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World heritage natural sites
In addition, in some instances measures on the basis of the public-pays principle may become necessary even under considerations of ecological efficiency, namely in cases where the application of polluterpays instruments alone would appear to be politically impossible because of the high individual costs and the resulting political resistance. -- Finally, measures based on the publicpays principle may make sense in many cases under considerations of overall political rationality, in cases where they contribute to a reduction of goal- and interest-conflicts, where these conflicts can be resolved only at the instrumental level. 104: It follows that the public-pays principle can, after all, be part of a rational - that is, ecologically and economically efficient environmental policy. Nevertheless, the Council would like to emphasize very strongly that the public-pays principle constitutes no alternative to an equitable internalization of costs on the part of the polluter. It is to be viewed only as means of (educing those conflicts that might arise in the cases where the polluterwould otherwise be required to carry the whole cost. The basis of any cost assessment for the protection of the environment must remain the polluter-pays principle; the public-pays principle should be applied only in support of solutions that include polluter-pays measures. -
ASPECTS OF A LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
105: The E N V I R O N M E N T A L REPORT 1978 concludes with an outlook on problems and tasks of a long-term environmental policy. The Council's conclusions are based on the assumption that traditional dangers to the environment from the economicindustrial system will remain at the focus of all environmental efforts f o r some time to come. The Council is convinced, however, that in this situation a radical revaluation of all values will not be the answer; instead, the Council believes it necessary to emphasize in the strongest of terms that long-lasting successes in fighting for the protection of the environment are possible only if political stability is assured. Past experiences have shown that technical-industrial developments are best capable of offering many solutions to environmental problems, as long as goals and basic parameters are set by the political system. To protect and maintain the innovative capacities and capabilities of our economy is in the primary interest of environmental p(otection. 106: A t the present time measures to reduce harmful emissions are at the center of environmental policy. But in the long run all developments require increased attention which might tend to restrict future developmental possibilities or which endanger hLrman health and the regenerative capacities of nature itself. The Council points out two especially urgent problems in this regard: - the long-term dangers arising from chemicals entering the environment; - land use at improper locations, and ecologically harmful land use. 107: Environmental chemicals, i.e. chemicals that enter the environment because of human activities (photo oxidants, pesticides, nitro-
Environmental Policy and Law, 4 (1978)
samines), are likely to play an ever more important role. Given the large number of chemical compounds presently being emitted into the environment, the possibility is high that environmental chemicals will in the future continue to represent a source of danger to human health and to the balance of nature, even if the growth of new compounds should slow down, and if some substances should disappear entirely because of changed production methods or measures to clean water or air. Possibly harmful effects to human health may develop either directly from a given substance, or indirectly, such as would be the case if the present balance o f environmental radiation were to be upset, or if environmental potentials were to be harmed. The latter includes a permanent destruction of the self-cleansing capacity of bodies of water, a reduction in soil fertility or marine productivity, or -- in general -- any harmful effects on ecosystems. 108: Usage of land at ecologically wrong locations and land use in general harmful to the environment are likely to continue to impede environmentally proper land use, not only because of the altogether too slow spread of environmentally oriented thinking and the still unsatisfying degree of knowledge about environmental processes, but also because of perceived or actual technical and economic restrictions and demands. Only if changes can be brought about in these areas will it become possible to provide for an effective protection of scarce urban green space, of recreational areas, and of biotopes needy of protection because of their inventory of natural species. 109: In addition, the Council points out some of the parameters that future environmental policies will have to be based on, such as population develpments, economic structures, and attitudestowardstechnology. The Council is alarmed by the danger that the - with all due skepticism - still necessary contributions of technology to environmental protection are being viewed increasingly negatively by the public at large and no longer seem capable of inclusion in a common consensus. 110: Without doubt the global aspects of pressures on the environment and of environmental policy will assume ever greater importance. The scope of problems reaches from general climatic changes due to a greenhouse effect all the way to changes of the tropical rain forests into agriculturally exploited areas. The relatively stable ecosystem Central Europe should not blind one's vision to the fact that ecological catastrophes can and will occur in other parts of the world. The industrialized countries of the OECD region, though they are least likely to be immediately hit by such catastrophes and their consequences, nevertheless bear a great responsibility for such developments. 111: In the long run the tasks of environmental policy will not become easier. So far the political and economic system of the Federal Republic of Germany has shown a remarkable ability to react to new problems, crisis situations, and demands. Not the least responsible for this capacity was the possibility of reducing conflicts among involved groups through increases in real income, which in turn were possible because of general economic growth. These possibilities diminish as economic growth declines; in the field of energy the connection between change¢t para-
meters and environmental strategies is currently most noticeable. [The REPORT contains a number o f suggestions in this regard, which are to be treated more fully in a SPECIAL REPORT.] 112: In the long run environmental policy will meet with public approval only if it becomes more transparent and if its decision processes are subject to public scruting. It is crucial that all those immediately concerned are informed earlier and more intensively than has been the case so far, that their objections are being listened to, and that they be allowed to participate in the decision-making process. In this connection the Council believes that the establishment in the West German parliament of a special committee for environmental affairs should be considered. The Council further recommends that the protection of the environment be included as a public task in the Federal Republic's constitution. The Council believes that such a step would have important consequences not only for administrative, but also for civil law, for more intensive constitutional regard for environmental concerns, and for the inclusion of environmental protection in political education. But above all it is important that in the future potential conflicts among different political objectives be resolved in the process o f formulating long-term goals and defining appropriate action programs. [ ]
IUCN
RESOLUTIONS
Selected Resolutions adopted at the 14th General Assembly held in Ashkhabad, USSR, 26 Sept.-5 Oct. 1978. World Heritage Natural Sites
Recognizing that the World Heritage Trust was originally a concept f o r encouraging protection of outstanding natural areas of world-wide significance, and was proposed at the 9th General Assembly in 1966 at Lucerne; Recognizing that the protection of outstanding natural areas is essential to meeting basic human needs; Recognizing that the Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted in 1972, provides for the establishement of national, public and private foundations or associations whose purpose is to invite donations f o r the protection of the natural and cultural heritage; Recognizing that IUCN has a significant role to play in the implementation of the 1972 Convention; and Recognizing that the natural areas have become secondary to historic and cultural areas in implementation of the Convenant at variance with the original concept; The General Assembly of I UCN: Urges that all States that have not done so become parties to the 1972 Convention; Urges all States to nominate natural areas of outstanding universal value with full worldwide representation; Urges continuous monitoring of World Heritage Natural Sites, to identify areas in danger and work toward their inclusion in the World Heritage in Danger List; and Calls on all parties to take any necessary measures to make the Convention fully effective with regard to recognition and protection of outstanding natural areas which qualify as 189
World Heritage Sites including increased voluntary contributions to the World Heritage Fund. Environmental Effects of Sulphur Dioxide Pollution Considering the large scale and growing devastating effects of industrial and domestic emissions of sulphur dioxide on aquatic habitats and species also across national boundaries mainly in Northern Europe and North America; Recognizing the risk of undesirable long term effects also on other habitats and species; Appreciating the ongoing efforts of international bodies, such as ECE, CMEA and QECD, and national governments to map these effects, to identify distribution and fallout patterns of sulphur dioxide and to seek solutions to the problems;
The General Assembly of I UCN: Urges the international bodies and national governments concerned, mainly in Europe and North America: 1. to reduce the emissions of sulphur dioxide into the air; 2. to continue the investigation into the environmental aspects of sulphur dioxide, and; 3. to establish as soon as possible international agreements for control of air pollution. Conservation for Development Recognizing that the development activities of bilateral and multilateral aid agencies in developing nations, and of governments in developed nations exert an enormous influence on the face of the earth; Recognizing fLt.rther that these activities all too often do not take ecological and other conservation factors into account, with resultant losses of productive renewable natural resources, and often with resultant ecological degradation which has long term negative impacts on human welfare; Noting that the objectives of the World Conservation Strategy cannot be achieved unless these development activities can be designed and implemented to assure that ecological and other conservation values become an integral part of the development activities; but that at the same time, the billions of dollars and immense amount of other resources spent annually on development represent a vast source of resources to implement the World Conservation Strategy; Noting further that there is growing recognition that ecological and other conservation values are not only compatible with most development objectives, but are essential to assure their long-term success; and that consequently governments and development agencies are beginning to seek specialized advice and assistance in conservation; Recognizing that the IUCN, with ,its worldwide network of experts, its strong Secretariat, and increasingly vigorous Commissions, is in a unique position to provide such advice; Noting that IUCN has received several proposals for programme which would involve IUCN in provision of a conservation dimension in the development process, among them the proposal for the creation of a "Conservation for Development" programme;
190
The General Assembly of IUCN: Calls upon the multilateral and bilateral aid agencies, and other international organizations concerned, to cooperate in the implementation of the World Conservation Strategy through the assistance given to developing countries, and Invites the multilateral and bilateral aid agencies, and other international organizations concerned, to cooperate with IUCN in developing institutional and financial links, such as those envisaged in the proposed "Conservation for Development" programme which would strengthen IUCN's capacity to respond to the requests of developing countries f o r conservation advice. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Conscious of the continued threat to the survival of wild populations of fauna and flora posed by uncontrolled, international trade; Recalling Resolution No. 10 adopted by the 12th General Assembly at Kinshasa, Zaire in September 1975; Noting with satisfaction that 48 nations are now Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES}, and that significant progress has been made toward implementation of the Convention; Noting further with satisfaction that, after having banned all hunting and all trade in animal products, the Kenya Government has ratified CITES; Acknowledging the support provided for the Secretariat of the Convention by the United Nations Environment Programme, pursuant to decision 86C (V) adopted in May 1977 and decision 6D (VI} adopted in May 1978 by its Governing Council in Nairobi, Kenya; Recognizing that Indonesia and Japan played an active part in the drafting of CITES in Washington, USA, in 1973; The General Assembly of I UCN Urges atl States which have not yet done so, to become Parties to the Convention without further delay so that they can participate fully in the next meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Costa Rica in 1979; Urges all Parties to reach early agreement on appropriate arrangements for funding the Secretariat of the Convention; Calls on all Parties to take any necessary measures to make the Convention fully effective; Calls f o r the undertaking of detailed studies of the international trade in wildlife, especially originating or occurring within East Asia; Urges the Government of Indonesia to enforce effectively its existing legislation controlling the trade in wildlife and its products; Urges further the Government of Japan to introduce legislation to control the trade in wildlife and its products. Wadden Sea Recognizing that the Wadden Sea is northern Europe's most important wetland and has a vital role in the ecological processes of the North Sea and in the life cycles of numerous species in particular invertebrates, fishes, birds and seals; Appreciating that all governments concerned have set aside protected areas and that some have placed parts of the Wadden Sea
under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl habitat, or have indicated their intention of doing so; Being aware of the cooperation, especially at the scientific level, established among the countries bordering the Wadden Sea; Aware, too, that reinforcement or reconstruction of existing dyke systems might be necessary in some areas to meet the safety requirements; The General Assemly of IUCN: Draws the attention of the responsible authorities to the increasing threats to the Wadden Sea from land reclamations and increasing industrialization of the coastline; Calls upon all the nations concerned to take more effective measures to reduce pollution in the basins of the rivers Rhine, Weser and Elbe; Recalls the responsibility of the relevant authorities in Denmark, Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands for maintaining the integrity of this ecosystem and appeals to those governments to enforce existing national legislation and international laws and agreements, with regard to the conservation of the area; Asks all authorities concerned to take ecological principles into account when considering any activity likely to threaten the integrity of the Wadden Sea; Urges in particular all governments concerned to approve and support no new embankment or land reclamation project, and to accord adequate conservation status to the entire area. • Moratorium on Commercial Whaling The General Assembly of I UCN resolves that: (a) IUCN should continue to call for a moratorium on commercial whaling until it can be demonstrated i) that the population levels referred to under the International Whaling Commission's New Management Procedure as protection stocks, sustained management stocks and initial management stocks can be determined accurately; ii) that the consequences for the ecosystems concerned of removing large portions of the whales' populations, and such populations' capacity for recovery can be pred icted; iii} that an effective mechanism exists for detecting and correcting mistakes in the management of any stock; iv) that whaling technology and equipment are no longer being transferred to nonmember nations of IWC; v) that member nations of IWC are no longer purchasing whale products from nonmember nations, (b) IUCN and its members should work together vigorously to ensure that the above conditions are met as soon as possible. (c) IUCN and its members should actively promote adherence to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling by all nations, both whaling and non-whaling. Marine Oil Tankers -- Pollution Concerned at the severe and growing damage to marine and coastal species and ecosystems, and to the quality of life of people living in or visiting affected areas, due to the increasing incidence of oil spillages from tankers as well as of deliberate discharges of oil from most types of vessel;
Environmental Policy and Law, 4 (1978)
ASPECTS OF A LONG-TERM ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
105: The E N V I R O N M E N T A L REPORT 1978 concludes with an outlook on problems and tasks of a long-term environmental policy. The Council's conclusions are based on the assumption that traditional dangers to the environment from the economicindustrial system will remain at the focus of all environmental efforts f o r some time to come. The Council is convinced, however, that in this situation a radical revaluation of all values will not be the answer; instead, the Council believes it necessary to emphasize in the strongest of terms that long-lasting successes in fighting for the protection of the environment are possible only if political stability is assured. Past experiences have shown that technical-industrial developments are best capable of offering many solutions to environmental problems, as long as goals and basic parameters are set by the political system. To protect and maintain the innovative capacities and capabilities of our economy is in the primary interest of environmental p(otection. 106: A t the present time measures to reduce harmful emissions are at the center of environmental policy. But in the long run all developments require increased attention which might tend to restrict future developmental possibilities or which endanger hLrman health and the regenerative capacities of nature itself. The Council points out two especially urgent problems in this regard: - the long-term dangers arising from chemicals entering the environment; - land use at improper locations, and ecologically harmful land use. 107: Environmental chemicals, i.e. chemicals that enter the environment because of human activities (photo oxidants, pesticides, nitro-
Environmental Policy and Law, 4 (1978)
samines), are likely to play an ever more important role. Given the large number of chemical compounds presently being emitted into the environment, the possibility is high that environmental chemicals will in the future continue to represent a source of danger to human health and to the balance of nature, even if the growth of new compounds should slow down, and if some substances should disappear entirely because of changed production methods or measures to clean water or air. Possibly harmful effects to human health may develop either directly from a given substance, or indirectly, such as would be the case if the present balance o f environmental radiation were to be upset, or if environmental potentials were to be harmed. The latter includes a permanent destruction of the self-cleansing capacity of bodies of water, a reduction in soil fertility or marine productivity, or -- in general -- any harmful effects on ecosystems. 108: Usage of land at ecologically wrong locations and land use in general harmful to the environment are likely to continue to impede environmentally proper land use, not only because of the altogether too slow spread of environmentally oriented thinking and the still unsatisfying degree of knowledge about environmental processes, but also because of perceived or actual technical and economic restrictions and demands. Only if changes can be brought about in these areas will it become possible to provide for an effective protection of scarce urban green space, of recreational areas, and of biotopes needy of protection because of their inventory of natural species. 109: In addition, the Council points out some of the parameters that future environmental policies will have to be based on, such as population develpments, economic structures, and attitudestowardstechnology. The Council is alarmed by the danger that the - with all due skepticism - still necessary contributions of technology to environmental protection are being viewed increasingly negatively by the public at large and no longer seem capable of inclusion in a common consensus. 110: Without doubt the global aspects of pressures on the environment and of environmental policy will assume ever greater importance. The scope of problems reaches from general climatic changes due to a greenhouse effect all the way to changes of the tropical rain forests into agriculturally exploited areas. The relatively stable ecosystem Central Europe should not blind one's vision to the fact that ecological catastrophes can and will occur in other parts of the world. The industrialized countries of the OECD region, though they are least likely to be immediately hit by such catastrophes and their consequences, nevertheless bear a great responsibility for such developments. 111: In the long run the tasks of environmental policy will not become easier. So far the political and economic system of the Federal Republic of Germany has shown a remarkable ability to react to new problems, crisis situations, and demands. Not the least responsible for this capacity was the possibility of reducing conflicts among involved groups through increases in real income, which in turn were possible because of general economic growth. These possibilities diminish as economic growth declines; in the field of energy the connection between change¢t para-
meters and environmental strategies is currently most noticeable. [The REPORT contains a number o f suggestions in this regard, which are to be treated more fully in a SPECIAL REPORT.] 112: In the long run environmental policy will meet with public approval only if it becomes more transparent and if its decision processes are subject to public scruting. It is crucial that all those immediately concerned are informed earlier and more intensively than has been the case so far, that their objections are being listened to, and that they be allowed to participate in the decision-making process. In this connection the Council believes that the establishment in the West German parliament of a special committee for environmental affairs should be considered. The Council further recommends that the protection of the environment be included as a public task in the Federal Republic's constitution. The Council believes that such a step would have important consequences not only for administrative, but also for civil law, for more intensive constitutional regard for environmental concerns, and for the inclusion of environmental protection in political education. But above all it is important that in the future potential conflicts among different political objectives be resolved in the process o f formulating long-term goals and defining appropriate action programs. [ ]
IUCN
RESOLUTIONS
Selected Resolutions adopted at the 14th General Assembly held in Ashkhabad, USSR, 26 Sept.-5 Oct. 1978. World Heritage Natural Sites
Recognizing that the World Heritage Trust was originally a concept f o r encouraging protection of outstanding natural areas of world-wide significance, and was proposed at the 9th General Assembly in 1966 at Lucerne; Recognizing that the protection of outstanding natural areas is essential to meeting basic human needs; Recognizing that the Convention concerning the protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted in 1972, provides for the establishement of national, public and private foundations or associations whose purpose is to invite donations f o r the protection of the natural and cultural heritage; Recognizing that IUCN has a significant role to play in the implementation of the 1972 Convention; and Recognizing that the natural areas have become secondary to historic and cultural areas in implementation of the Convenant at variance with the original concept; The General Assembly of I UCN: Urges that all States that have not done so become parties to the 1972 Convention; Urges all States to nominate natural areas of outstanding universal value with full worldwide representation; Urges continuous monitoring of World Heritage Natural Sites, to identify areas in danger and work toward their inclusion in the World Heritage in Danger List; and Calls on all parties to take any necessary measures to make the Convention fully effective with regard to recognition and protection of outstanding natural areas which qualify as 189
World Heritage Sites including increased voluntary contributions to the World Heritage Fund. Environmental Effects of Sulphur Dioxide Pollution Considering the large scale and growing devastating effects of industrial and domestic emissions of sulphur dioxide on aquatic habitats and species also across national boundaries mainly in Northern Europe and North America; Recognizing the risk of undesirable long term effects also on other habitats and species; Appreciating the ongoing efforts of international bodies, such as ECE, CMEA and QECD, and national governments to map these effects, to identify distribution and fallout patterns of sulphur dioxide and to seek solutions to the problems;
The General Assembly of I UCN: Urges the international bodies and national governments concerned, mainly in Europe and North America: 1. to reduce the emissions of sulphur dioxide into the air; 2. to continue the investigation into the environmental aspects of sulphur dioxide, and; 3. to establish as soon as possible international agreements for control of air pollution. Conservation for Development Recognizing that the development activities of bilateral and multilateral aid agencies in developing nations, and of governments in developed nations exert an enormous influence on the face of the earth; Recognizing fLt.rther that these activities all too often do not take ecological and other conservation factors into account, with resultant losses of productive renewable natural resources, and often with resultant ecological degradation which has long term negative impacts on human welfare; Noting that the objectives of the World Conservation Strategy cannot be achieved unless these development activities can be designed and implemented to assure that ecological and other conservation values become an integral part of the development activities; but that at the same time, the billions of dollars and immense amount of other resources spent annually on development represent a vast source of resources to implement the World Conservation Strategy; Noting further that there is growing recognition that ecological and other conservation values are not only compatible with most development objectives, but are essential to assure their long-term success; and that consequently governments and development agencies are beginning to seek specialized advice and assistance in conservation; Recognizing that the IUCN, with ,its worldwide network of experts, its strong Secretariat, and increasingly vigorous Commissions, is in a unique position to provide such advice; Noting that IUCN has received several proposals for programme which would involve IUCN in provision of a conservation dimension in the development process, among them the proposal for the creation of a "Conservation for Development" programme;
190
The General Assembly of IUCN: Calls upon the multilateral and bilateral aid agencies, and other international organizations concerned, to cooperate in the implementation of the World Conservation Strategy through the assistance given to developing countries, and Invites the multilateral and bilateral aid agencies, and other international organizations concerned, to cooperate with IUCN in developing institutional and financial links, such as those envisaged in the proposed "Conservation for Development" programme which would strengthen IUCN's capacity to respond to the requests of developing countries f o r conservation advice. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora Conscious of the continued threat to the survival of wild populations of fauna and flora posed by uncontrolled, international trade; Recalling Resolution No. 10 adopted by the 12th General Assembly at Kinshasa, Zaire in September 1975; Noting with satisfaction that 48 nations are now Party to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES}, and that significant progress has been made toward implementation of the Convention; Noting further with satisfaction that, after having banned all hunting and all trade in animal products, the Kenya Government has ratified CITES; Acknowledging the support provided for the Secretariat of the Convention by the United Nations Environment Programme, pursuant to decision 86C (V) adopted in May 1977 and decision 6D (VI} adopted in May 1978 by its Governing Council in Nairobi, Kenya; Recognizing that Indonesia and Japan played an active part in the drafting of CITES in Washington, USA, in 1973; The General Assembly of I UCN Urges atl States which have not yet done so, to become Parties to the Convention without further delay so that they can participate fully in the next meeting of the Conference of the Parties in Costa Rica in 1979; Urges all Parties to reach early agreement on appropriate arrangements for funding the Secretariat of the Convention; Calls on all Parties to take any necessary measures to make the Convention fully effective; Calls f o r the undertaking of detailed studies of the international trade in wildlife, especially originating or occurring within East Asia; Urges the Government of Indonesia to enforce effectively its existing legislation controlling the trade in wildlife and its products; Urges further the Government of Japan to introduce legislation to control the trade in wildlife and its products. Wadden Sea Recognizing that the Wadden Sea is northern Europe's most important wetland and has a vital role in the ecological processes of the North Sea and in the life cycles of numerous species in particular invertebrates, fishes, birds and seals; Appreciating that all governments concerned have set aside protected areas and that some have placed parts of the Wadden Sea
under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, especially as Waterfowl habitat, or have indicated their intention of doing so; Being aware of the cooperation, especially at the scientific level, established among the countries bordering the Wadden Sea; Aware, too, that reinforcement or reconstruction of existing dyke systems might be necessary in some areas to meet the safety requirements; The General Assemly of IUCN: Draws the attention of the responsible authorities to the increasing threats to the Wadden Sea from land reclamations and increasing industrialization of the coastline; Calls upon all the nations concerned to take more effective measures to reduce pollution in the basins of the rivers Rhine, Weser and Elbe; Recalls the responsibility of the relevant authorities in Denmark, Federal Republic of Germany and the Netherlands for maintaining the integrity of this ecosystem and appeals to those governments to enforce existing national legislation and international laws and agreements, with regard to the conservation of the area; Asks all authorities concerned to take ecological principles into account when considering any activity likely to threaten the integrity of the Wadden Sea; Urges in particular all governments concerned to approve and support no new embankment or land reclamation project, and to accord adequate conservation status to the entire area. • Moratorium on Commercial Whaling The General Assembly of I UCN resolves that: (a) IUCN should continue to call for a moratorium on commercial whaling until it can be demonstrated i) that the population levels referred to under the International Whaling Commission's New Management Procedure as protection stocks, sustained management stocks and initial management stocks can be determined accurately; ii) that the consequences for the ecosystems concerned of removing large portions of the whales' populations, and such populations' capacity for recovery can be pred icted; iii} that an effective mechanism exists for detecting and correcting mistakes in the management of any stock; iv) that whaling technology and equipment are no longer being transferred to nonmember nations of IWC; v) that member nations of IWC are no longer purchasing whale products from nonmember nations, (b) IUCN and its members should work together vigorously to ensure that the above conditions are met as soon as possible. (c) IUCN and its members should actively promote adherence to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling by all nations, both whaling and non-whaling. Marine Oil Tankers -- Pollution Concerned at the severe and growing damage to marine and coastal species and ecosystems, and to the quality of life of people living in or visiting affected areas, due to the increasing incidence of oil spillages from tankers as well as of deliberate discharges of oil from most types of vessel;
Environmental Policy and Law, 4 (1978)