involved, but limited attempt to identify the active ingredients or distinct qualities of music responsible for these outcomes (e.g., see MacDonald, Kreutz & Mitchell, 2012; Thompson & Schlaug, 2015).

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With respect to therapeutic contexts, the field of Music Therapy (MT) typically

classifies contexts into individual and group treatments that can be administered in either passive (listening) and active (e.g., drumming, clapping, dancing) forms. With respect to therapeutic benefits, several researchers have reported that music-based interventions can trigger neural processes that result in measurable benefits (e.g., Särkämö et al., 2016; Särkämö, Tervaniemi & Huotilainen, 2013). Such benefits may be classified into

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behavioral, cognitive, motor, and psychosocial. Across populations, it is well established that music can be used to alleviate pain, anxiety, agitation, and depression (de L’Etoile & Roth, 2019; Guétin et al., 2009). For people with Alzheimer’s dementia (AD), music listening can elicit vivid personal memories and associated emotions, reinforcing a sense of identity (e.g., Baird and Samson, 2015). For people with stroke and PD, music-based treatments can help to improve gait and speech functions (e.g., Shanahan, Morris, Bhriain, Saunders & Clifford, 2015; Norton, Zipse, Marchina & Schlaug; Thaut et al., 1996). For

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children and adolescents with ASD, MT can lead to improvements in attention and emotional understanding (e.g., Katagiri, 2009).

Several researchers have also speculated on the neural mechanisms underlying

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improvements in speech, motor, and memory functions following music-based

interventions (e.g., Legge, 2015; Särkämö et al., 2016; Sihvonen, et al., 2017; Thaut, 2005;

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Wan & Schlaug, 2010b). Some of the mechanisms of action that may be responsible for

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inducing therapeutic change include priming neural networks that link music with nonmusic functions such as autobiographical memory, the activation of the mirror neuron system (MNS), auditory-motor coupling, facilitation of motivation and reward, and

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neuroplasticity (Altenmüller & Schlaug, 2015; Merrett, Peretz, & Wilson, 2014). In short, there have been concerted efforts to elucidate the interconnections

between therapeutic contexts and benefits associated with music-based treatments, with

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speculations on the underlying mechanisms associated with these benefits, but little attention directed towards identifying the active ingredients or ‘capacities’ of music that impinge upon mechanisms that ultimately lead to positive outcomes. As an exception, MacDonald et al. (2012) discussed a number of general properties of music that may be associated with its impact on health and well-being across a range of formal and informal therapeutic uses. For example, they noted that its ubiquity makes it a highly accessible

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therapeutic tool, and that music often induces physical activity, which is a fundamental goal in neurorehabilitation. It can also be used as a form of non-linguistic communication. These and other properties ultimately impact upon behavior, emotion, cognition and identity. Altenmüller and Schlaug (2013) also discussed some of the capacities of music that may be relevant to neurorehabilitation, such as its ability to elicit motion and emotion, as well as being enjoyable and engaging. Focusing on known mechanisms of neurorehabilitation, Thompson and Schlaug

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(2015) attempted to refine this understanding of the active ingredients of music, postulating that seven core capacities of music consistently underlie the health benefits of music for people with neurological problems. They adduced from existing theory and

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evidence that the primary benefits of music for neurological conditions can be traced to the fact that music is engaging, emotional, physical, personal, social, persuasive, and

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encourages synchronization of movement and speech. These seven capacities have

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concrete benefits that are overlapping and interdependent, and the combined outcome of these attributes make music a particularly valuable and unique tool for therapeutic purposes. Although these attributes typically occur concurrently during rehabilitative

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music engagement, treatment plans can be developed to emphasize individual capacities to target specific neurological symptoms (Brancatisano, Baird & Thompson, 2019). Building on this insight, we outline the Therapeutic Music Capacities Model

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(TMCM), which illustrates the contexts, capacities, mechanisms and benefits of musicbased interventions. As depicted in Figure 1, the TMCM first identifies the contexts in which we experience music in a therapeutic way. Therapeutic contexts are highly dependent on the patient needs and abilities, and different levels of physical and sensory ability will determine whether individuals can engage in active or passive music interventions and whether treatment occurs in an individual or group setting. The model

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then presents seven core capacities that occur simultaneously in most music interventions; that music is engaging, emotional, physical, personal, social, persuasive, and affords synchronization. We propose neurological and psychological mechanisms that account for the link between the seven capacities of music and their behavioral, psychosocial, cognitive, emotional and motor benefits. The resultant framework provides an integrated understanding of how music can be employed therapeutically to address symptoms of a wide range of clinical conditions.

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Our literature review focuses on the primary therapeutic goals and benefits for four neurological conditions that have been investigated extensively, namely dementia, PD, stroke and ASD. Other reviews have considered the benefits of music for pain relief,

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attention deficits, sleep disorders, anxiety and depression (e.g., Hosseini & Hosseini,

2018). Such benefits are potentially relevant to a range of patient populations that will not

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be discussed here, but the TMCM provides a valuable framework for future investigations

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of such populations. Although our review focuses on reported benefits of music-based interventions, the potential for various forms of research bias (e.g., sampling and volunteer bias, drop-outs, publication bias) implicates the need for more research and replication in

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this field.

The goal of developing the TMCM is to provide a framework that identifies the

core qualities or capacities of music that account for its therapeutic benefits. Although the

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list of capacities is not exhaustive, we contend that most therapeutic outcomes arising from music-based treatments can be traced to one or more of these qualities of music. The most novel aspect of our model is the identification of seven capacities of music that interact and mutually support one another to engage neural mechanisms that confer therapeutic benefits. The capacities have individual and combined effects, and multiple capacities typically co-occur; this co-occurrence of benefits is the unique power of music.

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Music activities or treatment plans can be developed to emphasize different capacities depending on the goals, challenges, and symptoms in question. Some neurological disorders may require treatments that emphasize one or two active ingredients, whereas others call for treatments that include a more comprehensive set of ingredients. For example, the physical and synchronous nature of music are combined with each other in rhythmic auditory stimulation (RAS) therapies to motivate and sustain movement for people with PD (Thaut et al., 1996). Thus, the model not only articulates the

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capacities of music that contribute to its therapeutic value, but reveals how specific attributes of music interact with psychological and neurological mechanisms to bring about these benefits.

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An important implication of the model is that it identifies capacities that are not

individually unique to music, but that are uniquely combined in music interventions. Other

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forms of rehabilitative practices or therapies, such as behavior therapies, motor training,

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sports, psychotherapy, and diversional therapy all comprise therapeutic capacities that overlap with those in music-based treatments. What is unique to music is that it employs a comparatively large number of therapeutic capacities within a single package that is at

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once convenient, enjoyable, and universally accessible. We also maintain that these capacities tend to be far more pronounced in music-based treatments than in other activities, and can be readily intensified or abated by adjusting treatment plans. For

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example, a game of bingo used in diversional therapy will engage motor, social, and emotional systems in minor ways, but music-based treatments have far greater potential to interact with these and other systems in a deeply personal and engaging way. Thus, the model highlights the flexible and powerful nature of music-based treatments, illustrating how they can be designed to suit various neurological disorders. By focusing on the identification of therapeutic capacities that operate simultaneously, the model provides a

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powerful framework for developing novel treatments that engage multiple capacities simultaneously, whether or not such treatments employ music as a central tool. In this review, we examine the scientific evidence supporting the seven capacities of music, which forms the basis of the TMCM. To illustrate this, we focus on four neurological conditions, dementia, PD, stroke and ASD.

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[Figure 1 near here]

2. Four neurological disorders

We begin with a brief description of the four neurological disorders and a summary of

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their neural correlates.

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2.1. Dementia

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Dementia is an umbrella term for a group of neurological conditions that cause a gradual death of brain cells and associated decline in cognitive functions, with significant impairment in everyday functioning (American Psychiatric Association, 2013; Camicioli,

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2014). There are various types and causes of dementia, the most common being Alzheimer’s Dementia (AD) caused by Alzheimer’s Disease (Alzheimer’s Association, 2018). The vast majority of research on music and dementia has focused on people with

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AD, and consequently in this review we will focus on this type of dementia. The hallmark symptom of AD is impaired memory function, and the formal diagnostic criteria require that there is impairment in at least one other cognitive domain (such as language skills) in addition to memory (McKhann et al., 2011). In the early stage, the neuropathological effects of AD are focal and typically arise in the temporal lobes. As the disease progresses

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there are more widespread effects across other brain regions, resulting in more diffuse brain dysfunction and associated global cognitive impairment (Braak & Braak, 1995).

2.2. Parkinson’s Disease (PD) PD is classified as a ‘movement disorder’ due to its prominent motor symptoms, which include tremor, rigidity and bradykinesia (slow movement). The neural correlate of PD is the presence of Lewy bodies (abnormal deposits of protein within nerve cells) and a

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reduction of dopaminergic cells in the substantia nigra of the basal ganglia (Kaila & Lang, 2015). This results in reduced dopamine, a neurotransmitter crucial for motor and

numerous other cognitive and emotional functions. PD symptoms are heterogeneous, and

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include non-motor symptoms such as apathy, anxiety and depression, which have a greater impact on quality of life than the motor symptoms (Cooney & Stacey, 2016;

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Grimbergen, Schrag, Mazibrada, Borm & Bloem, 2013; Michałowska, Fiszer, Krygowska-

2.3. Stroke

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Wajs & Owczarek, 2005).

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A stroke occurs when the blood supply to the brain is interrupted, either because

the artery carrying the blood becomes blocked (ischaemic stroke) or bursts (haemorrhagic stroke). This causes a lack of oxygen and nutrients to brain cells resulting in cell death,

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with an associated brain lesion or ‘cerebral infarct’ (Stroke Foundation Australia, 2019). The neural correlates of stroke are diverse, depending on which artery is affected and the location of the associated cerebral infarct. The most common artery affected by stroke is the middle cerebral artery (MCA), which is the largest brain artery and supplies a substantial area of the lateral surface of the brain in addition to subcortical regions, specifically part of the basal ganglia and the internal capsule. An MCA stroke in either the

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left or right hemisphere can lead to hemiparesis/hemiplegia of the contralateral limbs and facial muscles. Language impairments, including fluent- and non-fluent aphasia, result primarily from left MCA stroke. These impairments result from damage to brain regions mediating expressive and receptive language functions, namely Broca’s (left inferior frontal gyrus) or Wernicke’s (left posterior superior temporal gyrus) areas (Binder, 2015). The main symptoms of a right MCA stroke are perceptual deficits, in particular hemispatial neglect of the contralateral (left) side. We will focus on MCA strokes in this

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review.

2.4. Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

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ASD is a neurodevelopmental condition characterised by deficits in two areas of functioning: (1) social communication and social interaction, and (2) restricted or

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repetitive patterns of behavior, interests or activities (DSM-V, American Psychiatric

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Association, 2013). These symptoms must be present in the early developmental period and cause significant functional impairment. Some of the hallmark features of these deficits include impairments in attention and communication (e.g., Allen & Courchesne,

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2001). For example, individuals with ASD may exhibit difficulties in changing their attention between visual tasks (Landry & Bryson, 2004) and attending to social stimuli (e.g., expressions of distress, Dawson, Webb, Carver, Panagiotides & McPartland, 2004).

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In addition, children with ASD may exhibit impairment in certain aspects of emotional processing, namely impaired detection of emotional facial expressions (e.g., Boraston, Blakemore, Chilvers & Skuse, 2007; Sato et al., 2017; Wallace, Coleman, & Bailey, 2008a, b) and voice (e.g., Philip et al., 2010; Rosenblau, Kliemann, Dziobek & Heekeren, 2017; Taylor, Maybery, Grayndler, Whitehouse, 2015, but see contrasting results in the meta-analysis of Uljarevic & Hamilton, 2013). Variations in brain structure, function and

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connectivity have been also been observed in neural systems associated with frontotemporal and frontoparietal regions, the amygdala–hippocampal complex, cerebellum,

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ganglia, and anterior and posterior cingulate regions (Ecker,

Bookheimer and Murphy, 2015). It has also been proposed that a dysfunction in the MNS of people with ASD may account for deficits in areas of communication and language and Theory of Mind (the ability to understand the mental states, emotions, intents and beliefs of other individuals) (e.g.,Baron-Cohen, 1991; Dapretto et al., 2006; Hadjikhani, 2007).

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Mirror neurons are discharged in the area F5 of the premotor cortex, not only when an action is performed but also when that action is observed (Di Pellegrino, Fadiga, Fogassi,

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Gallese & Rizzolatti, 1992; Keyers & Gazzola, 2010; Rizzolatti & Craighero, 2004).

3. The seven capacities of music

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We now describe seven therapeutic capacities of music as proposed in the TMCM

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and highlight research that demonstrates how each capacity can provide various benefits for people with the above four neurological conditions, dementia, PD, stroke and ASD.

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3.1. Music is engaging

The engaging nature of music occurs on both neurological and psychological

levels. From the neurological perspective, engagement refers to the breadth and depth of

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functions that are activated and engaged by passive and active forms of music, including attention, learning, memory, emotion, auditory scene analysis, planning and expectation, along with behavioral and physiological functions such as motor responses, breathing and heart rate (for a review see Peretz & Zatorre, 2005). This effect is reflected in the capacity of music to activate widespread brain regions, which include cortical regions spanning temporal, frontal, parietal, occipital and motor cortices, as well as deeper mid- and hind-

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brain structures such as the limbic system and cerebellum (Mallik, Chanda & Levitin, 2017; Zatorre & Salimpoor, 2013). From an immediate, short-term perspective, engagement refers to the tendency for music to capture attention, whereby musical experiences are typically more immersive or engrossing than other activities. Music captures attention more powerfully than other sensory stimuli because of its combination of time-varying features such as harmony, tempo, timbre, meter, phrasing, consonance, dissonance, and dynamics, which our brain is continuously working to track, perceive and

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categorize. The long-term effects of music on the brain include structural and functional

neuroplastic changes associated with benefits to auditory and motor functions (Kraus &

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Chandrasekaran, 2010; Skoe & Kraus, 2012). This is evident in both functional and

structural brain differences between musicians and non-musicians. The ability of music to

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promote neural plasticity is evident in both instrumentalists and singers (Kleber, Veit,

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Birbaumer, Gruzelier, & Lotze, 2009; Schlaug, 2015; Wan & Schlaug, 2010a). Young musicians have been shown to perform significantly better in auditory, vocabulary, abstract reasoning, mathematical and motor tasks (for a review, see Schlaug, Norton,

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Overy & Winner, 2005). Some structural brain differences are specific to the musical instrument played. For example, string musicians have larger somatosensory representations of the fingers they use when playing their instruments (Pantev, Engelien,

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Candia & Elbert, 2001). Further, gray matter volume in areas such as the primary motor, premotor and somatosensory areas and cerebellum has been positively correlated with musicians’ status, whereby gray matter volume is highest in professional musicians followed by amateur musicians, then non-musicians (Gaser & Schlaug, 2003a, b). These structural effects persist well into later life, such that older practicing musicians have a larger volume of gray matter in the left inferior frontal gyrus compared to that of matched

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non-musicians (Sluming et al., 2002). Thus, music training may act as a form of environmental enrichment which is defined as a therapeutic strategy of augmenting neural plasticity by placing individuals in multisensory, cognitive, and motor tasks that push normal capabilities (Pham, Soderstrom, Winblad & Mohammed, 1999). Music is a particularly beneficial form of environmental enrichment given its multisensory nature and its capacity to engage numerous brain regions simultaneously (Peretz & Zatorre, 2005). Environmental enrichment through music has been demonstrated to address stroke

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related impairments such as cognitive deficits in attention, verbal memory functions (Forsblom, Laitinen, Särkämö & Tervaniemi, 2009; Särkämö et al., 2008) and unilateral visual neglect (Chen, Tsai, Huang & Lin, 2013; Soto et al., 2009; Tsai et al., 2013).

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Särkämö et al. (2008, 2010, 2014) investigated the effects of daily listening to preferred music, versus preferred audio-books, on the acute stages of recovery post MCA stroke.

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They found improved verbal memory and focused attention in those who listened to music

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compared with audio books or standard care. In a follow up study, Särkämö et al. (2014) examined the neural correlates of these benefits using voxel-based morphometry (a computational technique which uses MRI to investigate local differences in brain

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anatomy) and found an increase in cortical gray matter volume in the fronto-limbic areas of the music listening participants. Specifically, these increases were greater in the music group than in the audio book or standard care groups in frontal areas (left and right

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superior frontal gyrus, and medial superior frontal gyrus) and limbic areas (left ventral/subgenual anterior cingulate cortex and right ventral striatum/globus pallidum). Furthermore, the significant gray matter volume increases in the superior frontal gyrus was directly associated with improvement in cognitive performance, namely language, verbal memory and focused attention. This finding demonstrates that the highly engaging nature of music listening may promote neural plasticity, leading to structural brain reorganization

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and functional improvement in cognition after MCA stroke. In addition, the increased gray matter volume in the left subgenual anterior cingulate cortex was correlated with a decrease in a number of self-reported measures including depression, tension, fatigue, forgetfulness, irritability and confusion. Research has also shown the amelioration of visual neglect after listening to classical music (Tsai et al., 2013) and pleasant music (Chen et al., 2013) in people with right hemisphere stroke. In a study conducted on 19 patients with right hemisphere stroke,

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Chen et al., (2013) observed that listening to pleasant music compared to unpleasant music or silence resulted in improved visual search of contra-lesional targets. Tsai et al. (2013) compared listening to classical music, white noise or silence, in 16 patients with right

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hemisphere stroke and showed an improvement in their performance on line bisection and object reporting tasks in the classical music condition. Whilst these findings illustrate how

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employing music can improve cognitive symptoms in visual neglect, further research in

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the form of Randomized Control Trials (RCTs) is needed to validate these results. Some of the benefits of music for stroke-related symptoms may also arise because music engagement leads to increased arousal and mood. The arousal and mood hypothesis

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states that music listening can lead to increases in arousal and mood that then have cascading benefits for cognitive function (Husain, Thompson & Schellenberg, 2002; Schellenberg, Nakata, Hunter & Tamoto, 2007; Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain,

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2001). For example, heightened arousal after listening to music is associated with increased speed of processing, and positive moods following music listening are associated with better performance on creative problem-solving tasks (Ilie & Thompson, 2011). More generally, enhanced arousal and mood are associated with increased neural activity and greater potential for neuroplastic changes that have lasting benefits (Altenmüller & Schlaug, 2015; Thompson & Schlaug, 2015; Wan & Schlaug, 2010a; Wan, Zheng,

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Marchina, Norton, & Schlaug, 2014). Thus, as illustrated in the TMCM (Figure 1), individual music-based interventions may draw upon the engaging capacity of music which – through mechanisms of neural plasticity, arousal and mood – benefits functions such as visual awareness and attention. Drawing on these principles of environmental enrichment, music training programs have also been developed for older adults to prevent age related cognitive decline (Mahncke, Bronstone & Merzenich, 2006). For example, Bugos, Perlstein, McCrae,

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Brophy and Bedenbaugh (2007) developed a program in which 31 musically naïve elderly individuals (60–85 years) participated in either six months of piano lessons (one 30-

minute lesson and three hours of individual practice per week) or received no training. The

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individuals who received the musical training showed significant improvements in their

performances of tasks assessing working memory, speed, and motor skills, whereas those

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who did not receive music training showed no change in these domains.

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The engaging nature of music also confers benefits for individuals with ASD. Interestingly, individuals with ASD often prefer to engage with musical compared with non-musical stimuli, such as verbal stimuli (Blackstock, 1978; Buday, 1995). This

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engagement is accompanied by increased responses in the fronto-temporal brain regions to song compared to speech (Lai, Pantazatos, Schneider & Hirsch, 2012; Sharda, Midha, Malik, Mukerji & Singh, 2015). In some cases, the musical skills of children with ASD

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exceed those of aged-matched controls (e.g., the ability to accurately imitate a series of tones, and sensitivity to musical pitch and timbre), which contrasts with their communication difficulties (Applebaum, Egel, Koegel & Imhoff, 1979; Bonnel et al., 2003; Heaton, 2005, Heaton, Hudry, Ludlow & Hill, 2008). Additionally, compared with neurotypical children, those with ASD attend to music for longer (Thaut, 1987). The interest that individuals with ASD exhibit towards music has been harnessed in

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interventions designed to maximise attention and learning. Both active and passive music activities facilitate cognitive benefits in children with ASD, specifically sustained attention and enhanced verbal communication. Further, pairing verbal information with music has been shown to aid memory and sustained attention in children with ASD (Thaut, 1987, Simpson, Keen & Lamb, 2013). For example, Simpson et al. (2013) found that the amount of time engaged in a language task was increased during a sung compared to spoken condition, and this increased engagement was associated with better learning outcomes.

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Thus, as shown the TMCM (Figure 1), individual and group music-based treatments, in both active and passive music contexts, make use of the engaging nature of music,

activating multiple brain regions that confer cognitive and behavioral benefits, such as

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enhanced attention and communication skills. Similar benefits were observed in a study by Sharda et al., (2018), in which the functional connectivity between the bilateral primary

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auditory cortex and subcortical and motor regions was increased in children participating

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in a music-based intervention, compared to a non-music intervention. This functional connectivity is typically reduced in ASD. In addition, the music group demonstrated reduced over-connectivity between auditory and visual-association areas. Importantly,

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these changes in brain connectivity after the music treatment were associated with improvements in communication skills.

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3.2. Music is emotional

One of the most recognised capacities of music is its ability to communicate,

induce, and modulate emotional states (Balkwill & Thompson, 1999; Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Juslin & Sloboda, 2010; Juslin, 2013; Salimpoor, Benovoy, Larcher, Dagher, & Zatorre, 2011). Given that music consists of ‘abstract sounds’, considerable research has focused on understanding how musical features such as pitch, loudness, and rhythm, along

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with psychological processes, such as memory and imagery, can induce heightened emotional states, arousal, and reward (Ilie & Thompson, 2011; Juslin, Barradas & Eerola, 2015; Thompson, & Quinto, 2011). Music-induced emotions are associated with changes in the autonomic nervous system, such as fluctuations in heart rate, galvanic skin response, blood pressure, and respiration (e.g., Krumhansl, Louhivuori, Toiviainen, Järvinen & Eerola, 1999; Salimpoor et al., 2011). These responses often result in a sensation of goosebumps or “chills” (Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Goldstein, 1980). Positive psychosocial

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benefits tend to dominate even when music is perceived to be sad (Vuoskoski, Thompson, McIlwain & Eerola, 2012) or violent (Thompson, Geeves & Olsen, 2019; Sun, Lu, Williams & Thompson, 2019).

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Music can modulate activity in brain structures that are known to be crucially

involved in emotion, such as the amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampal formation, right

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ventral striatum (including nucleus accumbens) through to the ventral pallidum, left

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caudate nucleus, insula, pre-supplementary motor area cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex (Koelsch, 2014). Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have examined the neural correlates underlying emotional responses to music, and found that

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listening to pleasurable music can lead to an increase in the level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) in the moments before the peak of an emotional response (e.g., Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Salimpoor et al., 2011), and increased opioid circulation and mu-

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opioid receptor expression (Mallik et al., 2017; Stefano, Zhu, Cadet, Salamon & Mantione, 2004). Such neurobiological effects are also observed for biologically rewarding stimuli such as food and drugs (Schilström, Svensson, Svensson & Nomikos, 1998). One mechanism underlying the emotion-inducing effect of music could be the acoustic patterns in emotional music overlap with the acoustic patterns found in emotional speech (e.g., Ilie & Thompson, 2011; Juslin & Laukka, 2003). Thus, when individuals listen to music,

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emotional systems may respond to the stimulus as though it were a highly expressive and emotional voice. Thus, music-based treatments are unique in the way that they are able to draw upon these intense music-induced emotional responses in order to promote therapeutic benefits. Juslin and colleagues identified a number of mechanisms that lead to emotional responses to music (Juslin, Liljeström, Västfjäll & Lundqvist, 2010; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). Two of these mechanisms, contagion and episodic memory, are especially relevant

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to music-based treatments for people with ASD and AD, respectively. Firstly, contagion refers to the tendency for individuals to experience an emotional state that they perceive in an external source, such as another person, or an artwork. For

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example, infants may burst into tears upon witnessing another infant cry. When individuals listen to music, they also may report experiencing the same emotion that is expressed by

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that music (Lundqvist, Carlsson, Hilmersson & Juslin, 2008). Despite their emotion

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processing deficits in other domains, people with ASD can successfully identify musical emotions (Allen, Hill & Heaton, 2009; Caria, Venuti & de Falco, 2011; Gebauer, Skewes, Westphael, Heaton & Vuust, 2014; Heaton, Hermelin & Pring, 1999; Heaton et al., 2008;

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Quintin, Bhatara, Poissant, Fombonne & Levitin, 2011). The neural correlates of music induced emotions in individuals with ASD have been investigated using fMRI. Further, their physiological and neural responses to music (e.g., limbic, paralimbic and reward

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areas, for review see Koelsch, 2010, 2011) are similar to neurotypicals (Allen, Davis & Hill, 2013; Gebauer, Skewes, Westphael, Heaton & Vuust, 2014). In a study by Gebauer et al., (2014), high-functioning adults with ASD were shown to have similar neural networks engaged as healthy controls when processing emotional music. Further, the individuals with ASD demonstrated an increase in neural activity to happy versus sad music in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and Rolandic operculum/insula. This may be indicative of

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heightened physiological arousal and an increase in cognition in response to emotional music. Thus, for individuals with ASD, music may be a valuable tool to enhance the interpretation of communication. Katagiri (2009) taught individuals with ASD to learn various emotional concepts in several teaching conditions: non-purposeful teaching, teaching with verbal instructions, teaching while background music representing the emotion was played, or teaching while singing. All children improved in their emotional understanding, but greater benefits were observed when teaching was accompanied by

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background music representing the emotion. These experiences, in turn, may enhance empathy and social understanding (Ziv & Goshen, 2006; Katagiri, 2009).

One explanation underlying emotional contagion as a mechanism for music-

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induced emotions is the activation of the MNS, whereby activation of mirror neurons leads individuals to experience the emotional states that they perceive (e.g., Molnar-Szakacs et

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al., 2009; Wan et al., 2011; Wan, Demaine, Zipse, Norton & Schlaug, 2010). As

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represented in the TMCM (Figure 1), a range of passive and active therapeutic music contexts trigger emotional empathy through the activation of the MNS, leading to benefits associated with interpersonal understanding.

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The second emotion-inducing mechanism of episodic memory refers to the process

by which music triggers personal memories (such as music-evoked autobiographical memories, termed ‘MEAMs’) that then induces an emotional state associated with those

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memories (Juslin, 2019; Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008). This capacity of music to induce emotion can assist people with dementia by triggering meaningful autobiographical memories (El Haj, Clément, Fasotti & Allain, 2013) and by reducing agitation, pain, anxiety and depression (Guétin et al., 2009; Raglio et al., 2008; Sung, Chang & Lee, 2010; Sung, Lee, Li & Watson, 2012). The decline in memory function in AD, particularly the ability to recall autobiographical memories, contributes to a loss of identity and

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subsequently compromises well-being (Jetten et al., 2010). However, certain types of music memory are preserved in people with AD (Baird & Samson, 2015), including MEAMs, which occur in people with AD at the same frequency as healthy people (Baird, Brancatisano, Gelding & Thompson, 2018; Cuddy, Sikka & Vanstone, 2015; Cuddy, Sikka, Silveira, Bai, & Vanstone, 2017). MEAMs in people with AD contain more emotional content and are rated as more positive than memories evoked in silence (El Haj, Fasotti & Allain, 2012; Cuddy et al., 2017). Further, people with AD show intact

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processing of musical emotions (Drapeau, Gosselin, Gagnon, Peretz & Lorrain, 2009) and a comparable ability to healthy individuals in using musical elements such as tempo and

mode, to interpret musical emotions (Gagnon, Peretz & Fülöp, 2009). Cuddy et al. (2017)

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noted that music is particularly effective at enabling the ‘positivity effect’ in people with

AD; the tendency for older adults to prioritise positive over negative information (Mather

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& Carstensen, 2005). Thus, music induced emotions may modulate symptoms such as

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depression and anxiety, which are common in people with dementia (e.g., Guétin et al., 2009; Kim et al., 2011; Raglio, Attardo, Gontero, Rollino, Groppo & Granieri, 2015). The most likely neural mechanism underlying preserved music memory and

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MEAMs in people with AD is the relative preservation from AD pathology of the medial prefrontal cortex (Hsieh, Hornberger, Piguet & Hodges, 2012; Jacobsen et al., 2015; Thompson et al. 2003). This interpretation is consistent with research by Janata (2009),

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who investigated the neural correlates of MEAMs using fMRI in healthy individuals and showed that this process is mediated by the medial prefrontal cortex. More generally, for those with AD, various uses of music can trigger implicit memory and intact neural networks, reinforcing a sense of identity and enhancing wellbeing.

3.3. Music is physical

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An undeniable impact of music on humans is its stimulation of spontaneous physical movement; encouraging transition from a state of stillness to movement that ranges from tapping one’s foot to dancing (Toiviainen, Luck & Thompson, 2010). In many cultures, music and dance are defined by one word that encompasses both concepts, as for example the word nkwa of the Igbo people from Nigeria (Balkwill & Thompson, 1999; Merker, 1999; Nettl, 2000). Arguably, movement is an inherent component of most music, given that motor areas within the brain are automatically activated whenever we listen to

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rhythmical music, even when no behavioral movements are generated (e.g., Chen, Penhune & Zatorre, 2008; Grahn & Brett, 2007; Grahn, 2012; Merchant et al., 2015).

One of the most consistent research findings in rehabilitative medicine is that there

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are significant and widespread benefits of physical exercise for age-related cognitive

decline and neurological impairment (for selected reviews, see Bauman, Merom, Bull,

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Buchner & Fiatarone Singh, 2016; Goodwin, Richards, Taylor, Taylor & Campbell, 2008;

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Heyn, Abreu, & Ottenbacher, 2004). Physical exercise may also have preventative benefits. Several prospective cohort studies suggest that engaging in physical exercise is associated with a reduced risk of certain neurological impairments, such as aged-related

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cognitive decline (Hamer & Chida, 2009; Larson et al., 2006; Sofi et al., 2011), stroke (Lee, Folsom & Blair, 2003), and the onset of PD (Xu et al., 2010). A longitudinal study over four years found that a higher level of daily physical activity was associated with a

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reduced risk of AD (Buchman et al., 2012). One explanation for these benefits is that physical activity increases ‘brain reserve’, whereby the exertion, increased oxygenation, and challenge to bodily systems seem to alter mechanisms of neural plasticity, especially associated with learning and memory, thus enhancing the structural integrity of the brain. This in turn may protect against age-related deterioration. For example, studies have found that physical exercise leads to increased gray matter volume in the prefrontal cortex, and

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greater connectivity between the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex (Erickson, Leckie & Weinstein, 2014; Matura et al., 2017). Other studies have suggested that exercise generally enhances vascular function, and reduces inflammation (Vilela et al., 2017). These findings underscore the importance of engaging in physical activity as a way of decreasing the risks of age-related cognitive decline. However, older adults do not always enjoy physical exercise, so exercise is often paired with music to make the activity more engaging and enjoyable (Jacobson, McKinley,

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Leroux & Rainville, 2005). The presence of music may confer benefits beyond the physical exercise that it accompanies, perhaps arising from changes in mood and arousal. For example, among neurologically healthy populations, dance is shown to provide

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significantly greater protective benefits against cognitive and physical decline than

physical exercise alone (Verghese et al., 2003; Verghese 2006). In one prospective cohort

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of 469 participants over the age of 75 years old, the risk of developing dementia was found

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to be reduced in older adults who engaged in dance on a regular basis, compared to those who rarely or never danced (Verghese et al., 2003). In fact, the only physical activity associated with a lower risk of dementia was dancing, out of a range of other activities

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such as individual exercise (e.g., swimming, bicycling, walking), group exercises, housework and babysitting.

In another study, Verghese (2006) compared 24 older adults who regularly engaged

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in different types of social dancing, such as ballroom dancing, line dancing, swing dancing and square dancing with 84 older adults who engaged in physical activities but not social dancing. Physical benefits such as greater balance and increased stride length were observed in the older adults who participated in social dancing compared to those who did not, but in this case the effects were statistically unreliable. Moreover, the correlational nature of these studies makes it difficult to infer causation, given that people who engage

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in dancing may differ in various ways (such as being more extravert, or more musical) from those who do not. Research also supports the therapeutic use of music-induced physical movement for individuals with neurological disorders (e.g., de Dreu, van der Wilk, Poppe, Kwakkel & van Wegen, 2012; Thaut & Abiru, 2010). For example, dance plays an important role in regaining the flow of movement in people with PD, particularly for improving symptoms of PD such as gait, balance and mobility (Nombela, Hughes, Owen & Grahn, 2013; for a

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review see Shanahan, Morris, Bhriain, Saunders & Clifford, 2015). For people with PD, dance is often used as a successful intervention in overcoming gait impairment and the slowing of movements. It has also been shown to confer benefits for balance and

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functional mobility, compared to exercise alone (Hackney, Kantorovich, Levin & Earhart, 2007). In addition to such benefits, dance interventions can improve psychological

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symptoms such as alleviating feelings of anger, mood disturbances and fatigue (Lewis,

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Annett, Davenport, Hall & Lovatt, 2016).

Shanahan et al. (2015) conducted a meta-analysis to assess the effectiveness of a variety of dance interventions for movement problems in individuals with PD, such as the

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Tango, Waltz/Foxtrot, contact improvisation and Irish dancing. High quality evidence from multiple RCTs indicated that the Tango was an effective form of treatment for PD, improving balance, mobility and endurance (e.g., Duncan & Earhart, 2012; Hackney et al.,

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2007; Hackney & Earhart, 2009). There was sparse, lower-quality evidence to suggest the beneficial effect of other dance styles for PD, such as Irish dancing (Volpe, Signorini, Marchetto, Lynch & Morris, 2013). One study compared the benefits of participating in either a Waltz/Foxtrot or Tango intervention for movement control among individuals with PD (Hackney & Earhart, 2009). Participants in dance conditions exhibited improved balance, walking distance, gait and locomotion, whereas those who received no

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intervention worsened significantly in locomotion and disease severity. The Tango conferred greater benefits in reducing freezing of gait than the Waltz or Foxtrot. One explanation for this advantage is that the Tango involves variation in rhythm and speed, which prompts both slow and quick steps. These requirements may gradually help patients to refine the control of their movements, particularly stepping speed and size. One mechanism that may underlie the benefits of Tango for people with PD is the external cueing of compensatory mechanisms through music (Hackney et al., 2007). A

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hallmark motor symptom of PD is the disturbed initiation and timing of motor sequences. The rhythmic component of music may stimulate movement via intact neural networks such as the supplementary motor area, premotor cortex and cerebellum (for review see

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Koshimori & Thaut, 2018). Thus, as summarized in the TMCM (Figure 1), participating in active music-based treatments, especially in groups, emphasizes the physical capacity of

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music, stimulating mechanisms of auditory motor coupling, synchronisation of movement

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with others, and the engagement of intact shared neural networks. This physical activity, in turn, benefits motor functioning and brain health.

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3.4. Music permits synchronization

Musical elements such as rhythm and melody afford synchronization through

singing or moving, in turn promoting fluency of speech and motor functions. Rhythmic

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synchronization, which has received the most research attention, may activate several cortical and subcortical regions involved in timing, including the cerebellum, basal ganglia, parietal cortex, prefrontal cortex, premotor cortex, and supplementary motor area (Fernandez del Olmo & Cudeiro, 2003; Macar, Anton, Bonnet, & Vidal, 2004; Nenadic et al., 2003; Rao, Mayer, & Harrington, 2001). Many of these areas are also traditionally thought to be involved in various features of movement. This synchronization of bodily

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movements to an external beat is an instinctive human action that is strongly associated with the process of neural entrainment; the repetitive neural firing with temporally predictable events, in which brain activity synchronizes with the rhythm (Doelling & Poeppel, 2015). This rhythmic neuronal firing can continue without any further input from the original rhythmic source, allowing individuals to predict or anticipate when the next beat will occur, thus, proving a steady time cue so that the brain is able to ‘plan ahead’. A unique feature that distinguishes musical activities from other social behaviors is

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the externalization of predictable rhythms that allow synchronization to occur between two or more people (e.g., Bispham, 2006; Merker, Madison, & Eckerdal, 2009). The neural

correlates of both non-verbal and motor synchrony between individuals include activity in

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the right parietal area and also in the precuneus, inferior parietal and posterior temporal cortex; networks which are related to Theory of Mind (Dumas, Nadel, Soussignan,

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Martinerie & Garnero, 2010; Yun, Watanabe & Shimojo, 2012). The capacity of music to

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elicit synchronization is harnessed in treatments for neurological disorders that affect motor responses aiding in the timing, initiation and coordination of movement and speech (Wan, Rüber, Hohmann & Schlaug, 2010).

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The benefits of pairing speech with melodic and rhythmic contexts have been

especially exploited in the well-established clinical practice Melodic Intonation Therapy (MIT). MIT involves pairing left hand tapping movements with regular rhythmic cues and

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intoning words to pitch cues (Norton, Zipse, Marchina, & Schlaug, 2009). It is used predominantly in patients with non-fluent aphasia, or impaired expressive language, due to stroke related damage to Broca’s area in the left frontal region. In a recent small randomized control pilot trial on patients with non-fluent aphasia, Haro-Martínez, Lubrini, Madero-Jarabo, Díez-Tejedor and Fuentes (2019) concluded that MIT could improve communication skills as measured by the Communicative Activity Log questionnaire.

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Four mechanisms have been identified by Merrett, Peretz and Wilson (2014) to underlie the beneficial effect of MIT in this clinical population. These have been identified as neuroplastic reorganization of language function, activation of the MNS and multimodal integration, utilization of shared or specific features of music and language and, motivation and mood. For example, the melodic and rhythmic components of MIT may engage the contralateral undamaged hemisphere, laying down a new pathway for language production and bypassing the damaged left hemisphere (Merrett et al., 2014; Schlaug, 2016; Schlaug,

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Marchina, & Norton, 2009; Zipse, Norton, Marchina, & Schlaug, 2012). The left hand tapping provides a steady rhythm and appears to serve as an external timing signal. The

synchronization to a steady beat facilitates speech production and may help stimulate brain

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networks associated with communication such as auditory, motor and striato-thalamo-

cortical circuits (Fujii & Wan 2014; Norton et al., 2009). In addition, synchronizing words

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and phrases with the melodic intoning may help by allowing slower articulation of the

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words or by providing an additional aid for memory encoding and access (Wilson, Parsons, & Reutens, 2006). Singing also benefits speech intelligibility in people with neurological impairments, possibly by reinforcing auditory-motor feedback loops in the

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brain (Wan et al., 2010; Zumbansen, Peretz & Hébert, 2014). In addition, other neurological disorders, such as PD, result in poor execution of motor and articulatory actions, and singing and rhythmic cueing may address this problem by persistently

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engaging processes of respiration, phonation, and articulation in a controlled manner (Kleber & Zarate, 2014). Auditory-Motor Mapping Training, a modification of MIT, has been developed by

Schlaug and colleagues to assist speech in children with ASD who are minimally verbal, or non-verbal. Significant improvements have been demonstrated in the articulation of words and phrases (Wan et al., 2011), and the pronunciation of syllables, consonants and

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vowels (Chenausky, Norton, Tager-Flusberg & Schlaug, 2016). It has been proposed that these benefits are associated with the engagement of brain regions that overlap with the MNS; activated during music making activities and language, both which require imitation and synchronization (for review see Wan, Demaine, Zipse, Norton & Schlaug, 2010). These results are promising but need to be replicated using larger-scale RCTs. In this technique, the synchronization of the motor response (tapping) is said to prime sensorimotor networks that control articulatory speech movements (e.g., Bangert et al.,

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2006; Dambeck et al., 2006). The process of synchronizing gait with a regular beat has been shown to help

people with PD to initiate and continue lower limb movement (Lim et al., 2005). Rhythmic

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auditory stimulation (RAS) is a clinical technique that has been used for people with PD as a way of facilitating smoother gait by using a steady beat, such as a metronome, to entrain

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walking speed (e.g., Francois, Grau-Sanchez, Duarte & Rodriguez-Fornells, 2015). It is

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well established that RAS enables improvement in length of stride, gait velocity, and step cadence (for reviews see Ghai, Ghai, Schmitz & Effenberg, 2018; Rocha, Porfírio, Ferraz, & Trevisani, 2014; Spaulding et al., 2013) and freezing of gait (for review, see Nombela,

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Hughes, Owen, & Grahn, 2013). When comparing RAS to other treatments, such as visual cues using stripes on a floor, auditory rhythmic cues have been found to be more effective for cadence, stride length and velocity (for review see Lim et al., 2005).

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At this stage, there is no complete understanding of the neural mechanisms which

underlie the therapeutic effects of RAS and music on motor symptoms in PD as further high quality research in needed. However, research to date has suggested that rhythm and music modulate the brain activity in the dopaminergic pathways and dopamine release in the striatum. Associated regions such as the cerebellum, amygdala, parietal regions and pedunculopontine nucleus may act as compensatory mechanisms (for review see

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Koshimori & Thaut, 2018). In other words, it is hypothesised that steady rhythm helps motor symptoms by providing an external cue for movement, through auditory motor coupling and internal timing mechanisms, re-routing this problem around the basal ganglia to a cerebello-thalamo-cortical motor network (Calabrò et al, 2019; Fernandez del Olmo & Cudeiro, 2003). The TMCM (Figure 1) exemplifies this therapeutic pathway by illustrating how active, group music-based treatments emphasize the synchronous capacity of music, engaging compensatory neural networks that result in motor benefits.

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It is important to note that some individuals with PD have poor beat perception arising from damage in the basal ganglia (Grahn & Brett, 2009), which makes it difficult to synchronize their movement to a beat (Dalla Bella et al., 2017). Therefore, in order to

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maximize the therapeutic benefit of the synchronous nature of music for PD, it is vital to

establish the underpinnings of the ideal auditory stimuli for entrainment. Certain musical

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properties, such as a regular beat, moderate use of syncopation, and variability of spectral

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content, give rise to the phenomenon of ‘groove’, making it easier to synchronize movements with a rhythm (Dalla Bella, 2015; Hove & Keller, 2015; Janata, Tomic & Haberman 2012; Leow, Parrott, & Grahn, 2014; Stupacher, Hove, & Janata, 2016; Thaut,

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McIntosh, Rice, 1997). Research suggests that music that is high in groove can enhance the fluency of gait in healthy individuals, even if they have poor beat perception abilities (Leow et al., 2014). Therefore, groove, which does not rely solely on beat perception, may

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provide a better cue than a solitary beat for synchronizing movement in PD. However, it is challenging to generalise findings from healthy to clinical populations given the aetiology and functional brain differences.

3.5. Music is personal

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One of the most unique aspects of music is the personal connection that we build with it, and the personal associations it evokes. The songs that have a lasting impact on us often signify defining moments in our lives; the first time we met a romantic partner or participated in memorable activities such as dancing, graduating, or celebrating a birthday. As such, we often listen to music throughout our lives to reinforce our sense of self (Hargreaves, Miell & MacDonald, 2002). Unlimited access to these favourite songs with modern day technology means that music can be used for everyday therapeutic benefits,

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such as assisting in the management of emotional states (Randall, Rickard & VellaBrodrick, 2014) and physiological arousal (Hutchinson et al., 2018; Yamashita, Iwai, Akimoto, Sugawara, & Kono, 2006). In particular, the recruitment of the limbic and

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reward centres of the brain when listening to familiar music may play a part in its therapeutic role (Pereira et al., 2011).

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In this way, listening to personally-preferred music may help to boost quality of

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life in neurological populations. The deterioration of physical and cognitive abilities that occur alongside neurological conditions can bring about a negative sense of identity (Jetten, Haslam, Pugliese, Tonks & Haslam, 2010; Kvigne, Kirkevold & Gjengedal, 2004;

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Salter, Hellings, Foley & Teasell, 2008). More generally, any physical, cognitive, neurological, or social circumstance that generates an experience of impairment, marginalization or stigmatization may detract from a positive sense of self (Nario-

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Redmond, Noel & Fern, 2013). In such circumstances, interventions can be introduced to enhance positive self-perceptions (Olkin, 2009; Wehmeyer, 2015). Anecdotal evidence from caregivers and family members reports marked changes

in mood, physical ability and verbal responses following their person with dementia listening to a favourite song (for review see Sung & Chang, 2005). Personally-preferred music can be particularly effect at eliciting autobiographical memories in AD when

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compared to researcher chosen music or silence (El haj, Fasotti & Allain, 2012). Accumulating research suggests that both passive and active forms of music engagement can reduce depression and anxiety in people with the most common form of dementia, namely AD (Garrido, Stevens, Chang, Dunne, & Perz, 2018; Sihvonen, et al., 2017). Further, autobiographical memories evoked from personally meaningful music are more vivid, and they are expressed more fluently and with greater grammatical complexity, than those evoked in silences or from researcher-selected music (El Haj et al., 2013).

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Intact implicit memory in AD may explain why familiar stimuli, such as music, can be a successful therapeutic tool (Randolph, Tierney & Chase, 1995; Baird & Samson,

2015). Further, recognition of familiar melodies may be dependent on the intact perception

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of pitch (most predominantly) and rhythm (Hébert and Peretz, 1997). Indeed, people with AD have been shown to have intact pitch perception through the ability to learn and recall

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melodies (Cuddy & Duffin, 2005).

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a new melody (Baird, Umbach & Thompson, 2017) and detect wrong notes in familiar

According to Baird and Thompson (2018), music is valuable for five dimensions of the ‘self’ in people with dementia: the ecological self (immediate sensations of one’s

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physical conditions), the extended self (how our present identity relates to who we were, and who we might be in the future), the private self (a sense of self that we keep to ourselves), the interpersonal self (how we present ourselves to others), and the conceptual

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self (a concept of ourselves, for example as “an artist” or “a scientist”). For example, MEAMs may contribute to the maintenance of the ‘extended self’ by providing access to the self as it was in the past, embodied in the autobiographical memory. These MEAMs also provide a route to the ‘private self’, given their association with extremely personal thoughts and feelings. The familiarity we have with certain music can also be used to help

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people with dementia to become more readily oriented with a new environment or maximise their sense of familiarity in a current one (Son, Therrien & Whall, 2002). Music can also benefit the ecological self, the immediate sensations of one’s physical condition by alleviating pain, managing emotional states, and reducing anxiety and agitation. Music can soothe people with dementia and reduce their levels of agitation up to one hour after music listening has ceased (Gerdner, 2000; Gerdner & Swanson, 1993). Importantly, such benefits of music for people with dementia, are more pronounced

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after listening to personally meaningful music than after therapist- or researcher-selected music (Gerdner, 2000). Pain reduction may occur because rewarding music activates brain regions involved in the mediation of reward and anxiolytic effects (neurobiological

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effects) such as the NAc and opioid-rich midbrain nuclei that regulate descending pain and stress suppression mechanisms (Blood & Zatorre, 2001; Chanda & Levitin, 2013;

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Salimpoor et al., 2011). The psychosocial benefits of personalised music may correlate

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with the capacity of music to alleviate levels of the stress hormone cortisol (Linnemann, Ditzen, Strahler, Doerr & Nater, 2015). Whilst personalised music listening is deemed an effective therapeutic tool to reduce problem behaviors in people with dementia, the quality

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of research on the topic is low, indicating the need for more carefully designed studies (Sung & Chang, 2005).

For individuals who have suffered a stroke, the loss of motor functioning and

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impaired speech fluency may impact on their sense of physical and social identity (Dickson, Barbour, Brady, Clark & Paton, 2008; Murray & Harrison, 2004). In turn, depression and anxiety frequently arise out of this loss of social identity (Ayerbe, Ayis, Crichton, Wolfe, & Rudd, 2014; Campbell Burton et al., 2013; Hackett, Yapa, Parag, & Anderson, 2005). Using a single-blind, randomized, longitudinal experimental design, Särkämö et al., (2008) found that listening to personal music in the first six months after a

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stroke reduced depression and confused mood compared to patients who received no listening material. To gain further understanding of how personal music playlists can be used in the rehabilitative process after stroke, Forsblom et al., (2009) conducted interviews with stroke patients and nurses. Typically, in the first few days to the first few months of the stroke recovery period, patients often report feelings of shock, confusion, helplessness, followed by anxiety, depression, irritability and tiredness (Cullberg, 2007). However, with music listening intervention over this time period, most participants reported that the

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music alleviated these symptoms by inducing a more positive mood (95%), a state of calmness, relaxation, and improvement in sleep (80%) and memories and reflective

thoughts (85%). Overall, 75% of the patients reported that music listening contributed

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positively to their recovery. Most participants (70%) also reported that these psychological changes significantly contributed to their recovery.

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Further, listening to personally preferred music in comparison to non-preferred

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music has been shown to overcome visual neglect in stroke. Soto et al. (2009) observed improved visual awareness of contralesional targets in three people with post stroke visual neglect when listening to preferred music compared with non-preferred music or silence.

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Using fMRI, this finding was associated with enhanced activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus and a strong functional coupling between emotional areas and attentional brain regions in spared areas of the parietal cortex and early visual areas of the

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right hemisphere. Thus, as illustrated in the TMCM (Figure 1), music-based interventions in an individual music-listening context draw upon the personal capacity of music, with consequences not only for one’s sense of self, but for other functions such as visual attention.

3.6. Music is social

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Music-making and listening are meaningful and enjoyable activities that invite social interaction and bonding without requiring excessive cognitive or physical effort. As newborns, we are highly attuned to the fluctuations in pitch and rhythm of speech from a mother or primary caregiver. As infants, music, and more specifically infant-directed song, is used by caregivers to communicate with infants before language is possible (e.g., Bergeson, 2020; Trehub, 2019; 2020; Trehub & Trainor, 1998). This sensitivity suggests that humans are adapted to use the musicality of speech for bonding and communication

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prior to language development (Trehub, 2003). As we grow older, music is used to bring people together and define group membership, especially in adolescence.

It is well established that participating in group music activities results in a range of

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benefits, confirming the significance of the social dimension of music engagement. Studies of healthy individuals have shown that the effects of social cohesion are particularly

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powerful when we sing in a group compared to when we engage in other group activities,

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such as craft or writing (Pearce, Launay, MacCarron & Dunbar, 2016; Weinstein, Launay, Pearce, Dunbar, Stewart, 2016). For example, when making music or moving together in a social context there is a release of neurohormones such as oxytocin, a neuropeptide

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released by the posterior pituitary gland, which is associated with social bonding and empathy (Domes, Heinrichs, Michel, Berger & Herpertz, 2007; Insel, 2010; Tarr, Launay & Dunbar, 2014) and trust (Kosfeld, Heinrichs, Zak, Fischbacher & Fehr, 2005; Tarr et al.,

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2014).

Numerous therapeutic benefits for individuals with neurological disorders have

been attributed to the social capacity of music. Speech problems, common in people with neurological impairment, also restricts the capacity for social interaction. The participation in group singing, is associated with reduced agitation and isolation in people with dementia (Harris & Caporella, 2014; Lesta & Petocz, 2006), and improved mood in people

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with aphasia and PD (Abell, Baird & Chalmers, 2017; Baird et al. 2018; Tamplin, Baker, Jones, Way & Lee, 2013). Moreover, MT conducted in groups can enhance social interactions in children with ASD (Kim, Wigram & Gold, 2008; LaGasse, 2014). These risks to wellbeing demonstrate a need for a group-based activity that encourages social reciprocity, while not placing unrealistic demands on cognitive or physical abilities Group singing has been used to counteract ‘sundowning’ (delirium and agitation during the later stages of the day) in people with dementia, successfully decreasing anti-

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social behavior and improving mood in a residential aged care facility (Lesta & Petocz, 2006). In one study, people with dementia and their carers participated in group singing (Osman, Tischler & Scheider, 2016). The activity led to enhanced mood, social

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relationships, and greater acceptance of the dementia diagnosis. The maintenance of

quality of life has also been shown to improve after group singing, for both the carer and

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person with dementia (Camic, Williams & Meeten, 2013). In addition, group singing

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involving young college students and people with AD has been shown to decrease the negative attitudes and stigma amongst the younger participants in contact with those with the disease, while decreasing feelings of social isolation for people with AD (Harris &

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Caporella, 2014). Social activities may also have protective benefits against cognitive decline in older individuals (Wang, Karp, Winblad & Fratiglioni, 2002). It is possible that when we engage socially, we exercise a broad range of cognitive processes (attention,

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working memory, processing speed and inhibition), which form the basis of more specific processes needed for social interactions (e.g., empathy and mentalising, see Ybarra et al., 2008).

Positive psychological and social effects after participating in a community choir have also been reported for people with aphasia following stroke (Tamplin et al., 2013). The cognitive deficits faced by individuals who have had a stroke make it significantly

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harder to maintain meaningful social activities and group memberships, leading to social isolation and reduced well-being (Mukherjee, Levin & Heller, 2006). For example, in people with non-fluent aphasia following stroke, speech communication is severely impaired. Prior to participating in the choir, participants had higher levels of negative mood and a poorer subjective sense of belonging compared to average Australians. After participating for 20 weeks in the choir, there was a decreasing trend in psychological distress, and an increase in confidence, mood and motivation, peer support, and

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communication. Similarly, in the case of PD, roughly 80% of patients will experience speech

problems at some point (Ramig, Fox, & Sapir, 2008). Indeed, an increase in distress from

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social isolation is associated with a gradual decrease in quality of life among people with PD (Karlsen, Tandberg, Arsland & Larsen, 2000). Group singing can also have positive

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effects on mood in people with PD (Abell et al., 2017; Baird et al. 2018) and may enhance

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vocal ability (Elefant, Baker, Lotan, Lagesen & Skeie, 2012). People with stroke and PD also perceive such benefits of group singing, reporting in semi-structured interviews that the activity helps them to manage poor moods, communication difficulties, and social

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isolation (Fogg-Rogers et al., 2016). These effects in stroke and PD may be mediated by several neurobiological mechanisms observed during choir singing, such as the release of concentrations of salivary oxytocin (Kreutz, 2014) and reduced levels of

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adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol in plasma (Beck et al., 2000; Keeler et al., 2015) and saliva (Fancourt et al., 2016) which is an indication of reduced activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. However, this is not consistently observed (Fancourt et al., 2016; Kreutz, 2014; Schladt et al., 2017). MT can be used as an indirect form of communication and can facilitate engagement in children with ASD who are minimally verbal or non-verbal (Kern &

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Aldridge, 2006; Kim et al., 2008; LaGasse, 2014; Wigram & Gold, 2006). For people with ASD, the daunting challenges of social interaction can result in withdrawal and loneliness (Bauminger & Kasari, 2000), increasing the likelihood of being ostracised by one’s peers (Chamberlain, Kasari & Rotheram-Fuller, 2007). Improvising or “free playing” with music can be employed between a music therapist and child with ASD as a form of communication. In this form of therapy, music therapists use improvisation to promote interaction and turn taking whilst making music together, with the aim of using this

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musical relationship to encourage interaction and connection with others (Gattino et al. 2011; Geretsegger et al. 2012). Because group music activities involve social interaction, it can be used as a model for other social situations, helping children with ASD to improve

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their skills of social interaction and reducing isolation. LaGasse (2014) compared social behavior of children with ASD after participating in a MT group to those in a no-music

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social skills group. The children who participated in MT demonstrated greater

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improvements in joint attention and eye gaze towards others. MT has also been shown to be more effective in inviting other joint attention behaviors such as pointing or showing as well as eye gaze and turn-taking (Kim et al., 2008). Following family centred MT,

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Thompson, McFerran and Gold (2014) showed a perceived improvement by the parents of children in ASD in the quality of their child’s social interactions with others and communicative behaviors, particularly in their ability to respond to others, imitate, share,

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co-operate and play with others.

However, results demonstrating that MT is an effective tool for improving

communication and attentional skills are mixed (Bieleninik et al., 2017; Porter et al, 2017). In particular, results of a large randomised clinical trial looking at the effectiveness of improvisational MT compared with enhanced standard care on 364 children with ASD in nine countries found no significant reduction of symptoms based on the Autism Diagnostic

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Observation Schedule social affect domain (which includes subscales of social awareness, social cognition, social communication, social motivation and autistic mannerisms) over a period of 5 months (Bieleninik et al., 2017). This study concluded that improvisational MT as a means for the reduction of symptoms associated with ASD cannot be supported. Whilst there is limited direct research on the proposed neural mechanisms underlying the social capacity of music to improve interactions with others and communicative behaviors in children with ASD, it can be hypothesised that the MNS may

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play a role. Music making activates the MNS and subsequently encourages eye contact and imitation, which are valuable in conversation and non-verbal social interactions (Raglio,

Traficante & Oasi, 2011). Overy and Molnar-Szakacs (2009) surmised that because music

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can stimulate the MNS in children with ASD, this may improve other skills involving the MNS, such as language and social skills. Another mechanism by which the social nature of

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music-based treatments may minimise behavioral symptoms in ASD is through release of

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oxytocin in response to music. Oxytocin has been implicated in the ability to enhance social brain function in children with ASD in areas which are normally identified as hypoactive (Gordon et al., 2013; Kaiser, 2010). Given the role that group music making

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plays in the release of oxytocin, it could be hypothesised that this form of music-based treatment could provide a therapeutic approach for people with ASD. In summary, group MT often makes use of the social capacity of music, as shown in the TMCM (Figure 1),

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triggering mechanisms such as the MNS that help to alleviate feelings of isolation and enhance communication, bonding and empathy.

3.7. Music is persuasive The capacity of music to interact with belief systems is an understudied but ubiquitous phenomenon, exemplified by the strong association between music and

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religious belief cross-culturally and throughout history, and contemporary uses of music in marketing, advertising, and film (Thompson, 2014). Musical practices and rituals associated with healing are also observed cross-culturally (Gouk, 2017). A number of design features allow music to interact with belief systems, including its emotional impact, syntactic structure, ambiguous meaning, and capacity to nurture social solidarity and compliance (Thompson, 2014). Music’s persuasive nature also makes it a highly effective device for reinforcing and inspiring optimistic beliefs about treatment outcomes. Positive

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beliefs about treatment help to augment treatment outcomes, as posited by the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, 1974). In other words, merely believing that a treatment will

lead to positive outcomes, can amplify therapeutic benefits. This elucidates the pertinence

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of the psychological mechanism of belief to therapeutic outcomes, as positive beliefs also increase the likelihood of participating in treatments. For example, the perceived benefit of

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exercise as a way of reducing stroke risk predicted intentions to exercise (Sullivan, White,

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Young, & Scott, 2008). In a therapeutic setting, enjoyment tends to increase motivation for participating in treatment and nurtures optimism for its effectiveness. Individuals typically experience music to be an enjoyable personal or social activity. For example, dance

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interventions are viewed by the elderly as more enjoyable than exercise alone (Federici, Bellagamba & Rocchi, 2005).

Music interacts with belief systems by evoking powerful emotions that highlight

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the significance of accompanying media, such as lyrical content, or visual signals. Emotion is an important facilitator of beliefs as it enables one to form connections and attach significance to certain contexts and modifying behaviors. This capacity has been exploited in a wide variety of contexts, from ancient healing and religious rituals, to media advertisements and political movements. Early studies looking at the effect of background music on shoppers in supermarkets revealed that the tempo of background music played in

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a store can significantly influence customer behavior (Milliman, 1982). Songs with a slower tempo encouraged shoppers to walk at a slower pace and hence spend more time and money in the store, whereas songs with a faster tempo was associated with a quicker shopping experience. Film music is another form of persuasion and reinforcing of beliefs. A series of experiments examined the effect that music had on narrative persuasion (Costabile & Terman, 2013). Participants viewed short film clips that were either presented with or

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without the music intended for the clip. Music that was originally intended for the short film was rated by the participants as generating a greater sense of ‘transportation into the

film’ and coherence with the beliefs expressed in the film. These findings suggest that the

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persuasive nature of music is deceptively powerful because ideas are not explicitly forced upon us. Rather, this process occurs implicitly, allowing us to maintain a sense of agency

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over our beliefs, making them more robust.

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A number of studies have also investigated neural mechanisms associated with persuasion (for a review, see Cacioppo, Cacioppo & Petty, 2018). Using fMRI, Falk et al., (2010) found that feeling persuaded by text about sunscreen use was associated with

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increased activity in posterior superior temporal sulcus bilaterally, temporal pole bilaterally, and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex. Their investigation, which included fMRI data from two cultural groups and two types of media, consistently implicated this network

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of regions in the brain. Activity in this network has also been associated with social cognition and mentalizing, consistent with models of persuasion that emphasize the importance of social cognitive processing in determining the efficacy of persuasive communication (Falk et al., 2010). A caveat, however, is that the authors provided no independent evidence that participants encoded information about social norms, so this interpretation remains speculative (Cacioppo, Cacioppo & Petty, 2018).

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The strong association between music and beliefs may explain why music is universally connected with therapeutic practice (Gouk, 2017; Thompson, 2014). The contexts in which music is used for healing range from an individual listening to a favourite song for stress relief to formalised healing rituals. For example, music is used in Shamanism for trance induction, allowing one to reach a state of altered consciousness that is often used in the healing process (Moreno, 1995). Rhythmical music is often used

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specifically in this ritual to create a bond between the healer and patient. Parallels can be drawn between these ritual uses of music for healing and the practices of MT in Western

industrialised societies. As in MT, music in shamanic rituals is used not only as a way of

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distracting patients from their pain and anxiety, but also to reinforce a patients’ belief in their ability to control healing (Moreno, 1988). Belief is crucial when initiating any

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rehabilitative process as it can impact positively on the patients’ continual willingness to

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engage in treatment.

4. Methodological limitations and ethical considerations

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The Therapeutic Music Capacities Model provides a valuable framework for

understanding some of the shortcomings of research on music-based therapies for neurological disorders and, conversely, these same shortcomings have clouded our

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understanding of the active ingredients and mechanisms underlying music-based treatments. One limitation concerns the substantial variability in the protocols and methods employed in examinations of music-based treatments. By identifying and manipulating the individual capacities involved in each music intervention, such variation would become systematic and interpretable, permitting researchers to determine how each capacity impacts upon people with specific neurological disorders. Without such a systematic

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approach, the lack of protocols and standardized methods makes it difficult to draw conclusions about their effectiveness. For example, research on RAS therapy for PD vary in the types and frequencies of RAS presentation or motor responses, and there is potential to characterise this variability by the type and dosage of capacities involved. Other limitations include a lack of consistency in the clinical characteristics of PD, and whether participants are on or off medication. This variation makes it hard to pinpoint the neural correlates that underpin auditory-motor entrainment in PD, as the interaction between

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medication and external auditory cueing on motor behavior is largely unknown (Koshimori & Thaut, 2018). Such problems underscore the importance of choosing

appropriate outcome measures that account for the heterogeneity within neurological

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populations. There is also a lack of suitable non-music control conditions that match the music condition in terms of arousal and mood, attention or emotion-inducing quality,

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making it hard to conclude whether the observed therapeutic effects are specific to music.

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It is also useful to note that the majority of studies used in this review cannot be defined as music therapy, whereby a trained music therapist administers the intervention. Instead, most of the studies we have reviewed included music-based treatments

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administered by another type of health care professional or researcher, or the music was administered by the participant themselves. This variability in the people who administer treatments makes it difficult to draw conclusions about the role a therapist might play in

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the context of MT or other music-based interventions. Indeed, it is an important ethical consideration that music-based treatments for people with neurological conditions be administered by those who are aware of the symptoms and associated potential risks involved in playing music that does not resonate with the individual’s needs, as is the case with a trained Music Therapist.

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In short, there are multiple issues that arise when interpreting findings and drawing conclusions regarding music as a successful therapeutic tool. Whilst RCTs are much needed in this field, they require standardized methods that consider the suite of capacities involved. Only when these capacities are considered, along with the individual needs of the patient, can the full potential of music-based interventions be appraised.

5. Concluding remarks

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The TMCM provides a novel framework for conceptualising the essence of music’s therapeutic value for neurological disorders, and with application for all disadvantaged communities. This review illustrates how seven capacities of music make it a highly

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effective tool for neurorehabilitation in the context of four disorders: dementia, PD, stroke and ASD. Existing research findings are compatible with the TMCM model,

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demonstrating that each of the seven capacities of music, employed in various

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combinations and contexts, can achieve behavioral, cognitive, psychosocial and motor benefits. A range of psychological and neural mechanisms underlie these benefits, including auditory motor coupling, neuroplasticity, activation of the MNS, facilitation of

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neurobiological and hormonal systems and arousal and mood. The TMCM provides an evidence-based framework for understanding how the

various capacities of music lead to various benefits, allowing a rational basis for

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developing targeted and personalised music-based treatments. For example, a patient who is displaying agitation and experiencing feelings of isolation may require a music activity that emphasizes the capacities of social, synchronous and personal. Thus, the framework offers considerable flexibility in how it can be used to design individualized therapeutic treatments to address specific symptoms. Although the framework focused on neurological conditions, it can also be used to address the challenges of other forms of

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neurophysiological difference. For example, individuals in the Deaf community have restricted access to certain capacities of music, but can still derive benefits from the social, motor, visual and tactile dimensions of music. The framework addresses a critical need for a comprehensive and structured understanding of why and how music can be used as an effective tool for neurorehabilitation. By identifying the core set of therapeutic capacities found in musical activity, it should also be possible to design non-musical treatments that share these

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capacities in various combinations. Thus, we can develop more targeted and effective music- and non-music-based treatments that address specific dysfunctional processes,

while simultaneously meeting the psychological, emotional, behavioral and physical needs

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Declaration of Conflicting Interests

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of individuals with various disorders.

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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Funding

This work was supported by the National Health and Medical Research Council

and Australian Research Council (NHMRC-ARC Dementia Research Development

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Fellowship to Amee Baird and ARC funding grants to William Thompson).

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