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Women in management worldwide
0147-176718953.00 + .W Copyright % 1989 Pergamon Press plc
BOOK REVIEWS
WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT WORLDWIDE Nancy J. Adler and Dafna N. Israeli (Eds.)
Armonk, NY M.E. Sharpe, 1988,285 pp., $29.95 ~hardcover)
This is the first book published on comparative women in management and an excellent beginning in what this reviewer hopes will be a continuing trend. Most of the literature on women in management is Americanbased, and more comparative studies are needed in order to ascertain the generalizability of findings of current studies. The book can be divided into three different classifications: (a) general theoretical and conceptual chapters; (b) country studies; and (c) comparative studies. Included in the first classification are the first two chapters, one by the editors of the book, Nancy J. Adler and Dafna N. Izraeli, an introductory one entitled “Women in Management Worldwide,” and the second by Jeff Hearn and Wendy Parkin on women, men, and leadership. The subsequent eleven chapters can be classified as country studies, including a chapter by Nancy J. Adler on the perceptions of and experiences of North American women as expatriate managers in Pacific Basin countries. The third classification only encompasses two chapters, one by Gladys L. Symons comparing managers and entrepreneurs in France and Canada and the other by Linda Keller Brown comparing women managers in the United States and Europe. As the field of women in management develops, more research should be devoted to cross-national studies, particularly research comparing more than two countries. The first chapter by Nancy Adler and Dafna Izraeli was an excellent one, discussing contrasting assumptions about women in management in various countries. Future comparative studies should refer to this chapter for conceptual guidance. Also in the chapter Adler and Izraeli identified seven common themes which were illustrated later in the country and comparative parts of the book. The first is the fact that everywhere, in every country that has been studied (in this book and in every other study this reviewer is aware of) management is a masculine domain and that the higher up in the organizational hierarchy the more masculine-dominated is the level. Linda Keller Brown, in her comparison of the United States and Europe, stated that, although the United States has a higher propor-
II0
Book Reviews
tion of women on corporate boards than is true in Europe, there are very few women who occupy top positions. In addition, the “growth in female managers has not been proportional to the overall influx of women into the work force” (p. 267). The second theme concerns the cultural constraints women face in both entering the ranks of management and once they have entered. Cultural constraints limiting the role of women in management are discussed in all the various chapters. In general, cultures are similar in erecting barriers against women entering managerial roles. Symonds, for example, in comparing France and Canada, comments that in France “women must first and foremost situate themselves with respect to men,” whereas “men develop their careers by positioning themselves in relation to the organization” (p. 50). All of the comparative literature in this area this reviewer has seen details this difference between women and men. All societies have cultural barriers, but the extent, shape, and nature of these cultural barriers differ. For example, in Japan the cultural “expectation is that a single woman will retire into marriage and motherhood within a few years” (Steinhoff & Tanaka, p. 104). Israel is another example; it is a family-centered culture with very defined roles for women. Women tend to obtain part-time jobs and jobs that fit with the children’s school schedule or that have flexible working hours (Izraeli, p. 205). A third common theme is the domestic sphere. The studies dealt with it from several perspectivesthe extent to which women were constrained from seeking managerial positions due to pressures of married life, dual career problems, and whether or not there was a higher proportion of single women in management than in the population at large. All of the studies discussed the impact of the domestic sphere on the likelihood of women becoming managers and the difficulties women managers have. One way to reduce barriers toward women entering managerial positions is for the individual woman not to marry. Three studies in the book (Chan on Singapore, Crockett on Indonesia, and Blochet-Bardet et al. on Switzerland) stated that a disproportionate number of women managers are either single or not currently married. In Fiji, seven of the eighteen managers mentioned in Renshaw’s chapter were either separated or single. Several other cross-national studies the reviewer has seen have had the same finding. In Singapore, the government is concerned about the high number of educated single women, and has created an official government department for the purpose of matchmaking and marrying single women and men with university or upper-secondary education (Chart, chap. 7). Various chapters detailed dual career marriage problems. For example, Hammond in her chapter on Great Britain discussed tensions in British dual career marriages if the wife had a higher income than the husband. Most of the studies reported added stress on women due to the demands of both career and family.
Book Reviews
111
A fourth theme of the book was the effect of economic development upon the proportion of women in management. The chapter that dealt most extensively with this theme was Chart’s on Singapore, where the influence particularly of the type of industries that were developing (ones with a female-dominated workforce) was noteworthy. The projection is that the growing service industry, one with a high proportion of women workers, will likely become the largest industrial employers of women managers. A fifth theme was the impact of social policy. In the United States affirmative action legislation has had a very positive effect on the increase of women managers, as has the practice in American courts of allowing class action suits. Many countries represented in the book either have no or very weak provisions for affirmative action. For example, Izraeli reported that, in Israel, there is not even legislation against discrimination in hiring or promotion. Other countries, such as West Germany (Antal and Krebsbach-Gnath, chap. 8) and South Africa (Erwee, chap. 12), until recently had legislative barriers against married women working. A sixth theme was higher education, which is a more important prerequisite for women entering managerial ranks in many countries than it is for men (Israel, for example). Several authors reported the increase of women studying engineering and administrative studies than heretofore, though in West Germany, for example, most women in universities still study languages and literature. The organizational context was the last theme. Organizations can be compared as to the opportunities they offer women. Several studies in the book found that women managers have more opportunities in the public than the private sphere (Crockett on Indonesia, Blochet-Bardet, et al. on Switzerland, Hammond on Great Britain, Steinhoff and Tanaka on Japan), and this was reflected in the higher proportion of women managers in the public sector. These findings are similar to those of other studies. Many individual organizations have policies impacting upon the likelihood of a woman being chosen. For example, Chan found that firms in Singapore had many restrictions against women in management (e.g., they should not head departments staffed by men and they shouldn’t supervise plants, shipyards, or construction sites). Finally, Adler and Izraeli mentioned some issues of women in management which need more research, namely: (a) noncorporate career paths for women, such as entrepreneurship; (b) distribution of female managers by size of firm, type of industry and type of ownership; (c) the impact of ascribed status; and (d) the effectiveness of women managers. Studies in this volume did shed some light on all four areas. Symons, in her chapter comparing managers and entrepreneurs in France and Canada, divided her sample of entrepreneurs into heirs and founders/owners. These two groups differed to some extent, but members of both groups
112
Book Reviews
had difficulties in establishing credibility. Erwee in the chapter on South Africa cited a study that both male and female black students were more motivated to achieve than their white counterparts, pointing to a “vast reservoir of potential entrepreneurship” (p. 223); Erwee observed that more black women were becoming entrepreneurs. Several of the studies in this book also dealt with the second issue, that is, the impact of the size of firm, type of industry and type of ownership on the distribution of female managers. Steinhoff and Tanaka reported that in Japan women in managerial positions were often found in small and medium-sized industries, and the likelihood of finding women owners increased with the smallness of the firm. In Japan, as in Great Britain and in Israel, the extent to which the firm was in a “woman’s business” (such as retail distribution, inns and hotels), the more likely it was to find women managers. Several chapters (Crockett on Indonesia, Renshaw on Fiji, BlochetBaret et al. on Switzerland, and Andrew et al. on Canada) dealt with the impact of ascribed status in aiding women in entering management positions. In Fiji, for example, membership in the chiefly class helped women move into management positions. Part of this phenomenon was due to their socialization, which was not as different from the socialization of men in the chiefly class. Both genders learned values that are supportive of managerial values, such as leadership, responsibility, and ability to communicate. Finally, Adler, in her chapter on expatriate women managers posted to Pacific Basin countries, looked at both objective and subjective criteria of the effectiveness of these managers. Their effectiveness led to many of these firms sending other women overseas. The main difficulties these women faced were with their own home companies, not with the Asians they worked with or Asian customers. The studies themselves can be COIIIpaJedin terms of the types of methodology used and their rigor. Some chapters are more rigorous than others. In general, those that utilized field research have greater depth than those that did not. Methodologically speaking, the strongest chapters (not in order) are those by Symons, in which she compared France and Canada; Renshaw’s study of the Pacific Islands, especially her work on Fijian women managers; Izraeli on Israel; Andrew et al. on Canada; and Adler on expatriate women managers sent to Pacific Basin countries. Many of the other chapters such as Steinhoffs and Tanaka’s chapter on Japan, and Blochet-Bardet et al.‘s chapter on Switzerland, are based on thorough secondary research. There are mainly two weaknesses. First, there are geographical gaps in the coverage. There are no chapters on Latin America, the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe, China, and South Asia; South Africa is not represen-
Book
Reviews
113
tative of Africa and neither is Israel of the Middle East. The major reason is probably the difficulty of finding authors who are conversant enough and engage in research in the women in management area. Second, and related to the newness of the comparative studies of women in management, some chapters are weak in terms of data. For example, the chapter on Indonesia relied upon some articles from a popular magazine for profiles of women in management. Field research would have given this chapter much more depth. This is probably an example of the paucity of funding for field research and the lack of studies on women in management in Indonesia which can be utilized as secondary sources. Some of the studies of the book also indicate areas of fruitful future concentration. Several chapters in the book alluded to an emerging theoretical issue, that is, the effect of male power-female powerlessness in society in general upon women’s role and status in organizations (see Hearn and Parkin’s chapter on leadership; Blochet-Bardet et al.% chapter on Switzerland). In Switzerland, for example, where banking and insurance were the least assessible industries for women, the authors hypothesize that the higher the degree of financial power of the institute, of economic or political influence, the less likely to see women in positions of influence. This relates to Brown’s suggestion that, as more women are obtaining MBAs, the value of the degree will decrease. Izraeli discussed another area for further research to investigate the impact of the military upon women in management, especially in countries where the military is the dominant or one of the major societal institutions. In Israel there tends to be homosocial reproduction in management, that is, the “self-reinforcing” “diffusion of military personnel throughout the managerial elite” (p. 203). Many countries in the world have military governments. In many of these countries, the military and its active and retired officers play important roles in the economy both as policymakers in official economic policy and managers of private companies. This condition could be a factor increasing the likelihood for discrimination experienced by women who want to enter management or by those already in management. The impact of the military has been scarcely discussed in the women in management literature. This is probably due to the fact that most research has been done in countries that do not have military dominated governments. In conclusion, this reviewer wants to emphasize that Women in Management Worldwide is an excellent book, and one that should be read by not only those who have an interest in the women in management area, but also those who are interested in comparative management, international business, and in general organizational behavior. The editors must be congratulated for their fine introductory chapter and two other excellent chapters which upheld a very high standard for the authors, and for
Book Reviews
114
finding the authors to write chapters on such diverse countries. Finally, many of the studies point to areas for future research, leaving the reader eager to know more about women in management worldwide.
Ann Gregory Memorial University of Newfoundland St. John’s Newfoundland, Canada
LIVING
IN THE U.S.A.
Alison R. Lanier Yarmouth,
Maine:
Intercultural Press, Inc., $10.95 (paper)
1988, 230 pp.,
This volume is the fourth edition of a guide for newcomers to the U.S.A. Alison Lanier sets out to describe and explain the United States and its inhabitants. She does so quite successfully, given the size of this volume. This book will serve well the English-speaking sojourner who plans on an extended stay in the United States. Its more than two hundred pages without illustrations might be intimidating for the sojourner with limited English reading skills. Although it is of value to the international student, the author is really speaking to those who relocate with family to the United States with the motive of working. Three of the twenty-one chapters focus on U.S. business culture. There is an excellent chapter on locating an apartment or house, and two other chapters go a long way to explain how children get along in American culture especially in its elementary and secondary school systems. A theme which runs through the work is the need for newcomers to reach out, ask questions and engage their American hosts. In describing American customs, Lanier looks at the reasons for these aspects of American life by citing its traditions, values and history. Another strength is the author’s ability to anticipate and address aspects of American life which appear strange to the sojourner, such as lack of a national school system or the amount of independence of the adolescent. This may be particularly helpful to parents who bring older children with them when they relocate. Lanier also puts in perspective issues such as AIDS, drugs, and sexual mores. This fourth edition is more polished than earlier editions. Subsections have been renamed and the presentation follows in a more orderly fashion. Outdated terms have been deleted (e.g., Doing your own thing), and
BOOK REVIEWS
WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT WORLDWIDE Nancy J. Adler and Dafna N. Israeli (Eds.)
Armonk, NY M.E. Sharpe, 1988,285 pp., $29.95 ~hardcover)
This is the first book published on comparative women in management and an excellent beginning in what this reviewer hopes will be a continuing trend. Most of the literature on women in management is Americanbased, and more comparative studies are needed in order to ascertain the generalizability of findings of current studies. The book can be divided into three different classifications: (a) general theoretical and conceptual chapters; (b) country studies; and (c) comparative studies. Included in the first classification are the first two chapters, one by the editors of the book, Nancy J. Adler and Dafna N. Izraeli, an introductory one entitled “Women in Management Worldwide,” and the second by Jeff Hearn and Wendy Parkin on women, men, and leadership. The subsequent eleven chapters can be classified as country studies, including a chapter by Nancy J. Adler on the perceptions of and experiences of North American women as expatriate managers in Pacific Basin countries. The third classification only encompasses two chapters, one by Gladys L. Symons comparing managers and entrepreneurs in France and Canada and the other by Linda Keller Brown comparing women managers in the United States and Europe. As the field of women in management develops, more research should be devoted to cross-national studies, particularly research comparing more than two countries. The first chapter by Nancy Adler and Dafna Izraeli was an excellent one, discussing contrasting assumptions about women in management in various countries. Future comparative studies should refer to this chapter for conceptual guidance. Also in the chapter Adler and Izraeli identified seven common themes which were illustrated later in the country and comparative parts of the book. The first is the fact that everywhere, in every country that has been studied (in this book and in every other study this reviewer is aware of) management is a masculine domain and that the higher up in the organizational hierarchy the more masculine-dominated is the level. Linda Keller Brown, in her comparison of the United States and Europe, stated that, although the United States has a higher propor-
II0
Book Reviews
tion of women on corporate boards than is true in Europe, there are very few women who occupy top positions. In addition, the “growth in female managers has not been proportional to the overall influx of women into the work force” (p. 267). The second theme concerns the cultural constraints women face in both entering the ranks of management and once they have entered. Cultural constraints limiting the role of women in management are discussed in all the various chapters. In general, cultures are similar in erecting barriers against women entering managerial roles. Symonds, for example, in comparing France and Canada, comments that in France “women must first and foremost situate themselves with respect to men,” whereas “men develop their careers by positioning themselves in relation to the organization” (p. 50). All of the comparative literature in this area this reviewer has seen details this difference between women and men. All societies have cultural barriers, but the extent, shape, and nature of these cultural barriers differ. For example, in Japan the cultural “expectation is that a single woman will retire into marriage and motherhood within a few years” (Steinhoff & Tanaka, p. 104). Israel is another example; it is a family-centered culture with very defined roles for women. Women tend to obtain part-time jobs and jobs that fit with the children’s school schedule or that have flexible working hours (Izraeli, p. 205). A third common theme is the domestic sphere. The studies dealt with it from several perspectivesthe extent to which women were constrained from seeking managerial positions due to pressures of married life, dual career problems, and whether or not there was a higher proportion of single women in management than in the population at large. All of the studies discussed the impact of the domestic sphere on the likelihood of women becoming managers and the difficulties women managers have. One way to reduce barriers toward women entering managerial positions is for the individual woman not to marry. Three studies in the book (Chan on Singapore, Crockett on Indonesia, and Blochet-Bardet et al. on Switzerland) stated that a disproportionate number of women managers are either single or not currently married. In Fiji, seven of the eighteen managers mentioned in Renshaw’s chapter were either separated or single. Several other cross-national studies the reviewer has seen have had the same finding. In Singapore, the government is concerned about the high number of educated single women, and has created an official government department for the purpose of matchmaking and marrying single women and men with university or upper-secondary education (Chart, chap. 7). Various chapters detailed dual career marriage problems. For example, Hammond in her chapter on Great Britain discussed tensions in British dual career marriages if the wife had a higher income than the husband. Most of the studies reported added stress on women due to the demands of both career and family.
Book Reviews
111
A fourth theme of the book was the effect of economic development upon the proportion of women in management. The chapter that dealt most extensively with this theme was Chart’s on Singapore, where the influence particularly of the type of industries that were developing (ones with a female-dominated workforce) was noteworthy. The projection is that the growing service industry, one with a high proportion of women workers, will likely become the largest industrial employers of women managers. A fifth theme was the impact of social policy. In the United States affirmative action legislation has had a very positive effect on the increase of women managers, as has the practice in American courts of allowing class action suits. Many countries represented in the book either have no or very weak provisions for affirmative action. For example, Izraeli reported that, in Israel, there is not even legislation against discrimination in hiring or promotion. Other countries, such as West Germany (Antal and Krebsbach-Gnath, chap. 8) and South Africa (Erwee, chap. 12), until recently had legislative barriers against married women working. A sixth theme was higher education, which is a more important prerequisite for women entering managerial ranks in many countries than it is for men (Israel, for example). Several authors reported the increase of women studying engineering and administrative studies than heretofore, though in West Germany, for example, most women in universities still study languages and literature. The organizational context was the last theme. Organizations can be compared as to the opportunities they offer women. Several studies in the book found that women managers have more opportunities in the public than the private sphere (Crockett on Indonesia, Blochet-Bardet, et al. on Switzerland, Hammond on Great Britain, Steinhoff and Tanaka on Japan), and this was reflected in the higher proportion of women managers in the public sector. These findings are similar to those of other studies. Many individual organizations have policies impacting upon the likelihood of a woman being chosen. For example, Chan found that firms in Singapore had many restrictions against women in management (e.g., they should not head departments staffed by men and they shouldn’t supervise plants, shipyards, or construction sites). Finally, Adler and Izraeli mentioned some issues of women in management which need more research, namely: (a) noncorporate career paths for women, such as entrepreneurship; (b) distribution of female managers by size of firm, type of industry and type of ownership; (c) the impact of ascribed status; and (d) the effectiveness of women managers. Studies in this volume did shed some light on all four areas. Symons, in her chapter comparing managers and entrepreneurs in France and Canada, divided her sample of entrepreneurs into heirs and founders/owners. These two groups differed to some extent, but members of both groups
112
Book Reviews
had difficulties in establishing credibility. Erwee in the chapter on South Africa cited a study that both male and female black students were more motivated to achieve than their white counterparts, pointing to a “vast reservoir of potential entrepreneurship” (p. 223); Erwee observed that more black women were becoming entrepreneurs. Several of the studies in this book also dealt with the second issue, that is, the impact of the size of firm, type of industry and type of ownership on the distribution of female managers. Steinhoff and Tanaka reported that in Japan women in managerial positions were often found in small and medium-sized industries, and the likelihood of finding women owners increased with the smallness of the firm. In Japan, as in Great Britain and in Israel, the extent to which the firm was in a “woman’s business” (such as retail distribution, inns and hotels), the more likely it was to find women managers. Several chapters (Crockett on Indonesia, Renshaw on Fiji, BlochetBaret et al. on Switzerland, and Andrew et al. on Canada) dealt with the impact of ascribed status in aiding women in entering management positions. In Fiji, for example, membership in the chiefly class helped women move into management positions. Part of this phenomenon was due to their socialization, which was not as different from the socialization of men in the chiefly class. Both genders learned values that are supportive of managerial values, such as leadership, responsibility, and ability to communicate. Finally, Adler, in her chapter on expatriate women managers posted to Pacific Basin countries, looked at both objective and subjective criteria of the effectiveness of these managers. Their effectiveness led to many of these firms sending other women overseas. The main difficulties these women faced were with their own home companies, not with the Asians they worked with or Asian customers. The studies themselves can be COIIIpaJedin terms of the types of methodology used and their rigor. Some chapters are more rigorous than others. In general, those that utilized field research have greater depth than those that did not. Methodologically speaking, the strongest chapters (not in order) are those by Symons, in which she compared France and Canada; Renshaw’s study of the Pacific Islands, especially her work on Fijian women managers; Izraeli on Israel; Andrew et al. on Canada; and Adler on expatriate women managers sent to Pacific Basin countries. Many of the other chapters such as Steinhoffs and Tanaka’s chapter on Japan, and Blochet-Bardet et al.‘s chapter on Switzerland, are based on thorough secondary research. There are mainly two weaknesses. First, there are geographical gaps in the coverage. There are no chapters on Latin America, the Soviet Union or Eastern Europe, China, and South Asia; South Africa is not represen-
Book
Reviews
113
tative of Africa and neither is Israel of the Middle East. The major reason is probably the difficulty of finding authors who are conversant enough and engage in research in the women in management area. Second, and related to the newness of the comparative studies of women in management, some chapters are weak in terms of data. For example, the chapter on Indonesia relied upon some articles from a popular magazine for profiles of women in management. Field research would have given this chapter much more depth. This is probably an example of the paucity of funding for field research and the lack of studies on women in management in Indonesia which can be utilized as secondary sources. Some of the studies of the book also indicate areas of fruitful future concentration. Several chapters in the book alluded to an emerging theoretical issue, that is, the effect of male power-female powerlessness in society in general upon women’s role and status in organizations (see Hearn and Parkin’s chapter on leadership; Blochet-Bardet et al.% chapter on Switzerland). In Switzerland, for example, where banking and insurance were the least assessible industries for women, the authors hypothesize that the higher the degree of financial power of the institute, of economic or political influence, the less likely to see women in positions of influence. This relates to Brown’s suggestion that, as more women are obtaining MBAs, the value of the degree will decrease. Izraeli discussed another area for further research to investigate the impact of the military upon women in management, especially in countries where the military is the dominant or one of the major societal institutions. In Israel there tends to be homosocial reproduction in management, that is, the “self-reinforcing” “diffusion of military personnel throughout the managerial elite” (p. 203). Many countries in the world have military governments. In many of these countries, the military and its active and retired officers play important roles in the economy both as policymakers in official economic policy and managers of private companies. This condition could be a factor increasing the likelihood for discrimination experienced by women who want to enter management or by those already in management. The impact of the military has been scarcely discussed in the women in management literature. This is probably due to the fact that most research has been done in countries that do not have military dominated governments. In conclusion, this reviewer wants to emphasize that Women in Management Worldwide is an excellent book, and one that should be read by not only those who have an interest in the women in management area, but also those who are interested in comparative management, international business, and in general organizational behavior. The editors must be congratulated for their fine introductory chapter and two other excellent chapters which upheld a very high standard for the authors, and for
Book Reviews
114
finding the authors to write chapters on such diverse countries. Finally, many of the studies point to areas for future research, leaving the reader eager to know more about women in management worldwide.
Ann Gregory Memorial University of Newfoundland St. John’s Newfoundland, Canada
LIVING
IN THE U.S.A.
Alison R. Lanier Yarmouth,
Maine:
Intercultural Press, Inc., $10.95 (paper)
1988, 230 pp.,
This volume is the fourth edition of a guide for newcomers to the U.S.A. Alison Lanier sets out to describe and explain the United States and its inhabitants. She does so quite successfully, given the size of this volume. This book will serve well the English-speaking sojourner who plans on an extended stay in the United States. Its more than two hundred pages without illustrations might be intimidating for the sojourner with limited English reading skills. Although it is of value to the international student, the author is really speaking to those who relocate with family to the United States with the motive of working. Three of the twenty-one chapters focus on U.S. business culture. There is an excellent chapter on locating an apartment or house, and two other chapters go a long way to explain how children get along in American culture especially in its elementary and secondary school systems. A theme which runs through the work is the need for newcomers to reach out, ask questions and engage their American hosts. In describing American customs, Lanier looks at the reasons for these aspects of American life by citing its traditions, values and history. Another strength is the author’s ability to anticipate and address aspects of American life which appear strange to the sojourner, such as lack of a national school system or the amount of independence of the adolescent. This may be particularly helpful to parents who bring older children with them when they relocate. Lanier also puts in perspective issues such as AIDS, drugs, and sexual mores. This fourth edition is more polished than earlier editions. Subsections have been renamed and the presentation follows in a more orderly fashion. Outdated terms have been deleted (e.g., Doing your own thing), and