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William Blake's Milton, John Birch's “Electrical Magic”, and the “falling star”
DEPARTMENT OF ART
Department of art
William Blake’s Milton, John Birch’s “Electrical Magic”, and the “falling star” G D Schott In 1804, the celebrated English artist, printer, and poet, William Blake, published an illuminated book entitled Milton. A poem.1 This complex and enigmatic work, which includes the famous lyric Jerusalem, concerns the metaphysical relation of man to God, and the mystical union of Blake’s spirit with that of his fellow poet Milton.2 But does the work also contain an allusion to Blake’s own experience of 18th century medicine? Milton is illustrated with 45 beautiful relief-etched plates, two of which, numbers 29 and 33, include a dramatic yet mysterious star. Plate 29 (figure) is described as “a ‘falling star’ descending into ‘WILLIAM’ Blake’s ‘left foot’”.3 Plate 33 is a mirror-image in design, but bears instead the name “ROBERT”, a reference to William’s beloved younger brother who died in 1787 aged 19 years.3 What is the explanation for, and meaning behind, the falling star? Any interpretation has to take account of Blake’s personality and beliefs, his family circumstances, and the age in which he lived. Born in 1757, Blake was not only one of England’s most extraordinary artists, but also a prophet and visionary, with interests in animal magnetism and spirit communication that he shared with fellow Swedenborgians and cabalists.4 Thus, one interpretation of the star is that it is an entirely transcendental representation of Milton’s descent into Blake’s left foot: “Blake’s dramatic posture . . . suggests . . . ecstasy . . . and a sense of being overwhelmed by an influx of spirit”.3 Alternatively, and more prosaically, it has been suggested that the star might have been inspired by an impressive meteor that had been visible over London in the preceding year.3 There may be another explanation, however, that embraces the interest prevailing then in the healing properties of electricity—a subject of philosophical and personal interest to Blake.5 His wife, Catherine, who throughout their marriage gave him loyal albeit uncomprehending support in his work, had intermittent so-called rheumatism that she was said to have contracted from the dampness of their cottage.4 In 1804, the same year that Milton appeared, Blake wrote in a letter to his friend, the poet William Hayley, “My wife . . . is surprisingly recovered. Electricity is the wonderful cause”.6 And 2 months later he wrote further “My wife continues well, thanks to Mr Birch’s Electrical Magic, which she has discontinued these three months”.6 Who was Mr Birch, and what was the “Electrical Magic”? John Birch (1745–1815) was “Surgeon Extraordinary to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, and one of the Surgeons to St Thomas’s Hospital”,7 a hospital Blake refers to warmly as “one of the most amiable features of Lancet 2003; 362: 2114–16 The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK (G D Schott MD) (e-mail: [email protected])
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the Christian Church”.6 For more than 20 years, Birch had used electricity for the treatment of various medical complaints, ranging from traumatic to infective disorders, and from cowpox to constipation. In 1802, Birch published his experiences in An essay on the medical application of electricity,7 which proved to be one of the major treatises on the subject at the time. The electrical machine was made for him by a “mathematical instrument-maker”, Mr Banks in the Strand, London, and consisted of a cylinder, conductor, and a Leyden jar, together with “a glass-mounted director with a wooden handle, to the extremity of which a brass ball or wooden point [sic] are fitted, and a brass director mounted in wood”. Birch wrote: “the applications of the electric fluid to the diseases of the human body may all be comprised under three heads: the first, under the form of radii, when projected from a point. The second, under the form of a star [italics added], when many of these radii are concentrated on a brass ball: and the third, under that of a globe . . . to each of these heads a specific action belongs: the first, or radiated state, acts as a sedative; the second, concentrated state, as a stimulant; and the last, condensed state, as a deobstruent [a remover of obstructions].”7 There is no doubt that Blake and his contemporaries were familiar with the use of electricity and its apparently magical therapeutic effects.5,8 Furthermore, both the star and electricity played an important part in Blake’s abstruse, poetic imagery in Milton: Now Albion’s sleeping Humanity began to turn upon his Couch. Feeling the electric flame of Milton’s awful descent. (15: 47–50)1
And later: Then first I saw him in the Zenith as a falling star Descending perpendicular, swift as the swallow or swift And on my left foot falling on the tarsus . . . (20: 25–26)1
From these verses, and from his letters to Hayley, it seems plausible that Blake used the star, or “electric flame”, not only to represent the obscure spirit of Milton, but also as a symbol alluding to electricity’s healing properties. Therapeutic uses of electricity, especially for alleviating pain, have a history stretching from descriptions in classical times of analgesic effects attributed to the electric torpedo fish to the wide range of electric stimulation procedures of today.9,10 It was in the 18th century, however, that interest grew in the application of electricity for promoting healing and curing pain.9–11 During this period of the Enlightenment, electrotherapists were often viewed either as respectable and even eminent practitioners, or as quacks and charlatans, though the THE LANCET • Vol 362 • December 20/27, 2003 • www.thelancet.com
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet publishing Group.
DEPARTMENT OF ART
© Copyright The British Museum.
Rights were not granted to include this image in electronic media. Please refer to the printed journal.
Milton as a “falling star” descending into “WILLIAM” Blake’s left foot
THE LANCET • Vol 362 • December 20/27, 2003 • www.thelancet.com
2115
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet publishing Group.
DEPARTMENT OF ART
distinction was blurred and rivalry between therapists of different persuasions was not uncommon.11 For Blake, too, the distinction between the orthodox and the alternative was blurred. He and Catherine were personally acquainted with Birch and his machine, and certainly for them electricity had associations with healing and relief of pain. Yet Blake had also become deeply involved with electricity in the context of magic, mysticism, and religion.8 Indeed, it may be no coincidence that in a curious parallel, Blake’s religious writings were probably influenced by Samuel Wesley,4 a dissenter turned Church of England rector, and that Wesley’s son, John, founder of the Methodist Church, was an enthusiastic student of electrotherapy.9,12 Just as the Wesleys exemplified the influences of religion and science on 18th century England, so surely the unusual and striking depictions of the star in Milton may have been images inspired by Blake’s personal philosophy and by his own observation of electricity’s therapeutic effects. Conflict of interest statement None declared.
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References 1
Blake W. Milton. A poem. London: W Blake, 1804. British Museum, London, UK. 2 Keynes G. William Blake: poet printer prophet. London: Methuen, 1965: 25. 3 Essick RN, Viscomi J, eds. William Blake. Milton a poem. In: Bindman D, ed. Blake’s illuminated books, vol 5. London: The William Blake Trust/The Tate Gallery, 1993: 27–28. 4 Ackroyd P. Blake. London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1995: 83, 102, 260. 5 Adlard J. Blake and “electrical magic”. Neophilologus 1969; 53: 422–23. 6 Keynes G. Blake. Complete writings with variant readings. London: Oxford University Press, 1966: 590, 851, 854. 7 Birch J. An essay on the medical application of electricity. London: Johnson, Crosby, Callow and Hughes, 1802: iv, 1–2. 8 Schuchard MK. Blake’s healing trio: magnetism, medicine, and mania. Blake Illustrated Q 1989; 23: 20–32. 9 Hymes A. Introduction: a review of the historical uses of electricity. In: Mannheimer JS, Lampe GN, eds. Clinical transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Philadelphia: F A Davis, 1984: 1–5. 10 Kane K, Taub A. A history of local electrical analgesia. Pain 1975; 1: 125–38. 11 Fara P. An entertainment for angels, electricity in the enlightenment. Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books, 2002: 81–98. 12 Richardson R. John Wesley’s ethereal fire. Lancet 2001; 358: 932.
THE LANCET • Vol 362 • December 20/27, 2003 • www.thelancet.com
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet publishing Group.
Department of art
William Blake’s Milton, John Birch’s “Electrical Magic”, and the “falling star” G D Schott In 1804, the celebrated English artist, printer, and poet, William Blake, published an illuminated book entitled Milton. A poem.1 This complex and enigmatic work, which includes the famous lyric Jerusalem, concerns the metaphysical relation of man to God, and the mystical union of Blake’s spirit with that of his fellow poet Milton.2 But does the work also contain an allusion to Blake’s own experience of 18th century medicine? Milton is illustrated with 45 beautiful relief-etched plates, two of which, numbers 29 and 33, include a dramatic yet mysterious star. Plate 29 (figure) is described as “a ‘falling star’ descending into ‘WILLIAM’ Blake’s ‘left foot’”.3 Plate 33 is a mirror-image in design, but bears instead the name “ROBERT”, a reference to William’s beloved younger brother who died in 1787 aged 19 years.3 What is the explanation for, and meaning behind, the falling star? Any interpretation has to take account of Blake’s personality and beliefs, his family circumstances, and the age in which he lived. Born in 1757, Blake was not only one of England’s most extraordinary artists, but also a prophet and visionary, with interests in animal magnetism and spirit communication that he shared with fellow Swedenborgians and cabalists.4 Thus, one interpretation of the star is that it is an entirely transcendental representation of Milton’s descent into Blake’s left foot: “Blake’s dramatic posture . . . suggests . . . ecstasy . . . and a sense of being overwhelmed by an influx of spirit”.3 Alternatively, and more prosaically, it has been suggested that the star might have been inspired by an impressive meteor that had been visible over London in the preceding year.3 There may be another explanation, however, that embraces the interest prevailing then in the healing properties of electricity—a subject of philosophical and personal interest to Blake.5 His wife, Catherine, who throughout their marriage gave him loyal albeit uncomprehending support in his work, had intermittent so-called rheumatism that she was said to have contracted from the dampness of their cottage.4 In 1804, the same year that Milton appeared, Blake wrote in a letter to his friend, the poet William Hayley, “My wife . . . is surprisingly recovered. Electricity is the wonderful cause”.6 And 2 months later he wrote further “My wife continues well, thanks to Mr Birch’s Electrical Magic, which she has discontinued these three months”.6 Who was Mr Birch, and what was the “Electrical Magic”? John Birch (1745–1815) was “Surgeon Extraordinary to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales, and one of the Surgeons to St Thomas’s Hospital”,7 a hospital Blake refers to warmly as “one of the most amiable features of Lancet 2003; 362: 2114–16 The National Hospital for Neurology and Neurosurgery, Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK (G D Schott MD) (e-mail: [email protected])
2114
the Christian Church”.6 For more than 20 years, Birch had used electricity for the treatment of various medical complaints, ranging from traumatic to infective disorders, and from cowpox to constipation. In 1802, Birch published his experiences in An essay on the medical application of electricity,7 which proved to be one of the major treatises on the subject at the time. The electrical machine was made for him by a “mathematical instrument-maker”, Mr Banks in the Strand, London, and consisted of a cylinder, conductor, and a Leyden jar, together with “a glass-mounted director with a wooden handle, to the extremity of which a brass ball or wooden point [sic] are fitted, and a brass director mounted in wood”. Birch wrote: “the applications of the electric fluid to the diseases of the human body may all be comprised under three heads: the first, under the form of radii, when projected from a point. The second, under the form of a star [italics added], when many of these radii are concentrated on a brass ball: and the third, under that of a globe . . . to each of these heads a specific action belongs: the first, or radiated state, acts as a sedative; the second, concentrated state, as a stimulant; and the last, condensed state, as a deobstruent [a remover of obstructions].”7 There is no doubt that Blake and his contemporaries were familiar with the use of electricity and its apparently magical therapeutic effects.5,8 Furthermore, both the star and electricity played an important part in Blake’s abstruse, poetic imagery in Milton: Now Albion’s sleeping Humanity began to turn upon his Couch. Feeling the electric flame of Milton’s awful descent. (15: 47–50)1
And later: Then first I saw him in the Zenith as a falling star Descending perpendicular, swift as the swallow or swift And on my left foot falling on the tarsus . . . (20: 25–26)1
From these verses, and from his letters to Hayley, it seems plausible that Blake used the star, or “electric flame”, not only to represent the obscure spirit of Milton, but also as a symbol alluding to electricity’s healing properties. Therapeutic uses of electricity, especially for alleviating pain, have a history stretching from descriptions in classical times of analgesic effects attributed to the electric torpedo fish to the wide range of electric stimulation procedures of today.9,10 It was in the 18th century, however, that interest grew in the application of electricity for promoting healing and curing pain.9–11 During this period of the Enlightenment, electrotherapists were often viewed either as respectable and even eminent practitioners, or as quacks and charlatans, though the THE LANCET • Vol 362 • December 20/27, 2003 • www.thelancet.com
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet publishing Group.
DEPARTMENT OF ART
© Copyright The British Museum.
Rights were not granted to include this image in electronic media. Please refer to the printed journal.
Milton as a “falling star” descending into “WILLIAM” Blake’s left foot
THE LANCET • Vol 362 • December 20/27, 2003 • www.thelancet.com
2115
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet publishing Group.
DEPARTMENT OF ART
distinction was blurred and rivalry between therapists of different persuasions was not uncommon.11 For Blake, too, the distinction between the orthodox and the alternative was blurred. He and Catherine were personally acquainted with Birch and his machine, and certainly for them electricity had associations with healing and relief of pain. Yet Blake had also become deeply involved with electricity in the context of magic, mysticism, and religion.8 Indeed, it may be no coincidence that in a curious parallel, Blake’s religious writings were probably influenced by Samuel Wesley,4 a dissenter turned Church of England rector, and that Wesley’s son, John, founder of the Methodist Church, was an enthusiastic student of electrotherapy.9,12 Just as the Wesleys exemplified the influences of religion and science on 18th century England, so surely the unusual and striking depictions of the star in Milton may have been images inspired by Blake’s personal philosophy and by his own observation of electricity’s therapeutic effects. Conflict of interest statement None declared.
2116
References 1
Blake W. Milton. A poem. London: W Blake, 1804. British Museum, London, UK. 2 Keynes G. William Blake: poet printer prophet. London: Methuen, 1965: 25. 3 Essick RN, Viscomi J, eds. William Blake. Milton a poem. In: Bindman D, ed. Blake’s illuminated books, vol 5. London: The William Blake Trust/The Tate Gallery, 1993: 27–28. 4 Ackroyd P. Blake. London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1995: 83, 102, 260. 5 Adlard J. Blake and “electrical magic”. Neophilologus 1969; 53: 422–23. 6 Keynes G. Blake. Complete writings with variant readings. London: Oxford University Press, 1966: 590, 851, 854. 7 Birch J. An essay on the medical application of electricity. London: Johnson, Crosby, Callow and Hughes, 1802: iv, 1–2. 8 Schuchard MK. Blake’s healing trio: magnetism, medicine, and mania. Blake Illustrated Q 1989; 23: 20–32. 9 Hymes A. Introduction: a review of the historical uses of electricity. In: Mannheimer JS, Lampe GN, eds. Clinical transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation. Philadelphia: F A Davis, 1984: 1–5. 10 Kane K, Taub A. A history of local electrical analgesia. Pain 1975; 1: 125–38. 11 Fara P. An entertainment for angels, electricity in the enlightenment. Duxford, Cambridge: Icon Books, 2002: 81–98. 12 Richardson R. John Wesley’s ethereal fire. Lancet 2001; 358: 932.
THE LANCET • Vol 362 • December 20/27, 2003 • www.thelancet.com
For personal use. Only reproduce with permission from The Lancet publishing Group.