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WIVES involvement in tourism decision processes
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Pergamon
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 890Ð903, 1998 Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 0160-7383/98 $19.00+0.00
PII: S0160-7383(98)00038-3
WIVES| INVOLVEMENT IN TOURISM DECISION PROCESSES Antoine Zalatan University of Ottawa, Canada Abstract: This study segments tourism decision-making tasks into 17 categories. Wives were asked to assign a score to their level of involvement in each task. A marginal involvement in tasks related to the {{financing aspects|| of the trip was observed whereas involvement was high in tasks such as {{shopping||, {{selecting restaurants||, {{collecting information||, and {{preparing luggage||. Two hypotheses were tested: the socioeconomic characteristics of wives and trip characteristics have a positive effect on the level of involvement in the tourism decisions; and levels of task involvement are consistent for the 17 tasks (stability in tasks involvement). Marketing implications and recommendations for future research were also discussed. Keywords: wive|s involvement, travel tasks, socioeconomic variables, coefficient of variability, marketing implications. Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Re sume : La participation des e pouses aux de cisions de voyages. Cette e tude segmente les de cisions et taches des voyages en dix-sept cate gories. On a demande aux e pouses d|attribuer une valeur nume rique selon leur niveau de participation dans chaque ta¼ che. On a observe peu de participation aux {{aspects financiers|| tandis que la participation e tait e leve e pour le {{shopping||, le {{choix des restaurants||, la {{collecte d|information||, et la {{pre paration des bagages||. On a ve rifie deux hypothe ses: que les caracte ristiques socio-e conomiques des e pouses ainsi que certaines caracte ristiques du voyage ont un effet positif sur la participation des e pouses aux de cisions du tourisme, et que les niveaux de participation pour les dix-sept ta¼ ches sont stables. On discute aussi des implications de marketing et des recommandations pour la recherche future. Mots-cle s: participation des e pouses, ta¼ ches associe es au voyage, variables socio-e conomiques, coe fficient de variabilite , implications pour le marketing. Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
INTRODUCTION Taking a vacation involves a decision-making process which may be simple or complex. The degree of complexity depends on many variables which are associated with the socioeconomic characteristics of the tourist (Nichols and Snepenger 1988; Zalatan 1996) or with specific features related to the destination (Goodrich 1978). Previous research (Myers and Moncrief 1978; Schul and Crompton 1983; van Raaij and Francken 1984) has successfully identified the determinant variables which play key roles in high or low involvement decision models. In these models, the involvement of women in the decision process was implicitly recognized (Consenza and Davis 1981; Nichols and Snepenger 1988; Fodness 1992) or explicitly measured and com-
Antoine Zalatan is Associate Professor of Leisure Studies at the University of Ottawa, (Ontario, K1N 6N5 Canada. Email: [email protected]). His areas of work are mainly in the economics of tourism, demand analysis, and forecasting methods. He acted as tourism advisor in many projects in Canada, several African Countries, and Europe. He is presently in the process of completing a manuscript entitled {{The Economics of Tourism: A Textbook||.
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pared to the role played by men in travel decisions (Myers and Moncrief 1978; Smith 1979; Bartos 1982). However, most of the previous research merely indicated involvement, or the lack of it in the decision making process. Studies by Nichols and Snepenger (1988) and Fodness (1992) in particular are quite relevant to this research. Both deal with {{husband||, {{wife|| and the presence or absence of children and both studies are concerned with the decision-making as it relates to tourism. The Nichols and Snepenger (1988) study established relationships between the {{wife dominant||, the {{husband dominant||, and the {{joint decision|| situation with sociodemographic, trip, and planning variables as well as on-site behavior. The Fodness Study (1992) used the same basis by applying the concept of family-life cycle. The main commonality between the two studies which has direct implication on this research is their effort to link their findings with marketing. For instance: . . . promotion should appeal to both spouses (joint-decision) . . . and promotion materials must be dispersed broadly . . . advertisements should incorporate families engaging in such activities as visiting friends and relatives, camping, hiking, and visiting national parks and monuments. (1988:4Ð5).
Myers and Moncrief (1978) reported that both husband and wife participated in family tourism decision-making. Bartos| research (1982) suggested that women who work are far more likely to participate in pleasure tourism than women who do not work. Mayo (1981) suggested that current and future vacation planning may be less likely to be a joint decision than in the past, owing to changing sex roles. Other studies (Nichols and Snepenger 1988) consistently suggest that joint involvement in decision-making declines throughout the life-cycle, and also linked family income to the type of its structure: low income families are more wife dominated, middle income families employ more joint discussion, and high-income families utilize more husband-dominated decision-making. In the Myers and Moncrief (1978) publication, it appears that the longer a couple live together, the more likely they are to cooperate in the decision-making process. Some research, however, is more explicit and focuses on vacation subdecisions. For instance, Ritchie and Filiatrault (1980), who studied the relative role structure of the husband and wife dyad, suggest that husbands strongly dominate decisions concerning the following attributes: the actual data of vacation, the amount of money spent on vacation, the length of a vacation stay, and the price of the chosen lodging. Mayo (1981) identified certain dimensions of tourism as being more shared by both spouses. This was confirmed by Nichols and Snepenger: {{two-thirds or more of all vacation decisions such as problem recognition, information search, and final destination decision are shared by the husband and wife|| (1988:2). Fodness (1992) indicates that wives were more likely than husbands to conduct the pre-vacation information search. Myers and Moncrief (1978) observed that while route decision is overwhelmingly the hus-
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band|s functional domain, lodging decision tends to be a shared task. Thus, previous research was essentially oriented toward the determination of decision sharing among spouses as well as the importance of variables such as age (Mayo 1981), children (Consenza and Davis 1981; Fodness 1992), family life cycles (Consenza and Davis 1981; Fodness 1992), and income (Myers 1978). Moreover, these researchers also identified specific dimensions of tourism and the associated source of decision-making (e.g., route, lodging, and information). Despite the wider range of research in the area of gender and tourism, existing findings have limited value in terms of marketing and publicity. For instance, available evidence does not segment the decisions into components and does not associate these components to the spouses. This lack of segmentation results in a broad allocation of the responsibility of the decisions regardless of the number of tasks involved in, or the importance of these tasks. Moreover, segmenting the tasks which spouses are engaged in before and during a trip would assist tourism and marketing professionals in formulating adequate strategies. A better understanding of the involvement of wives in tourism tasks can increase the efficiency of travel agents, tour operators, and suppliers of services such as lodging and shopping establishments. Indeed, an increase in efficiency can be partly achieved when the supplier possesses adequate information on the wives| involvement which is often indicative of their level of interest as well as their needs. This in turn will determine the publicity and the marketing strategies used and the overall image projected by the suppliers of goods and services. If, for instance, wives are less involved in {{financing tasks||, then banks and financial institutions should ensure that posters showing tourists engaged in bank activities related to vacation are favourable to women. Images are often a reflection of the reality. However, they also influence reality and can be important in modifying the current roles played by wives if a better understanding of their tourism involvement is available.
WIVES AND TOURISM DECISIONS The objective of this research is to identify the main tourism dimensions (e.g., transportation and accommodation) which require an explicit decision and to determine the level of involvement of wives in the different tasks associated with pleasure trips. It should be noted that husbands were not included in the sample for three reasons. First, any involvement of them in responding to the questionnaire would have a direct influence on the answers provided by wives. Second, the purpose of the study was not to establish differentials in answers due to gender. Third, previous studies were often based on this duality which is prone to introduce a bias. For instance, Nichols and Snepenger note: {{in this sample, the husband filled out the survey instrument in 70% of the families|| (1988:3). By excluding husbands, the answers provided by wives reflect in a better way their involvement
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in tourism tasks. The segmented approach necessitating the identification of the main tasks is essential in understanding the role which women play at different levels of planning and executing a trip. Indeed, it is not sufficient to determine the overall level of involvement as it relates to trip decisions. Previous research (Bronner and de Hoog 1985) has clearly demonstrated that a better understanding of the decisions-making process is attained when the tasks are identified separately. Moreover, the individual|s perception as it relates to the segments is not necessarily equal to the overall perception. For instance, {{satisfaction|| research shows that the sum of the elements which make up total satisfaction is not necessarily equal to the overall level of satisfaction. Using a sample of 85 married couples, Zalatan (1995) established that when the respondents were asked about their level of satisfaction with their relationship with their spouses, their {{overall|| ratings were invariably higher than the average ratings given to specific dimensions of their marital relationship such as communication, emotional interaction, household decisions, and financial matters. Segmenting the decisionmaking process would also provide the industry with specific information related to the different tourism activities. For instance, it would be useful to answer questions such as {{who is more involved with the travel agencies|| or {{who collects the information|| or {{who makes the transportation arrangements||. To provide answers to the above questions and to determine the level of involvement of women in the decision-making process, a questionnaire was constructed covering the tourism activities, the sociotouristic profile of the respondents and their levels of satisfaction. In this study, {{level of involvement|| is defined in a subjective way by the respondent using a 0Ð10 scale. A vacation trip involves several types of decisions. For the purpose of this paper, these are identified individually and grouped under the following four categories. First is initial trip tasks. Trips usually begin with the collection of information which will allow the person to select a destination and to determine the vacation date (3 activities, Table 2). Second is financing. A trip can be a costly leisure activity. For many people it is probably the most expensive activity associated with the purchase of a service. Indeed most recent Canadian data (Statistics Canada 1994) estimate the average Canadian international tourism expenditures at US$732 per year. Financing activities include arranging financing (e.g., bank loan), purchasing travelers cheques, purchasing services from travel agencies and tour operators, and purchasing tickets (4 activities, Table 2). Third is pre-departure. While differences do exist in the diversity of tasks involved in tourism arrangement, by and large, before departure, a tourist makes arrangements related to transportation, accommodation, luggage, and other pre-departure tasks such as medical and insurance (4 activities, Table 2). Four is destination. Once tourists reach the desired destination many decisions are usually taken. These may include selecting sites, deciding length of time at each site, selecting accommodations and selecting restaurants, determining shopping expenditures, and other decisions such as tours and attending special events (6 activities, Table 2).
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Research methodology A questionnaire was administered in the Ottawa-Carleton area (Population 800,000 in 1991) by 12 students of the Department of Leisure Studies (University of Ottawa). In total, over 700 women were asked to respond to the questionnaire. Locations where these women were approached included shopping malls, two social clubs, three fitness clubs, two women association groups, two church groups, one university, and one government agency. Moreover, friends and relatives of the interviewers were included in the sample. About 460 women qualified to participate in the survey. Only married women were asked to fill in the questionnaire. However, 74 respondents took no vacation trip over the past 12 months and hence were excluded from the survey. An additional 28 questionnaires were rejected due to incomplete responses (e.g., too many unanswered questions). In the final count, a total of 356 questionnaires were retained for the analysis. An eleven-point scale (0Ð10) was used to determine the level of involvement of women in the decision-making process. Assigning a specific score to each decision assumes that the respondents are able to recall with reasonable accuracy their previous involvement in the decision-making process. While this assumption is not always met, the quantitative evaluation is still best to measure the relative influence of women in the tourism decisions. It renders possible the aggregation of the results and permits an objective comparison between tasks. There is also a noted difference in the methodology used in this study, namely the survey was addressed only to women. In previous research, this was not the case (Nichols and Snepenger 1988).
Study results and analysis As already noted, this sample was targeted only at {{married women||, in order to compare their levels of involvement in the tourism decisions. About 86% of the interviewed women stated English as their usual {{home language|| as compared to 12% who said they usually speak French at home, and 2% who speak other languages. The language variable was included in the questionnaire on the basis that some differences might exist in the tourism behavior between Francophones and Anglophones. However, the former sample group (N = 43) was too small to statistically validate differences in behavior. About 10% of the respondents did not indicate their age. Those who were in the 46Ð55 age group accounted for 36.8% of the respondents, while the average age group of the women in the sample was 44.6 years. The average age of their spouses is 48.8 years. Nearly 75% of the respondents were employed (64% full time job and 11% part-time job), and on average the respondents reported having 15.7 years of schooling and average annual income of nearly $27,000. These findings are in line with other studies (Touriscope 1994; Zalatan 1994) which show that tourists have higher education and income when compared to the Census data of Ottawa-Carleton (1991). Close to
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60% of the respondents do not have children at home. The remaining 40% have on average two children at home. The respondents were asked to provide some basic information with regard to the past two {{pleasure/vacation trips|| which they had taken over the previous 12 months. Nearly 60% of them had taken one trip and the remainder took two trips. The collected information was limited to the two trips. On average, the respondents were highly satisfied with their trips with the highest level of satisfaction being for trips to Australia and to the Caribbean. Table 1 shows the geographical distribution of total trips, the level of satisfaction, as well as the standard deviation. The higher standard deviation for the Caribbean and for South America indicates a lack of agreement among the respondents. This is clearly evident for destinations such as Cuba and Venezuela which were ranked very high by some respondents and very low by others. The average level of satisfaction was calculated for the group of respondents who took one trip and for the group who took two trips, representing respectively 62% and 38% of the total number of respondents. A slight difference was noted between the two groups. However, this was not significant and the scores were pooled together to provide a larger data base. The average length of stay for all destinations was estimated at 10.3 days, although wide variations were evident among the different destinations with the highest length of stay being registered for Australia (24.8 days) and the lowest for Canada (6.7 days). Table 2 shows the average levels of involvement and the standard deviation for the 17 tasks. Respondents indicated an overall involvement of 7.4 where 10 indicates {{total involvement|| and 0 indicates {{lack of involvement||. The concept of {{tasks involvement|| does not imply {{needs|| or {{exclusion||. For instance, for the task {{selecting restaurants||, the registered average level of involvement is 7.9. This does not necessarily mean that the husband plays a marginal role in this particular decision; it is conceivable that both spouses are highly involved in this. Furthermore, a high level of involvement does not
Table 1. Destinations and Satisfaction Percentage of Total
Average Satisfaction
Standard Deviation
Canada United States Europe Caribbean South America Australia Other
46.1 19.1 10.3 8.2 4.7 3.6 8.0
7.5 7.8 7.8 8.1 7.6 8.7 7.7
1.7 2.1 1.9 3.1 3.4 1.1 2.2
Total
100
7.8
Destination
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Table 2. Tasks Involvement Tasks
Level of Involvement
Standard Deviation
Initial Trip Tasks: Determining Vacation Date Selecting Destination Collecting Information Subtotal
7.0 7.2 7.3 7.2
2.1 1.9 1.8 1.9
Financing Tasks: Arranging Financing Travelers Cheques Purchasing Travel Package Purchasing Tickets Subtotal
5.1 3.1 3.2 4.0 3.9
2.3 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.6
6.8 5.6 8.9 7.2
1.7 1.0 2.1 1.9
7.1
1.7
7.4
1.7
7.1 7.9 7.2 8.5 7.3
1.4 1.9 2.2 2.4 1.8
7.6
1.9
6.5
1.9
Pre-departure Tasks: Transportation Arrangements Accommodation Arrangements Preparing Luggage Other Tasks (e.g., medical, insurance) Subtotal Destination Tasks: Selecting Tourist Sites (guided and nonguided) Length of Time at each Site Selecting Restaurants Selecting Accommodation Shopping Expenditures Other Decisions (e.g., special events) Subtotal Average
suggest that the needs of the wife are more served than those of the husband. On the other hand, a low level of involvement suggests that in this particular task the husband plays a more active role. It should be noted that while Table 2 indicates only the title of the tasks, the questions asked in the survey were worded clearly and in some cases examples provided to ensure that the respondent fully understood the specific task. While some of these 17 tasks overlap, it should be noted that not all the respondents had to provide a score for each task. For instance, the respondent who purchased a {{travel package|| which includes
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{{accommodation|| and {{purchasing an airline ticket|| only provided a score for {{purchasing travel package||. The data of the tasks involvement in Table 2 is a pooling of the answers obtained for the two trips. The chi-square test shows that only in four tasks a difference, not due to chance, was measurable at the 95% confidence level. The overall involvement is not very high (6.5) and there are clear differences in particular in tasks performed at the destination. Results of the survey suggest five perspectives. First, wives have a marginal involvement in tasks related to the financing aspects of the trip. On average, the level of involvement is 3.9. The difference is even wider when the answers are segmented for {{employed|| women as compared to {{housewives||: 4.5 and 2.1, respectively. Second, at the destination site, wives are highly involved in the decision-making process. On average, their involvement reaches the 7.6 level with {{shopping expenditures|| (8.5) and {{selecting restaurants|| (7.9) being the two tasks where involvement is quite high. This finding is supported by Anderson and Littrell who noted that {{shopping was an activity that provided [women] with entertainment, adventure, and discovery of unusual objects|| (1995:339). Indeed, shopping is much more than an economic activity. It is a cultural experience and often it involves interaction with shopkeepers and crafts producers. Third, it is interesting to note that there are definite differences in involvement in {{accommodation|| decisions. While the level of involvement is low (5.6) at the {{pre-departure|| stage, it increases by 28.6% at the {{destination|| stage (7.2). This is an indication that, regardless of the task, wives are more involved in the decision-making related tasks at the destination. Fourth, this involvement confirms that for some tasks the gender dimension still has a determining role. Wives are less involved in {{finance|| matters but more in {{preparing luggage||, in {{shopping||, and in {{selecting restaurants||. While the research has clearly established that women are highly involved in many tourism tasks, traditional women|s roles are still apparent and the stereotypic roles are at play here. Finally, fifth, research has established the importance of the family life cycle in understanding the tourism decision-making (Consenza and Davis 1981). For instance, when the husband|s career is at a critical stage, the family must design the vacation around his work schedule. The present study gives the wife a reasonably high level in {{determining vacation date|| (7.0). However, such involvement does not necessarily mean that the decision is centered around the needs of the wife. It simply means that she is highly involved in this task. The results of the survey clearly indicate a wide divergence in the level of wives| involvement in the decision-making process. Involvement is the highest at the destination sites and the lowest in decision involving financial matters. However, while average levels of involvement are indicative of the role played by wives in tourism decisions, it is interesting to verify two hypotheses formulated on the basis of the tasks and the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents: that the socioeconomic characteristics of wives as well as some trip characteristics have a positive effect on the level of involvement in the travel decisions; and that levels of tasks involvement are consistent for the 17 tasks (Table 2). That is, if
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a wife scores high in, for example, {{purchasing tickets||, she will also score high in the other 16 tasks (stability in tasks involvement). To test the first hypothesis, regression analysis was used and the results are shown in Table 3. The beta coefficients were estimated by using the standardized regression method (Ramanatathan 1989) in order to compare their numerical values to each other. The results of the linear regression model suggest that: {{Years of schooling|| is highly significant variable in explaining wives| involvement in tourism decisions. Education confers knowledge, and knowledge is essential in the decision-making process, in particular due to the complexity of the tasks. Indeed, it is easier for a wife to be involved in tourism decisions if her educational background provides her with the basic elements to participate effectively in the decisions. {{Household income|| is also a strong determining factor in explaining involvement in tourism decisions. To a certain extent, there is a measurable multicollinearity between {{years of schooling|| and {{income|| (R2 = 0.380). Higher incomes are also associated with previous tourism experience, which contributes to involvement in this decision process. {{Years of employment|| in the labor market provide wives with financial autonomy and exposure to tourism tasks. Working wives, in particular educated working wives, have a higher probability of taking business trips which necessitate the planning and the execution of several such tasks. By extension, these persons would maintain and replicate their decision behavior in pleasure trips. {{Satisfaction|| with a trip is also adding to the explanatory power of the model. However, it is not clear whether higher involvement leads to higher satisfaction or the reverse. One can easily defend both positions. Individuals who are highly involved in tourism tasks are less critical of the outcome and would tend to be satisfied with their vacation. On the other hand, individuals who are satisfied with their trip for all kinds of reasons, will tend to get involved more actively in
Table 3. Explanatory Variables of Wives| Involvement in Tourisma Explanatory Variables Age Years of Schooling Income Years of Employment Children at Home Satisfaction Length of Stay Level of Tourism Expertise
Coefficient
St. Error
t-value
0.424 0.639 0.798 0.621 0.266 0.754 0.370 0.460
0.361 0.162 0.245 0.230 0.187 0.296 0.179 0.187
1.17 3.94 3.26 2.70 1.42 2.55 2.06 2.50
R2 = 0.618 a
Level of involvement is the dependent variable.
R2 = 0.593 Þ
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the decision-making process in particular in those decisions which are related to on-site activities. An assumption is made that a positive correlation exists between {{involvement|| and {{age||. However, age was not statistically significant in explaining the level of involvement. This may be due to the familiarity effect which allows wives to be more sensitive to the needs of other family members, in particular, their husbands. {{This familiarity, in turn, elicits mutually satisfactory selections to be made by the spouse|| (Consenza and Davis 1981:17). Thus, an increase in role specialization occurs with an increase in age with a tendency for a more segmented tasks involvement. Fodness (1992) found that wives were more likely to make individual decisions in families with children and less likely to do so in families without children. While the regression analysis of the present study established this finding also, the beta coefficient is not statistically valid. {{Length of stay|| is significant at the 10% level and is positively correlated with the level of involvement. Rao, Thomas and Javalgi (1992) established a relationship between the trip planning horizon and the distance involved. In general, distance is also correlated with length of stay. For instance, according to Statistics Canada (1994), the average length of stay for Canadian tourists in Europe was 10.9 days, as compared to 3.8 days for stays in the United States. One would also expect that the longer the trip, the higher the complexity of its planning and the more important the need to be involved in its preparation. A longer trip is seldom {{ a surprise||, and often spouses join their efforts to ensure that all its dimensions are covered. The stability of the levels of task involvement among the 356 respondents was tested in two steps. First, the coefficient of variability (expression of the standard deviation in terms of a percentage of the mean) for each respondent was calculated, then the total sample was segmented in two groups: a group which has a low coefficient of variability (more stable task involvement) and a group which has a high coefficient of variability. These two groups were then tested for their relationship with the explanatory variable shown in Table 4. The coefficient of variability of the whole sample (n = 356) was 28.9% as compared to 13.8% for the group (n = 89), which has a low coefficient of variability and 41.6% for the group (n = 106) which has a high coefficient of variability. Significant differences were evident when a comparison was made between the two groups in terms of the socioeconomic profile. This table shows the mean values for the explanatory variables as well as the t-values of the regression coefficients and the estimated values of the coefficients of determination. CONCLUSION The present research has established that the segmented approach to evaluate wives| involvement in tourism tasks yields some interesting results, of special value to marketing and tourism operators. In the pre-departure tasks, the selection of a destination and the collection of information are two areas where wives are highly involved. This clearly suggests that travel agencies should not neglect the need of
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Table 4. Explanatory Variables of Wives| Involvement in Tourisma
Explanatory Variables
Low Variability Group Mean T-value
Age Years of Schooling Income Years of Employment Children at Home Satisfaction Length of Stay Level of Expertise
48.8 16.1 $44,000 17.1 0.7 7.5 10.6 8.0
1.31 4.18 3.45 2.84 1.04 2.31 2.01 2.77
41.4 14.2 $32,000 12.3 2.3 8.1 9.9 7.0
1.04 3.62 3.04 2.42 1.67 2.87 2.10 2.31
R2 = 0
E2 = 0.401 Þ
R2 = 0.514
R2 = 0.463 Þ
a
High Variability Group Mean T-value
Level of involvement is the dependent variable.
women and should produce their marketing material in such a way that it appeals to them. Such material should contain elements related, for instance, to cultural activities, dining, and shopping. A good example would be the ongoing research which the author is pursuing in Peru (Zalatan 1996) and which clearly indicates that the Peruvian marketing effort does not appeal to women. For instance, hardly any mention is made about Lima|s 12,000 restaurants or the amazing shopping opportunities which Peru offers. Another example relates to the selection of a hotel. A recent study (Zalatan 1997) related to the decision to select a hotel highlighted clear differences between women and men in relation to the services offered by hotel. While men favored food and bar facilities, parking and entertainment (including TV), women ranked high services such as cleanness and style of bathroom and room, access to shopping malls, and fitness facilities. Therefore, differences do exist between husbands and wives, and in the present study it is clear that wives are highly involved in tasks associated with the collection of information, the selection of restaurants and lodging, and budgeting for shopping expenditures. The tasks associated with financing are basically those of the husband. One would expect that, with the increasing participation of women in the labor market, this situation would be different and more wives would be involved in financing tasks. However, the present study being based solely on a cross-section analysis cannot verify whether the situation has changed during recent years. True, the average involvement score for financing tasks is 3.9. However, it is possible than ten years ago this score was lower. A partial answer to this concern can be provided by the beta coefficient of income in Table 4. Previous research has established a link between marketing and tourism decisions (Fodness 1992; Zalatan 1996). {{Effective tourism marketing requires that managers understand not only what people do on vacation but how people make leisure travel decisions|| (Fodness
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1992:8). Moreover, decisions are related to tasks and to improve managerial decisions, it is critical to understand tourist behaviors and in particular as they related to the fulfilment of specific tasks associated with a pleasure trip. This improved knowledge of the degree of wives| involvement in these tasks would assist the industry in its marketing efforts and would provide operators with a more realistic assessment of the role played by wives in decisions and tasks associated with tourism. The measurement of tasks involvement examined in this study is a subjective measure by the respondent. Therefore, it does represent the actual perception of the wives in terms of their involvement in different tourism tasks. They play an important role in the selection of a destination and the collection of information. For these two tasks, in general, travel agencies play a key role. In fact in the large majority of cases, agencies are the most used source to obtain information. This fact has been confirmed by Fodness: {{wives were more likely than husbands to conduct the pre-vacation information search . . . promotional materials must be disbursed and located where wives can find them|| (1992:13). The location of a travel agency and its access to wives can augment usage and increase sales revenues. In many cases, women feel more comfortable dealing with tourism employees of the same gender. Travel agencies should take this fact into consideration. Women are still, to a certain extent, viewed as dependents and, as such, their involvement is mainly related to direct consumption tasks. While this study has clearly established that there are wide differences in the degree of wives| involvement in tourism tasks, many research areas can still be investigated. For instance, it would be highly interesting to duplicate the study for married men, in order to measure their degree of involvement in the same tasks. According to Swain, {{women and men are . . . involved differently in the construction and consumption of tourism|| (1977:249). Establishing these differences on a gender basis has strong implications in tourism planning, marketing, and publicity. In particularly, longitudinal study can shed more light on this important and evolving subject. Although tourism has historically constituted an activity primarily for men, this situation is changing. This trend will surely have an impact on wives| involvement in the decision-making process, and over time one may expect changes which are due to the increase in their own tourism activities. In fact, data should be collected on the frequency of their trips, in order to test the relationship between this frequency and task involvement. This information is a proxy to a longitudinal study and can be used to test their changing role in decision-making as a result of an increase in their personal and professional tourism pursuits. The present research shows a low score for tasks related to financial matters. Another research question is whether this level of involvement changes 10 years from now. A parallel can also be drawn between wives| behavior at and away from home. A dual questionnaire can be constructed to provide information related to household tasks and tourism tasks and to verify this relationship. The {{gender-based salary gap|| might explain the low score in tasks involving financial matters.
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It is interesting to note that even the involvement of employed wives outside the home is quite low (4.5). One wonders if this low involvement in financial tasks shows variations with the amount spent on and/or the frequency of tourism? Unfortunately, no information was collected on these two variables, and thus no relationship can be established among these expenditures, the frequency of travel, and level of involvement in financial matters. However, it is interesting to note that at the end of the questionnaire, an open-ended question allowed the respondents to comment on their scores. About 20% of the respondents stated that their involvement in financial tasks was low because their husband {{has always|| been more involved in financial matters. No specific reasons were given. However, one may suggest that working husbands may have mechanisms set up from business trips which are effectively used for pleasure tourism, or simply that wives may find financial tasks boring and much less attractive than shopping or the selection of a restaurant.
REFERENCES Anderson, L. F., and M. A. Littrell 1995 Souvenir-Purchase Behavior of Women Tourists. Annals of Tourism Research 22:328Ð348. Bartos, R. 1982 Women and Travel. Journal of Travel Research 20(4):3Ð9. Bronner, F., and R. de Hoog 1985 A recipe for Mixing Decision Ingredients. European Research 13:109Ð115. Consenza, R. M., and D. L. Davis 1981 Family Vacation Decision Making over the Family Life Cycle: A Decision and Influence Structure Analysis. Journal of Travel Research 20(2):17Ð23. Fodness, D. 1992 The Impact of Family Life Cycle on the Vacation Decision-Making Process. Journal of Travel Research 31(2):8Ð13. Goodrich, J. N. 1978 The Relationship between Preferences for and Perceptions of Vacation Destinations: Application of a Choice Model. Journal of Travel Research 17(2):8Ð 13. Mayo, E. J. 1981 The Psychology of Leisure Travel: Effective Marketing and Selling of Travel Services. Boston: CBI. Myers, P. B., and L. W. Moncrief 1978 Differential Leisure Travel Decision-Making between Spouses. Annals of Tourism Research 5:157Ð165. Nichols, M. C., and D. J. Snepenger 1988 Family Decision Making and Tourism Behavior and Attitudes. Journal of Travel Research 26:2Ð6. 26(4):2Ð6. Rao, S. R., E. G. Thomas, and R. G. Jaralgi 1992 Activity Preferences and Trip-Planning Behavior of the US Outbound Travel Market. Journal of Travel Research 30(3):3Ð12. Ritchie, J. R., and Filiatrault, P. 1980 Family Vacation Decision-Making. A Replication and Extension. Journal of Travel Research 18(4):3Ð4. Schul, P., and J. L. Crompton 1983 Search Behavior of International Vacationers: Travel-Specific Lifestyle and Sociodemographic Variables. Journal of Travel Research 22(2):25Ð34. Smith, V. L. 1979 Women the Taste Makers in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 6:49Ð59.
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Statistics Canada 1994 International Travel. Cat. No. 66Ð201. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Van Raaij, W. F., and D. A. Francken 1984 Vacation Decisions, Activities and Satisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research 11:101Ð112. Zalatan, A. 1994 Tourist Satisfaction: A Predetermined Model. The Tourist Review 49(1):9Ð 13. 1995 Satisfaction and Aggregation: Theoretical Foundations and Empirical Evidence. Unpublished research paper, University of Ottawa, Leisure Studies. 1996 The Determinants of Planning Time in Vacation Travel. Tourism Management 17:123Ð131. 1997 The Selection of a Hotel: Differences based on Gender. Unpublished research paper, University of Ottawa, Leisure Studies. Submitted 18 July 1997 Resubmitted 10 November 1997 Accepted 6 February 1998 Refereed anonymously Coordinating Editor: Valene L. Smith
Pergamon
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 890Ð903, 1998 Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 0160-7383/98 $19.00+0.00
PII: S0160-7383(98)00038-3
WIVES| INVOLVEMENT IN TOURISM DECISION PROCESSES Antoine Zalatan University of Ottawa, Canada Abstract: This study segments tourism decision-making tasks into 17 categories. Wives were asked to assign a score to their level of involvement in each task. A marginal involvement in tasks related to the {{financing aspects|| of the trip was observed whereas involvement was high in tasks such as {{shopping||, {{selecting restaurants||, {{collecting information||, and {{preparing luggage||. Two hypotheses were tested: the socioeconomic characteristics of wives and trip characteristics have a positive effect on the level of involvement in the tourism decisions; and levels of task involvement are consistent for the 17 tasks (stability in tasks involvement). Marketing implications and recommendations for future research were also discussed. Keywords: wive|s involvement, travel tasks, socioeconomic variables, coefficient of variability, marketing implications. Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Re sume : La participation des e pouses aux de cisions de voyages. Cette e tude segmente les de cisions et taches des voyages en dix-sept cate gories. On a demande aux e pouses d|attribuer une valeur nume rique selon leur niveau de participation dans chaque ta¼ che. On a observe peu de participation aux {{aspects financiers|| tandis que la participation e tait e leve e pour le {{shopping||, le {{choix des restaurants||, la {{collecte d|information||, et la {{pre paration des bagages||. On a ve rifie deux hypothe ses: que les caracte ristiques socio-e conomiques des e pouses ainsi que certaines caracte ristiques du voyage ont un effet positif sur la participation des e pouses aux de cisions du tourisme, et que les niveaux de participation pour les dix-sept ta¼ ches sont stables. On discute aussi des implications de marketing et des recommandations pour la recherche future. Mots-cle s: participation des e pouses, ta¼ ches associe es au voyage, variables socio-e conomiques, coe fficient de variabilite , implications pour le marketing. Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
INTRODUCTION Taking a vacation involves a decision-making process which may be simple or complex. The degree of complexity depends on many variables which are associated with the socioeconomic characteristics of the tourist (Nichols and Snepenger 1988; Zalatan 1996) or with specific features related to the destination (Goodrich 1978). Previous research (Myers and Moncrief 1978; Schul and Crompton 1983; van Raaij and Francken 1984) has successfully identified the determinant variables which play key roles in high or low involvement decision models. In these models, the involvement of women in the decision process was implicitly recognized (Consenza and Davis 1981; Nichols and Snepenger 1988; Fodness 1992) or explicitly measured and com-
Antoine Zalatan is Associate Professor of Leisure Studies at the University of Ottawa, (Ontario, K1N 6N5 Canada. Email: [email protected]). His areas of work are mainly in the economics of tourism, demand analysis, and forecasting methods. He acted as tourism advisor in many projects in Canada, several African Countries, and Europe. He is presently in the process of completing a manuscript entitled {{The Economics of Tourism: A Textbook||.
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pared to the role played by men in travel decisions (Myers and Moncrief 1978; Smith 1979; Bartos 1982). However, most of the previous research merely indicated involvement, or the lack of it in the decision making process. Studies by Nichols and Snepenger (1988) and Fodness (1992) in particular are quite relevant to this research. Both deal with {{husband||, {{wife|| and the presence or absence of children and both studies are concerned with the decision-making as it relates to tourism. The Nichols and Snepenger (1988) study established relationships between the {{wife dominant||, the {{husband dominant||, and the {{joint decision|| situation with sociodemographic, trip, and planning variables as well as on-site behavior. The Fodness Study (1992) used the same basis by applying the concept of family-life cycle. The main commonality between the two studies which has direct implication on this research is their effort to link their findings with marketing. For instance: . . . promotion should appeal to both spouses (joint-decision) . . . and promotion materials must be dispersed broadly . . . advertisements should incorporate families engaging in such activities as visiting friends and relatives, camping, hiking, and visiting national parks and monuments. (1988:4Ð5).
Myers and Moncrief (1978) reported that both husband and wife participated in family tourism decision-making. Bartos| research (1982) suggested that women who work are far more likely to participate in pleasure tourism than women who do not work. Mayo (1981) suggested that current and future vacation planning may be less likely to be a joint decision than in the past, owing to changing sex roles. Other studies (Nichols and Snepenger 1988) consistently suggest that joint involvement in decision-making declines throughout the life-cycle, and also linked family income to the type of its structure: low income families are more wife dominated, middle income families employ more joint discussion, and high-income families utilize more husband-dominated decision-making. In the Myers and Moncrief (1978) publication, it appears that the longer a couple live together, the more likely they are to cooperate in the decision-making process. Some research, however, is more explicit and focuses on vacation subdecisions. For instance, Ritchie and Filiatrault (1980), who studied the relative role structure of the husband and wife dyad, suggest that husbands strongly dominate decisions concerning the following attributes: the actual data of vacation, the amount of money spent on vacation, the length of a vacation stay, and the price of the chosen lodging. Mayo (1981) identified certain dimensions of tourism as being more shared by both spouses. This was confirmed by Nichols and Snepenger: {{two-thirds or more of all vacation decisions such as problem recognition, information search, and final destination decision are shared by the husband and wife|| (1988:2). Fodness (1992) indicates that wives were more likely than husbands to conduct the pre-vacation information search. Myers and Moncrief (1978) observed that while route decision is overwhelmingly the hus-
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band|s functional domain, lodging decision tends to be a shared task. Thus, previous research was essentially oriented toward the determination of decision sharing among spouses as well as the importance of variables such as age (Mayo 1981), children (Consenza and Davis 1981; Fodness 1992), family life cycles (Consenza and Davis 1981; Fodness 1992), and income (Myers 1978). Moreover, these researchers also identified specific dimensions of tourism and the associated source of decision-making (e.g., route, lodging, and information). Despite the wider range of research in the area of gender and tourism, existing findings have limited value in terms of marketing and publicity. For instance, available evidence does not segment the decisions into components and does not associate these components to the spouses. This lack of segmentation results in a broad allocation of the responsibility of the decisions regardless of the number of tasks involved in, or the importance of these tasks. Moreover, segmenting the tasks which spouses are engaged in before and during a trip would assist tourism and marketing professionals in formulating adequate strategies. A better understanding of the involvement of wives in tourism tasks can increase the efficiency of travel agents, tour operators, and suppliers of services such as lodging and shopping establishments. Indeed, an increase in efficiency can be partly achieved when the supplier possesses adequate information on the wives| involvement which is often indicative of their level of interest as well as their needs. This in turn will determine the publicity and the marketing strategies used and the overall image projected by the suppliers of goods and services. If, for instance, wives are less involved in {{financing tasks||, then banks and financial institutions should ensure that posters showing tourists engaged in bank activities related to vacation are favourable to women. Images are often a reflection of the reality. However, they also influence reality and can be important in modifying the current roles played by wives if a better understanding of their tourism involvement is available.
WIVES AND TOURISM DECISIONS The objective of this research is to identify the main tourism dimensions (e.g., transportation and accommodation) which require an explicit decision and to determine the level of involvement of wives in the different tasks associated with pleasure trips. It should be noted that husbands were not included in the sample for three reasons. First, any involvement of them in responding to the questionnaire would have a direct influence on the answers provided by wives. Second, the purpose of the study was not to establish differentials in answers due to gender. Third, previous studies were often based on this duality which is prone to introduce a bias. For instance, Nichols and Snepenger note: {{in this sample, the husband filled out the survey instrument in 70% of the families|| (1988:3). By excluding husbands, the answers provided by wives reflect in a better way their involvement
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in tourism tasks. The segmented approach necessitating the identification of the main tasks is essential in understanding the role which women play at different levels of planning and executing a trip. Indeed, it is not sufficient to determine the overall level of involvement as it relates to trip decisions. Previous research (Bronner and de Hoog 1985) has clearly demonstrated that a better understanding of the decisions-making process is attained when the tasks are identified separately. Moreover, the individual|s perception as it relates to the segments is not necessarily equal to the overall perception. For instance, {{satisfaction|| research shows that the sum of the elements which make up total satisfaction is not necessarily equal to the overall level of satisfaction. Using a sample of 85 married couples, Zalatan (1995) established that when the respondents were asked about their level of satisfaction with their relationship with their spouses, their {{overall|| ratings were invariably higher than the average ratings given to specific dimensions of their marital relationship such as communication, emotional interaction, household decisions, and financial matters. Segmenting the decisionmaking process would also provide the industry with specific information related to the different tourism activities. For instance, it would be useful to answer questions such as {{who is more involved with the travel agencies|| or {{who collects the information|| or {{who makes the transportation arrangements||. To provide answers to the above questions and to determine the level of involvement of women in the decision-making process, a questionnaire was constructed covering the tourism activities, the sociotouristic profile of the respondents and their levels of satisfaction. In this study, {{level of involvement|| is defined in a subjective way by the respondent using a 0Ð10 scale. A vacation trip involves several types of decisions. For the purpose of this paper, these are identified individually and grouped under the following four categories. First is initial trip tasks. Trips usually begin with the collection of information which will allow the person to select a destination and to determine the vacation date (3 activities, Table 2). Second is financing. A trip can be a costly leisure activity. For many people it is probably the most expensive activity associated with the purchase of a service. Indeed most recent Canadian data (Statistics Canada 1994) estimate the average Canadian international tourism expenditures at US$732 per year. Financing activities include arranging financing (e.g., bank loan), purchasing travelers cheques, purchasing services from travel agencies and tour operators, and purchasing tickets (4 activities, Table 2). Third is pre-departure. While differences do exist in the diversity of tasks involved in tourism arrangement, by and large, before departure, a tourist makes arrangements related to transportation, accommodation, luggage, and other pre-departure tasks such as medical and insurance (4 activities, Table 2). Four is destination. Once tourists reach the desired destination many decisions are usually taken. These may include selecting sites, deciding length of time at each site, selecting accommodations and selecting restaurants, determining shopping expenditures, and other decisions such as tours and attending special events (6 activities, Table 2).
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Research methodology A questionnaire was administered in the Ottawa-Carleton area (Population 800,000 in 1991) by 12 students of the Department of Leisure Studies (University of Ottawa). In total, over 700 women were asked to respond to the questionnaire. Locations where these women were approached included shopping malls, two social clubs, three fitness clubs, two women association groups, two church groups, one university, and one government agency. Moreover, friends and relatives of the interviewers were included in the sample. About 460 women qualified to participate in the survey. Only married women were asked to fill in the questionnaire. However, 74 respondents took no vacation trip over the past 12 months and hence were excluded from the survey. An additional 28 questionnaires were rejected due to incomplete responses (e.g., too many unanswered questions). In the final count, a total of 356 questionnaires were retained for the analysis. An eleven-point scale (0Ð10) was used to determine the level of involvement of women in the decision-making process. Assigning a specific score to each decision assumes that the respondents are able to recall with reasonable accuracy their previous involvement in the decision-making process. While this assumption is not always met, the quantitative evaluation is still best to measure the relative influence of women in the tourism decisions. It renders possible the aggregation of the results and permits an objective comparison between tasks. There is also a noted difference in the methodology used in this study, namely the survey was addressed only to women. In previous research, this was not the case (Nichols and Snepenger 1988).
Study results and analysis As already noted, this sample was targeted only at {{married women||, in order to compare their levels of involvement in the tourism decisions. About 86% of the interviewed women stated English as their usual {{home language|| as compared to 12% who said they usually speak French at home, and 2% who speak other languages. The language variable was included in the questionnaire on the basis that some differences might exist in the tourism behavior between Francophones and Anglophones. However, the former sample group (N = 43) was too small to statistically validate differences in behavior. About 10% of the respondents did not indicate their age. Those who were in the 46Ð55 age group accounted for 36.8% of the respondents, while the average age group of the women in the sample was 44.6 years. The average age of their spouses is 48.8 years. Nearly 75% of the respondents were employed (64% full time job and 11% part-time job), and on average the respondents reported having 15.7 years of schooling and average annual income of nearly $27,000. These findings are in line with other studies (Touriscope 1994; Zalatan 1994) which show that tourists have higher education and income when compared to the Census data of Ottawa-Carleton (1991). Close to
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60% of the respondents do not have children at home. The remaining 40% have on average two children at home. The respondents were asked to provide some basic information with regard to the past two {{pleasure/vacation trips|| which they had taken over the previous 12 months. Nearly 60% of them had taken one trip and the remainder took two trips. The collected information was limited to the two trips. On average, the respondents were highly satisfied with their trips with the highest level of satisfaction being for trips to Australia and to the Caribbean. Table 1 shows the geographical distribution of total trips, the level of satisfaction, as well as the standard deviation. The higher standard deviation for the Caribbean and for South America indicates a lack of agreement among the respondents. This is clearly evident for destinations such as Cuba and Venezuela which were ranked very high by some respondents and very low by others. The average level of satisfaction was calculated for the group of respondents who took one trip and for the group who took two trips, representing respectively 62% and 38% of the total number of respondents. A slight difference was noted between the two groups. However, this was not significant and the scores were pooled together to provide a larger data base. The average length of stay for all destinations was estimated at 10.3 days, although wide variations were evident among the different destinations with the highest length of stay being registered for Australia (24.8 days) and the lowest for Canada (6.7 days). Table 2 shows the average levels of involvement and the standard deviation for the 17 tasks. Respondents indicated an overall involvement of 7.4 where 10 indicates {{total involvement|| and 0 indicates {{lack of involvement||. The concept of {{tasks involvement|| does not imply {{needs|| or {{exclusion||. For instance, for the task {{selecting restaurants||, the registered average level of involvement is 7.9. This does not necessarily mean that the husband plays a marginal role in this particular decision; it is conceivable that both spouses are highly involved in this. Furthermore, a high level of involvement does not
Table 1. Destinations and Satisfaction Percentage of Total
Average Satisfaction
Standard Deviation
Canada United States Europe Caribbean South America Australia Other
46.1 19.1 10.3 8.2 4.7 3.6 8.0
7.5 7.8 7.8 8.1 7.6 8.7 7.7
1.7 2.1 1.9 3.1 3.4 1.1 2.2
Total
100
7.8
Destination
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Table 2. Tasks Involvement Tasks
Level of Involvement
Standard Deviation
Initial Trip Tasks: Determining Vacation Date Selecting Destination Collecting Information Subtotal
7.0 7.2 7.3 7.2
2.1 1.9 1.8 1.9
Financing Tasks: Arranging Financing Travelers Cheques Purchasing Travel Package Purchasing Tickets Subtotal
5.1 3.1 3.2 4.0 3.9
2.3 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.6
6.8 5.6 8.9 7.2
1.7 1.0 2.1 1.9
7.1
1.7
7.4
1.7
7.1 7.9 7.2 8.5 7.3
1.4 1.9 2.2 2.4 1.8
7.6
1.9
6.5
1.9
Pre-departure Tasks: Transportation Arrangements Accommodation Arrangements Preparing Luggage Other Tasks (e.g., medical, insurance) Subtotal Destination Tasks: Selecting Tourist Sites (guided and nonguided) Length of Time at each Site Selecting Restaurants Selecting Accommodation Shopping Expenditures Other Decisions (e.g., special events) Subtotal Average
suggest that the needs of the wife are more served than those of the husband. On the other hand, a low level of involvement suggests that in this particular task the husband plays a more active role. It should be noted that while Table 2 indicates only the title of the tasks, the questions asked in the survey were worded clearly and in some cases examples provided to ensure that the respondent fully understood the specific task. While some of these 17 tasks overlap, it should be noted that not all the respondents had to provide a score for each task. For instance, the respondent who purchased a {{travel package|| which includes
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{{accommodation|| and {{purchasing an airline ticket|| only provided a score for {{purchasing travel package||. The data of the tasks involvement in Table 2 is a pooling of the answers obtained for the two trips. The chi-square test shows that only in four tasks a difference, not due to chance, was measurable at the 95% confidence level. The overall involvement is not very high (6.5) and there are clear differences in particular in tasks performed at the destination. Results of the survey suggest five perspectives. First, wives have a marginal involvement in tasks related to the financing aspects of the trip. On average, the level of involvement is 3.9. The difference is even wider when the answers are segmented for {{employed|| women as compared to {{housewives||: 4.5 and 2.1, respectively. Second, at the destination site, wives are highly involved in the decision-making process. On average, their involvement reaches the 7.6 level with {{shopping expenditures|| (8.5) and {{selecting restaurants|| (7.9) being the two tasks where involvement is quite high. This finding is supported by Anderson and Littrell who noted that {{shopping was an activity that provided [women] with entertainment, adventure, and discovery of unusual objects|| (1995:339). Indeed, shopping is much more than an economic activity. It is a cultural experience and often it involves interaction with shopkeepers and crafts producers. Third, it is interesting to note that there are definite differences in involvement in {{accommodation|| decisions. While the level of involvement is low (5.6) at the {{pre-departure|| stage, it increases by 28.6% at the {{destination|| stage (7.2). This is an indication that, regardless of the task, wives are more involved in the decision-making related tasks at the destination. Fourth, this involvement confirms that for some tasks the gender dimension still has a determining role. Wives are less involved in {{finance|| matters but more in {{preparing luggage||, in {{shopping||, and in {{selecting restaurants||. While the research has clearly established that women are highly involved in many tourism tasks, traditional women|s roles are still apparent and the stereotypic roles are at play here. Finally, fifth, research has established the importance of the family life cycle in understanding the tourism decision-making (Consenza and Davis 1981). For instance, when the husband|s career is at a critical stage, the family must design the vacation around his work schedule. The present study gives the wife a reasonably high level in {{determining vacation date|| (7.0). However, such involvement does not necessarily mean that the decision is centered around the needs of the wife. It simply means that she is highly involved in this task. The results of the survey clearly indicate a wide divergence in the level of wives| involvement in the decision-making process. Involvement is the highest at the destination sites and the lowest in decision involving financial matters. However, while average levels of involvement are indicative of the role played by wives in tourism decisions, it is interesting to verify two hypotheses formulated on the basis of the tasks and the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents: that the socioeconomic characteristics of wives as well as some trip characteristics have a positive effect on the level of involvement in the travel decisions; and that levels of tasks involvement are consistent for the 17 tasks (Table 2). That is, if
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a wife scores high in, for example, {{purchasing tickets||, she will also score high in the other 16 tasks (stability in tasks involvement). To test the first hypothesis, regression analysis was used and the results are shown in Table 3. The beta coefficients were estimated by using the standardized regression method (Ramanatathan 1989) in order to compare their numerical values to each other. The results of the linear regression model suggest that: {{Years of schooling|| is highly significant variable in explaining wives| involvement in tourism decisions. Education confers knowledge, and knowledge is essential in the decision-making process, in particular due to the complexity of the tasks. Indeed, it is easier for a wife to be involved in tourism decisions if her educational background provides her with the basic elements to participate effectively in the decisions. {{Household income|| is also a strong determining factor in explaining involvement in tourism decisions. To a certain extent, there is a measurable multicollinearity between {{years of schooling|| and {{income|| (R2 = 0.380). Higher incomes are also associated with previous tourism experience, which contributes to involvement in this decision process. {{Years of employment|| in the labor market provide wives with financial autonomy and exposure to tourism tasks. Working wives, in particular educated working wives, have a higher probability of taking business trips which necessitate the planning and the execution of several such tasks. By extension, these persons would maintain and replicate their decision behavior in pleasure trips. {{Satisfaction|| with a trip is also adding to the explanatory power of the model. However, it is not clear whether higher involvement leads to higher satisfaction or the reverse. One can easily defend both positions. Individuals who are highly involved in tourism tasks are less critical of the outcome and would tend to be satisfied with their vacation. On the other hand, individuals who are satisfied with their trip for all kinds of reasons, will tend to get involved more actively in
Table 3. Explanatory Variables of Wives| Involvement in Tourisma Explanatory Variables Age Years of Schooling Income Years of Employment Children at Home Satisfaction Length of Stay Level of Tourism Expertise
Coefficient
St. Error
t-value
0.424 0.639 0.798 0.621 0.266 0.754 0.370 0.460
0.361 0.162 0.245 0.230 0.187 0.296 0.179 0.187
1.17 3.94 3.26 2.70 1.42 2.55 2.06 2.50
R2 = 0.618 a
Level of involvement is the dependent variable.
R2 = 0.593 Þ
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the decision-making process in particular in those decisions which are related to on-site activities. An assumption is made that a positive correlation exists between {{involvement|| and {{age||. However, age was not statistically significant in explaining the level of involvement. This may be due to the familiarity effect which allows wives to be more sensitive to the needs of other family members, in particular, their husbands. {{This familiarity, in turn, elicits mutually satisfactory selections to be made by the spouse|| (Consenza and Davis 1981:17). Thus, an increase in role specialization occurs with an increase in age with a tendency for a more segmented tasks involvement. Fodness (1992) found that wives were more likely to make individual decisions in families with children and less likely to do so in families without children. While the regression analysis of the present study established this finding also, the beta coefficient is not statistically valid. {{Length of stay|| is significant at the 10% level and is positively correlated with the level of involvement. Rao, Thomas and Javalgi (1992) established a relationship between the trip planning horizon and the distance involved. In general, distance is also correlated with length of stay. For instance, according to Statistics Canada (1994), the average length of stay for Canadian tourists in Europe was 10.9 days, as compared to 3.8 days for stays in the United States. One would also expect that the longer the trip, the higher the complexity of its planning and the more important the need to be involved in its preparation. A longer trip is seldom {{ a surprise||, and often spouses join their efforts to ensure that all its dimensions are covered. The stability of the levels of task involvement among the 356 respondents was tested in two steps. First, the coefficient of variability (expression of the standard deviation in terms of a percentage of the mean) for each respondent was calculated, then the total sample was segmented in two groups: a group which has a low coefficient of variability (more stable task involvement) and a group which has a high coefficient of variability. These two groups were then tested for their relationship with the explanatory variable shown in Table 4. The coefficient of variability of the whole sample (n = 356) was 28.9% as compared to 13.8% for the group (n = 89), which has a low coefficient of variability and 41.6% for the group (n = 106) which has a high coefficient of variability. Significant differences were evident when a comparison was made between the two groups in terms of the socioeconomic profile. This table shows the mean values for the explanatory variables as well as the t-values of the regression coefficients and the estimated values of the coefficients of determination. CONCLUSION The present research has established that the segmented approach to evaluate wives| involvement in tourism tasks yields some interesting results, of special value to marketing and tourism operators. In the pre-departure tasks, the selection of a destination and the collection of information are two areas where wives are highly involved. This clearly suggests that travel agencies should not neglect the need of
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Table 4. Explanatory Variables of Wives| Involvement in Tourisma
Explanatory Variables
Low Variability Group Mean T-value
Age Years of Schooling Income Years of Employment Children at Home Satisfaction Length of Stay Level of Expertise
48.8 16.1 $44,000 17.1 0.7 7.5 10.6 8.0
1.31 4.18 3.45 2.84 1.04 2.31 2.01 2.77
41.4 14.2 $32,000 12.3 2.3 8.1 9.9 7.0
1.04 3.62 3.04 2.42 1.67 2.87 2.10 2.31
R2 = 0
E2 = 0.401 Þ
R2 = 0.514
R2 = 0.463 Þ
a
High Variability Group Mean T-value
Level of involvement is the dependent variable.
women and should produce their marketing material in such a way that it appeals to them. Such material should contain elements related, for instance, to cultural activities, dining, and shopping. A good example would be the ongoing research which the author is pursuing in Peru (Zalatan 1996) and which clearly indicates that the Peruvian marketing effort does not appeal to women. For instance, hardly any mention is made about Lima|s 12,000 restaurants or the amazing shopping opportunities which Peru offers. Another example relates to the selection of a hotel. A recent study (Zalatan 1997) related to the decision to select a hotel highlighted clear differences between women and men in relation to the services offered by hotel. While men favored food and bar facilities, parking and entertainment (including TV), women ranked high services such as cleanness and style of bathroom and room, access to shopping malls, and fitness facilities. Therefore, differences do exist between husbands and wives, and in the present study it is clear that wives are highly involved in tasks associated with the collection of information, the selection of restaurants and lodging, and budgeting for shopping expenditures. The tasks associated with financing are basically those of the husband. One would expect that, with the increasing participation of women in the labor market, this situation would be different and more wives would be involved in financing tasks. However, the present study being based solely on a cross-section analysis cannot verify whether the situation has changed during recent years. True, the average involvement score for financing tasks is 3.9. However, it is possible than ten years ago this score was lower. A partial answer to this concern can be provided by the beta coefficient of income in Table 4. Previous research has established a link between marketing and tourism decisions (Fodness 1992; Zalatan 1996). {{Effective tourism marketing requires that managers understand not only what people do on vacation but how people make leisure travel decisions|| (Fodness
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1992:8). Moreover, decisions are related to tasks and to improve managerial decisions, it is critical to understand tourist behaviors and in particular as they related to the fulfilment of specific tasks associated with a pleasure trip. This improved knowledge of the degree of wives| involvement in these tasks would assist the industry in its marketing efforts and would provide operators with a more realistic assessment of the role played by wives in decisions and tasks associated with tourism. The measurement of tasks involvement examined in this study is a subjective measure by the respondent. Therefore, it does represent the actual perception of the wives in terms of their involvement in different tourism tasks. They play an important role in the selection of a destination and the collection of information. For these two tasks, in general, travel agencies play a key role. In fact in the large majority of cases, agencies are the most used source to obtain information. This fact has been confirmed by Fodness: {{wives were more likely than husbands to conduct the pre-vacation information search . . . promotional materials must be disbursed and located where wives can find them|| (1992:13). The location of a travel agency and its access to wives can augment usage and increase sales revenues. In many cases, women feel more comfortable dealing with tourism employees of the same gender. Travel agencies should take this fact into consideration. Women are still, to a certain extent, viewed as dependents and, as such, their involvement is mainly related to direct consumption tasks. While this study has clearly established that there are wide differences in the degree of wives| involvement in tourism tasks, many research areas can still be investigated. For instance, it would be highly interesting to duplicate the study for married men, in order to measure their degree of involvement in the same tasks. According to Swain, {{women and men are . . . involved differently in the construction and consumption of tourism|| (1977:249). Establishing these differences on a gender basis has strong implications in tourism planning, marketing, and publicity. In particularly, longitudinal study can shed more light on this important and evolving subject. Although tourism has historically constituted an activity primarily for men, this situation is changing. This trend will surely have an impact on wives| involvement in the decision-making process, and over time one may expect changes which are due to the increase in their own tourism activities. In fact, data should be collected on the frequency of their trips, in order to test the relationship between this frequency and task involvement. This information is a proxy to a longitudinal study and can be used to test their changing role in decision-making as a result of an increase in their personal and professional tourism pursuits. The present research shows a low score for tasks related to financial matters. Another research question is whether this level of involvement changes 10 years from now. A parallel can also be drawn between wives| behavior at and away from home. A dual questionnaire can be constructed to provide information related to household tasks and tourism tasks and to verify this relationship. The {{gender-based salary gap|| might explain the low score in tasks involving financial matters.
902
WIVES| TOURISM DECISION
It is interesting to note that even the involvement of employed wives outside the home is quite low (4.5). One wonders if this low involvement in financial tasks shows variations with the amount spent on and/or the frequency of tourism? Unfortunately, no information was collected on these two variables, and thus no relationship can be established among these expenditures, the frequency of travel, and level of involvement in financial matters. However, it is interesting to note that at the end of the questionnaire, an open-ended question allowed the respondents to comment on their scores. About 20% of the respondents stated that their involvement in financial tasks was low because their husband {{has always|| been more involved in financial matters. No specific reasons were given. However, one may suggest that working husbands may have mechanisms set up from business trips which are effectively used for pleasure tourism, or simply that wives may find financial tasks boring and much less attractive than shopping or the selection of a restaurant.
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Statistics Canada 1994 International Travel. Cat. No. 66Ð201. Ottawa: Statistics Canada. Van Raaij, W. F., and D. A. Francken 1984 Vacation Decisions, Activities and Satisfaction. Annals of Tourism Research 11:101Ð112. Zalatan, A. 1994 Tourist Satisfaction: A Predetermined Model. The Tourist Review 49(1):9Ð 13. 1995 Satisfaction and Aggregation: Theoretical Foundations and Empirical Evidence. Unpublished research paper, University of Ottawa, Leisure Studies. 1996 The Determinants of Planning Time in Vacation Travel. Tourism Management 17:123Ð131. 1997 The Selection of a Hotel: Differences based on Gender. Unpublished research paper, University of Ottawa, Leisure Studies. Submitted 18 July 1997 Resubmitted 10 November 1997 Accepted 6 February 1998 Refereed anonymously Coordinating Editor: Valene L. Smith