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Worry, Intelligence and Academic Behavior in Dutch School Children
The Self in Anxiety, Stress and Depression R Schwarzer (Editor) 0 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. (North-Holland), 1984
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WORRY, INTELLIGENCE AND ACADEMIC BEHAVIOR IN DUTCH SCHOOL CHILDREN Henk M. van der Ploeg University of Leiden. The Netherlands
Anxiety g e n e r a l l y r e f e r s t o an unpleasant emotional r e a c t i o n t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m t h e p e r c e p t i o n o r a p p r a i s a l of a p a r t i c u l a r Th e p e r c e p t i o n of a c h i e v e m e n t situation as threatening. demanding s i t u a t i o n s a s t h r e a t s t o t h e self g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n test a n x i e t y , e i t h e r a s a t r a i t ( S p i e l b e r g e r , 1980) o r a s a s t a t e (Morris, F r a n k l i n , & Ponath, 1983). I n essence, test anxiety refers to individual differences i n the disposition to e x p e r i e n c e f e e l i n g s of apprehension and worry c o g n i t i o n s i n a c a d e m i c e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of s t u d e n t s or p u p i l s i s u n d e r s c r u t i n y ( S c h w a r z e r , Van d e r P l o e g , & S p i e l berger, 1982). This c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n emphasizes the c o g n i t i v e determinants of s t a t e anxiety r e a c t i o n s i n evaluative situations. Test anxiety, defined as a situations p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t or a s a s t a t e , c o n t a i n s a c o g n i t i v e c o m p o n e n t , w o r r y , a n d an a f f e c t i v e a r o u s a l - r e l a t e d c o m p o n e n t , e m o t i o n a l i t y . C o g n i t i o n s a b o u t t h e s e l f a p p e a r t o be c r i t i c a l These p r e c u r s o r s i n t h e p r o c e s s of d e v e l o p i n g t e s t a n x i e t y . cognitions generally involve negative evaluations about academic a b i l i t y , s e l f - w o r t h , an d o n e ' s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g t h a t make t h e t e s t a n x i o u s p e r s o n more v u l n e r a b l e t o f e e l i n g threatened i n e v a l u a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s (Schwarzer, e t a l . , 1982). The w o r r y c o m p o n e n t of t e s t a n x i e t y h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s c o g n i t i v e c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c c e s of f a i l u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n s a b o u t p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e a nd n e g a t i v e s e l f evaluations. Worry seems t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s of t e s t a n x i e t y o n p e r f o r m a n c e . The w o r r y i n g i n d i v i d u a l d i r e c t s h i s / h e r a t t e n t i o n to t h e self a s actor i n s t e a d of t o t h e t a s k a t hand, l a c k s confidence i n h i s a b i l i t y , and o f t e n f e e l s i n a d e q u a t e a n d i n s e c u r e . He thinks t h a t o t h e r s a r e much b r i g h t e r t h a n h e i s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f a s more v u l n e r a b l e t o f a i l u r e ( S c h w a r z e r , e t a l . , 1982). A c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e is i m p a i r e d by t e s t a n x i e t y , a s is shown i n much r e s e a r c h . I n t e l l i g e n c e , i n g e n e r a l , is p o s i t i v e l y a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o academic g r a d e s or academic b e h a v i o r . Gaudry a n d F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 7 1 ) r e p o r t e d a b o u t t h e i r r e s e a r c h i n Australia. T e s t a n x i e t y a s w e l l a s i n t e l l i g e n c e were r e l a t e d t o ( h i g h ) s c h o o l marks. T h e i r h y p o t h e s i s was t h a t h i g h a n x i e t y would f a c i l i t a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e most a b l e g r o u p a n d lower t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e r e m a i n d e r when c o m p a r e d w i t h comparable low-anxious groups. This hypothesis received no s u p p o r t , a l t h o u g h t h e i r d a t a a r e g e n e r a l l y s u g g e s t i v e of t h e predicted trends. I n some c o u r s e s ( H i s t o r y a nd G e o g r a p h y ) t h e h i g h a n x i e t y and h i g h i n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p performed better t h a n
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t h e low a n x i e t y a n d h i g h i n t e l l i g e n c e s u b j e c t s , w h i l e h i g h a n x i e t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h lower p e r f o r m a n c e a t t h e lower ability levels. 'In o t h e r c o u r s e s ( E n g l i s h , M a t h e m a t i c s , F r e n c h , a n d S c i e n c e ) , t h e p a t t e r n of i n t e r a c t i o n was s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o u n d i n H i s t o r y an d G e o g r a p h y , w i t h t h e e f f e c t of anxiety being produced only in the lower ability ( i n t e l l i g e n c e ) groups. Hi g h a n x i e t y h a s a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t o n p e r f o r m a n c e a t t h e two l o w e s t ( o f f i v e ) a n d t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t l e v e l o f a b i l i t y , w h e r e a s t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e e f f e c t was r e v e r s e d a t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f a b i l i t y . Inspection of t h e i r t a b l e s r e v e a l s t h a t t h i s r e v e r s e o f e f f e c t a t t h e h i g h e s t a b i l i t y l e v e l c o u l d h a r d l y b e of a n y s i g n i f i c a n c e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e y d i d n o t s t u d y t h e components o f test a n x i e t y a n d d i d n o t l o o k f o r t h e i m p a c t of t h e w o r r y cognitions. S h a r m a a n d Rao ( 1 9 8 3 ) r e p o r t e d a b o u t t h e i r r e s e a r c h i n I n d i a . They a l s o s t u d i e d t e s t a n x i e t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d p e r f o r m a n c e interactions. They f o u n d t h a t low t e s t a n x i o u s g i r l s s c o r e d c o n s i s t a n t l y higher than t h e i r high test anxious c o u n t e r p a r t s on t h e t h r e e courses they s t u d i e d i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h (English, Also h i g h i n t e l l i g e n c e was Mathematics and General S c i e n c e ) . a s s o c i a t e d with high academic performance. Their interaction r e s u l t s c a n be s u m m a r i z e d b y s t a t i n g t h a t t h e l o w i n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p s s c o r e d l o w a n d a t comparable l e v e l s i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r l e v e l s of t e s t a n x i e t y . A t t h e high i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l t h e a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e ( i n E n g l i s h a n d M a t h e m a t i c s ) was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e b i l i t a t e d by h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y . The y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s of h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y o n p e r f o r m a n c e were n e s t e d i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e of i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d t h a t s c h o o l g i r l s w i t h i n a lower r a n g e of i n t e l l i g e n c e a c h i e v e d l e s s an d a t c o m p a r a b l e l e v e l s r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r test a n x i e t y l e v e l s . T h e f i n d i n g s a r e more o r less i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o n e s r e p o r t e d b y Gaudry a n d F i t z g e r a l d (1971 1. Unfortunately, S h ar ma a n d Rao d i d n o t l o o k f o r t h e i m p a c t of t h e worry c o g n i t i o n s , too. may be c l e a r from t h e a b o v e , r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t e s t a n x i e t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , and performance are complex o n e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e a r e h a r d l y aware of l o n g i t u d i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e t e s t a n x i e t y and p e r f o r m a n c e i n t e r a c t i o n s . A s
relationships, I n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h a t above-mentioned u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s t u d y b y S h ar ma a n d Rao ( 1 9 8 3 1 , i n 1980 1983 a s t u d y w a s conducted by t a k i n g t e s t anxiety, including b o t h t h e w o r r y an d e m o t i o n a l i t y c o m p o n e n t s , a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a s independent variables. T h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s were a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c e s , c o n s i s t i n g of t h e sum of g r a d e s of male a n d female D u t c h c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r f i r s t a n d s e c o n d year a t secondary school.
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METHOD W e s t u d i e d a group of secondary s c h o o l c h i l d r e n ( 5 7 Sample. b o y s and 97 g i r l s ) i n t h e i r f i r s t ( a g e d a b o u t 1 2 y e a r s ) a n d i n t h e i r n e x t or s e c o n d y e a r (aged a b o u t 1 3 y e a r s ) a t s e c o n d a r y school. T h e y were t e s t e d i n s i x g r o u p s , c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 2 5 children ( 6 classes) e a c h , approximately t h r e e months after t h e beginning of t h e i r first year course, and also i n t h e i r s e c o n d y e a r c o u r s e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 14 m o n t h s l a t e r ) .
Measures. W e a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e T e s t A n x i e t y I n v e n t o r y (Van d e r P l o e g , 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 3 1 , a D u t c h a d a p t a t i o n of t h e S p i e l b e r g e r T e s t A n x i e t y I n v e n t. o r y ( S p i e l b e r g e r , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e TAI-D ( T A I - D u t c h ) p r o v i d e s a t o t a l s c o r e , a n d two s u b s c o r e s i n d i c a t i n g : w o r r y (W) a n d e m o t i o n a l i t y (El. T h e D u t c h TAI a p p e a r s t o be a n i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , r e l i a b l e and v a l i d s c a l e f o r m e a s u r i n g t e s t a n x i e t y i n Dutch s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n s . The S t a t e - T r a i t - A n x i e t y I n v e n t o r y (STAI-DY, Van d e r P l o e g , D e f a r e s , a n d S p i e l b e r g e r , 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 : Van d e r P l o e g , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 4 1 , a D u t c h a d a p t a t i o n of t h e S p i e l b e r g e r S t a t e - T r a i t A n x i e t y I n v e n t o r y , Form Y , ( S p i e l b e r g e r , G o r s u c h , a n d L u s h e n e , W e made 1 9 7 0 ; S p i e l b e r g e r , 1 9 8 3 ) was a d m i n i s t e r e d a s w e l l . u s e of t h e t r a i t a n x i e t y ( T - A n x i e t y ) s c o r e . T h e STAI-DY c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s a r e l i a b l e and v a l i d s c a l e f o r m e a s u r i n g a n x i e t y i n The N e t h e r l a n d s . T h e l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e was b a s e d u p o n two s e p a r a t e i n d i c e s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c h i l d r e n ' s a b i l i t i e s upon l e a v i n g e l e m e n t a r y school. I n t h e s i x t h year a t primary school an independ e n t t e s t i n g o f f i c e a d v i s e d a b o u t t h e l e v e l of intelligence and t h e b e s t l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . I n The Besides N e t h e r l a n d s o n e c a n c h o o s e b e t w e e n s e v e r a l streams. t h i s i n d e p e n d e n t a d v i c e w e made u s e o f t h e a d v i c e g i v e n b y t h e t e a c h e r s a n d t h e h e a d of t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l a b o u t t h e b e s t s e c o n d a r y stream t o be f o l l o w e d . T h e s e two a d v i c e s a r e h i g h l y p<.OOl; for and s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d ( f o r boys r = . 7 2 , p(.OOl). W e c o m b i n e d t h e s e two a d v i c e s and g i r l s r = .64, c o n s t r u c t e d o n e s c o r e i n d i c a t i n g t h e l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g we s h a l l d i v i d e t h e g r o u p i n t o p u p i l s w i t h e i t h e r h i g h o r l o w l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e d i a n of t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e l l i g e n c e scores. Procedure. T h e a n x i e t y t e s t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d t o s m a l l groups under standard conditions. T h e i n t e l l i g e n c e score w a s obtained following t h e above d e s c r i b e d s t a n d a r d rule. t h e most A c h i e v e m e n t scores were o b t a i n e d b y i n s p e c t i o n of i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t , t h e one a t t h e e n d of t h e c o u r s e , just before t h e summer h o l i d a y s . T h i s r e p o r t is d e c i s i v e a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t a p u p i l w i l l go on t o t h e n e x t (second, or t h i r d ) form. I n t h e first year t h e p u p i l s follow seven c o u r s e s : t h r e e l a n g u a g e s , Dutch, F r e n c h , E n g l i s h , and H i s t o r y , Geography, B i o l o g y and M a t h e m a t i c s . I n t h e s e c o n d y e a r two o t h e r c o u r s e s are added: t h e German l a n g u a g e a n d P h y s i c s . In most of o u r a n a l y s i s w e h a v e summed u p t h e g r a d e s o b t a i n e d a t
H. M. van der PIoeg
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these
summer r e p o r t s , t h e t o t a l of w h i c h a t t h e e n d y e a r b e i n g t h e sum o f s e v e n , a n d a t t h e e n d s e c o n d y e a r t h e sum of n i n e g r a d e s . first
of of
the the
RESULTS
C o r r e l a t i o n a l A n a l y s i s . T e s t a n x i e t y , measured i n t h e i r f i r s t y e a r a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , i s a b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r of a c h i e v e m e n t W i t h i n t e s t a n x i e t y w o r r y i s a somewhat than trait anxiety. b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r t h a n e m o t i o n a l i t y , a s is r e p o r t e d b y many others. T h e i n f l u e n c e of t e s t a n x i e t y o n T e s t Anxiety (TAI T o t a l ) . t h e mean sum o f g r a d e s , i n t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d y e a r a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i s r e p o r t e d i n Table 1 ( l e f t p a r t ) , f o r b o y s and g i r l s s e p a r a t e l y . For t h e high test anxious boys a s w e l l a s g i r l s t h e perLow t e s t a n x i o u s f o r m a n c e i n d i c e s a r e more o r l e s s t h e same. b o y s , h o w e v e r , o b t a i n h i g h e r mean s u m s o f g r a d e s t h a n t h e i r female counterparts. T h i s may i n d i c a t e t h a t b o y s e x p e r i e n c e l a r g e r p e r f o r m a n c e d e c r e m e n t s from b e i n g a n x i o u s t h a n f e m a l e p u p i l s i n t h e same c l a s s e s .
Table
1:
Mean Sum of G r a d e s , g r o u p s d i v i d e d i n t o below and a b o v e m e d i a n TAI T o t a l a n d m e d i a n s c o r e f o r I n t e l 1i g e n c e
TEST ANXIETY
SUM OF GRADES
INTELLIGENCE
LOW
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
54.2 50.9
46.0 46.6
47.8 45.7
53.6 51.0
67.2 63.2
57.4 57.0
50.7 57.5
67.6 63.7
FIRST Y E A R BOYS
GIRLS SECOND YEAR
BOYS GIRLS
Worry. Intelligence and Academic Behavior in Dutch School Children
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Intelligence. B e s i d e s t h e i n f l u e n c e of test a n x i e t y w e h a v e a l s o s t u d i e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e upon t h e sum o f grades. As c a n be s e e n i n T a b l e 1 ( r i g h t p a r t ) , i n w h i c h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e a b o u t t h e same a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e d e c r e m e n t s i n f l u e n c e d b y t e s t a n x i e t y , lower l e v e l s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e h a v e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s upon t h e mean sum o f these detrimental grades. Whereas, i n t h e male g r o u p s , e f f e c t s of test anxiety a r e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e , w i t h regard t o i n t e l l i g e n c e t h e p i c t u r e is less c l e a r . In t h e f i r s t year a somewhat l a r g e r d i v e r s i t y is t o be s e e n i n t h e g r o u p o f g i r l s , However, i n t h e s e c o n d y e a r t h e means f o r b o y s d i f f e r more. a s s t a t e d b e f o r e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e very small. i n t e r a c t i o n o f t e s t a n x i e t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e . Both t e s t a n x i e t v and i n t e l l i a e n c e a r e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e p u p i l s u n d e r s t u d y .
The
T a b l e 2 shows t h a t o u r g r o u p s o f p u p i l s were d i v i d e d w i t h i n t h e i r own s e x - g r o u p a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m e d i a n s c o r e s f o r t e s t a n x i e t y and f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e . A f t e r w a r d s we c o m p u t e d t h e mean sum o f g r a d e s o b t a i n e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t s u b g r o u p s o f b o y s a n d g i r l s i n t h e i r f i r s t , and i n t h e i r s e c o n d y e a r a t s e c o n d a r y school. The h i g h e s t means a r e o b t a i n e d by low a n x i o u s a n d h i g h intelligent pupils. High a n x i o u s a n d low i n t e l l i g e n t p u p i l s a r e t h e worst p e r f o r m e r s . I n t h e g r o u p s of g i r l s i t c a n be o b s e r v e d t h a t g i r l s w i t h a lower l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e h a r d l y i n f l u e n c e d b y h i g h e r T h e p e r f o r m a n c e s of low i n t e l l i g e n t l e v e l s of test a n x i e t y . g i r l s a r e c o m p a r a b l e , t o some e x t e n t , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r l e v e l of test anxiety. But i n t h e g r o u p s w i t h a h i g h e r l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , h i g h l e v e l s of test a n x i e t y produces l a r g e performance decrements. The p e r f o r m a n c e d i s c r e p a n c y i s more o u t s p o k e n f o r b o y s t h a n Also, i n t h e second year, these differences are f o r girls. more o u t s p o k e n t h a n i n t h e f i r s t y e a r .
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Table
2:
Mean Sum of Grades, Groups divided into below and above median scores for Test Anxiety (TAI Total) and for Intelligence
BOYS
GIRLS
FIRST YEAR
INTELLIGENCE
INTELLIGENCE
TEST ANXIETY
LOW
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
50.7 46.4.
56.2 47.6
46.9 44.9
53.4 48.6
60.7 57.7
71.7 57.6
58.5 56.7
66.0 59.8
LOW HIGH SECOND YEAR TEST ANXIETY LOW HIGH
The interaction of worry and intelligence. In Table summarized the mean sum of grades for the groups with scores below and above the median for intelligence.
3 we have of pupils worry -and
Performance decrements are larger with the high intelligent groups. Furthermore, worry causes more detrimental effects In these analyses, than the total score for test anxiety. girls with a lower level of intelligence seem to be less influenced by worry cognitions than low intelligent boys. Also, high intelligent boys seem to be the ones most influenced by the worry factor, especially in their second year.
Worry, Intelligence and Academic Behavior in Dutch School Children
Table
3:
121
Mean Sum of Grades, Groups divided into below and above median scores for Worry and for Intelligence.
BOYS
GIRLS
FIRST YEAR
INTELLIGENCE
INTELLIGENCE
WORRY
LOW
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
LOW HIGH
51.1 45.1
56.2 41.6
48.4 44.1
54.2 40.1
63.6 56.3
11.1 51.6
59.0 56.2
61.6 59.5
SECOND YEAR WORRY LOW HIGH
The interaction fo emotionality and intelligence. Finally, we
studied the interaction of emotionality and intelligence. Again, emotionality "causes" less performance decrements than worry. Low intelligent girls are hardly influenced by high emotionality. High intelligent boys seem to be the most influenced pupils in these analyses. In the second year at seondary school the discrepancies between low and high levels of emotionality are greater than in the first year. Further anal s e s . Several separate analyses of variance ( 2 x 2 x 2 A N h e carried out. The sum of grades, the grade for the Dutch language (the mother tongue) and the one for Mathematics, in the first as well as in the second year, were the dependent variables. Intelligence, test anxiety (TAI total), and sex were the dependent variables.
A consistent main effect of test anxiety was observed with low test anxious boys o r girls scoring higher than their high test anxious counterparts. Also, a consistent main effect of intelligence was observed with low intelligent boys or girls scoring lower than their more intelligent counterparts. The main effect for sex turned out to be statistically significant for the sum of grades in the second year and f o r Mathematics in the first and in the second year, with boys scoring higher.
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Worry, Intelligence and Academic Behavior in Dutch School Children
113
S i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s of t e s t a n x i e t y a nd i n t e l l i g e n c e were o b s e r v e d i n a l l c a s e s , e x c e p t f o r t h e g r a d e s f o r t h e D utc h language i n t h e f i r s t year a t school. F i n a l l y , t h e r e was a r a t h e r weak i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n a n x i e t y , and s e x f o r Mathematics i n t h e second y e a r .
test
T h u s , w e c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e most d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t of t e s t a n x i e t y a n d e s p e c i a l l y of t h e w o r r y c o m p o n e n t , c a n be s e e n i n t h e groups w i t h a h i g h e r l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e . G r o u p s w i t h a lower l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e p e r f o r m a t a lower l e v e l a n d seem t o be l e s s i n f l u e n c e d b y t e s t a n x i e t y a n d i t s components.
DISCUSSION The f i n d i n g s t h a t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e t e s t a n x i e t y a nd i n t e l l i gence a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to achievement and secondly t h a t h i g h test a n x i o u s b o y s an d g i r l s a c h i e v e lower t h a n t h e i r low a n x i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t s are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t w a s f o u n d t h a t t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s of h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y on p e r f o r m a n c e a r e n e s t e d i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e of intelligence. B o y s a n d g i r l s w i t h a lower l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a c h i e v e d l e s s an d were l e s s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i m p a i r i n g e f f e c t s o f test a n x i e t y . T h i s f i n d i n g was f o u n d a l s o b y Sharma a n d Rao ( 1 9 8 3 ) f o r a c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t g r o u p of f e m a l e p u p i l s i n I n d i a , and is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d b y Gau d r y a n d F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 7 1 ) o n A u s t r a l i a n h i g h s c h o o l b o y s an d g i r l s . t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e I n t h e g r o u p o f low i n t e l l i g e n t b o y s , w o r r y f a c t o r p r o d u c e s i n o u r s t u d y l a r g e r mean p e r f o r m a n c e d i s c r e p a n c i e s u p o n c o m p a r i n g low and h i g h t e s t a n x i o u s v e r s u s low a n d h i g h w o r r y i n g b o y s . Also, f o r low a s w e l l a s f o r h i g h i n t e l l i g e n t g i r l s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e w o r r y c o m p o n e n t of test a n x i e t y p r o d u c e s somewhat l a r g e r d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n low a n d h i g h t e s t a n x i o u s v e r s u s low a n d h i g h w o r r y i n g g i r l s . W o r r y , a s a s e l f - r e l a t e d c o g n i t i o n , is of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of p e r f o r m a n c e i m p a i r m e n t , more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e ( g e n e r a l ) c o n c e p t o f t e s t a n x i e t y . T h i s c o g n i t i v e compon e n t i s h i g h l y r e l a t e d t o t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g effects o f h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y o n t h e academic b e h a v i o r o f p u p i l s i n t h e u p p e r range of i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e s e h i g h i n t e l l i g e n t a n d h i g h a n x i o u s p u p i l s / s t u d e n t s may i m p r o v e a f t e r g e t t i n g r i d of t h e i r a n x i e t i e s , e v e n i f i t w o u l d be o n l y a s l i g h t p a r t of i t . B e s i d e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p r o g r a m s f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t an d h e l p of p u p i l s w i t h h i g h l e v e l s of w o r r y i n g , a l s o t h e i r s t u d y h a b i t s , t h e amount o f time s p e n t on t h e i r s t u d i e s , t h e i r social s t a n d a r d s as w e l l a s t h e i r v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s and t h e i r p e r c e i v e d p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e
124
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t o s u c c e e d d e s e r v e our a t t e n t i o n . For some of t h e s e r e l a t i v e l y young p u p i l s t h e s e p a r e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s m u s t h a v e b e e n r a t h e r s t r e s s f u l , a n d may h a v e c a u s e d a l o t o f a n x i e t y a n d s e l f - r e l a t e d c o g n i t i o n s (Van d e r P l o e g - S t a p e r t a n d Van der Ploeg , 1984).
I n o u r f u r t h e r s t u d y of t h e t e s t a n x i e t y phe nom e non, b e s i d e s o t h e r b e f o r e mentioned r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s , w e want t o i n c l u d e these parental pressures. B e c a u s e i t i s most p r o b a b l e t h a t i n our ( D u t c h ) c u l t u r e p a r e n t s r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t a c h i e v e m e n t s f r o m t h e i r s o n s t h a n t h e y d o from t h e i r d a u g h t e r s , a n d b e c a u s e ( t e s t ) a n x i e t y may be d i f f e r e n t i a l l y f e l t a n d r e p o r t e d , it is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between b o y s and g i r l s i n t h e s t u d y of test a n x i e t y .
115
WORRY, INTELLIGENCE AND ACADEMIC BEHAVIOR IN DUTCH SCHOOL CHILDREN Henk M. van der Ploeg University of Leiden. The Netherlands
Anxiety g e n e r a l l y r e f e r s t o an unpleasant emotional r e a c t i o n t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m t h e p e r c e p t i o n o r a p p r a i s a l of a p a r t i c u l a r Th e p e r c e p t i o n of a c h i e v e m e n t situation as threatening. demanding s i t u a t i o n s a s t h r e a t s t o t h e self g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n test a n x i e t y , e i t h e r a s a t r a i t ( S p i e l b e r g e r , 1980) o r a s a s t a t e (Morris, F r a n k l i n , & Ponath, 1983). I n essence, test anxiety refers to individual differences i n the disposition to e x p e r i e n c e f e e l i n g s of apprehension and worry c o g n i t i o n s i n a c a d e m i c e n v i r o n m e n t s , w h e r e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of s t u d e n t s or p u p i l s i s u n d e r s c r u t i n y ( S c h w a r z e r , Van d e r P l o e g , & S p i e l berger, 1982). This c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n emphasizes the c o g n i t i v e determinants of s t a t e anxiety r e a c t i o n s i n evaluative situations. Test anxiety, defined as a situations p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t or a s a s t a t e , c o n t a i n s a c o g n i t i v e c o m p o n e n t , w o r r y , a n d an a f f e c t i v e a r o u s a l - r e l a t e d c o m p o n e n t , e m o t i o n a l i t y . C o g n i t i o n s a b o u t t h e s e l f a p p e a r t o be c r i t i c a l These p r e c u r s o r s i n t h e p r o c e s s of d e v e l o p i n g t e s t a n x i e t y . cognitions generally involve negative evaluations about academic a b i l i t y , s e l f - w o r t h , an d o n e ' s s o c i a l s t a n d i n g t h a t make t h e t e s t a n x i o u s p e r s o n more v u l n e r a b l e t o f e e l i n g threatened i n e v a l u a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s (Schwarzer, e t a l . , 1982). The w o r r y c o m p o n e n t of t e s t a n x i e t y h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s c o g n i t i v e c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c c e s of f a i l u r e , p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n s a b o u t p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e a nd n e g a t i v e s e l f evaluations. Worry seems t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s of t e s t a n x i e t y o n p e r f o r m a n c e . The w o r r y i n g i n d i v i d u a l d i r e c t s h i s / h e r a t t e n t i o n to t h e self a s actor i n s t e a d of t o t h e t a s k a t hand, l a c k s confidence i n h i s a b i l i t y , and o f t e n f e e l s i n a d e q u a t e a n d i n s e c u r e . He thinks t h a t o t h e r s a r e much b r i g h t e r t h a n h e i s , a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f a s more v u l n e r a b l e t o f a i l u r e ( S c h w a r z e r , e t a l . , 1982). A c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e is i m p a i r e d by t e s t a n x i e t y , a s is shown i n much r e s e a r c h . I n t e l l i g e n c e , i n g e n e r a l , is p o s i t i v e l y a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o academic g r a d e s or academic b e h a v i o r . Gaudry a n d F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 7 1 ) r e p o r t e d a b o u t t h e i r r e s e a r c h i n Australia. T e s t a n x i e t y a s w e l l a s i n t e l l i g e n c e were r e l a t e d t o ( h i g h ) s c h o o l marks. T h e i r h y p o t h e s i s was t h a t h i g h a n x i e t y would f a c i l i t a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e most a b l e g r o u p a n d lower t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e r e m a i n d e r when c o m p a r e d w i t h comparable low-anxious groups. This hypothesis received no s u p p o r t , a l t h o u g h t h e i r d a t a a r e g e n e r a l l y s u g g e s t i v e of t h e predicted trends. I n some c o u r s e s ( H i s t o r y a nd G e o g r a p h y ) t h e h i g h a n x i e t y and h i g h i n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p performed better t h a n
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H. M. van der Ploeg
t h e low a n x i e t y a n d h i g h i n t e l l i g e n c e s u b j e c t s , w h i l e h i g h a n x i e t y was a s s o c i a t e d w i t h lower p e r f o r m a n c e a t t h e lower ability levels. 'In o t h e r c o u r s e s ( E n g l i s h , M a t h e m a t i c s , F r e n c h , a n d S c i e n c e ) , t h e p a t t e r n of i n t e r a c t i o n was s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o u n d i n H i s t o r y an d G e o g r a p h y , w i t h t h e e f f e c t of anxiety being produced only in the lower ability ( i n t e l l i g e n c e ) groups. Hi g h a n x i e t y h a s a d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t o n p e r f o r m a n c e a t t h e two l o w e s t ( o f f i v e ) a n d t h e s e c o n d h i g h e s t l e v e l o f a b i l i t y , w h e r e a s t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e e f f e c t was r e v e r s e d a t t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f a b i l i t y . Inspection of t h e i r t a b l e s r e v e a l s t h a t t h i s r e v e r s e o f e f f e c t a t t h e h i g h e s t a b i l i t y l e v e l c o u l d h a r d l y b e of a n y s i g n i f i c a n c e . U n f o r t u n a t e l y t h e y d i d n o t s t u d y t h e components o f test a n x i e t y a n d d i d n o t l o o k f o r t h e i m p a c t of t h e w o r r y cognitions. S h a r m a a n d Rao ( 1 9 8 3 ) r e p o r t e d a b o u t t h e i r r e s e a r c h i n I n d i a . They a l s o s t u d i e d t e s t a n x i e t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d p e r f o r m a n c e interactions. They f o u n d t h a t low t e s t a n x i o u s g i r l s s c o r e d c o n s i s t a n t l y higher than t h e i r high test anxious c o u n t e r p a r t s on t h e t h r e e courses they s t u d i e d i n t h e i r r e s e a r c h (English, Also h i g h i n t e l l i g e n c e was Mathematics and General S c i e n c e ) . a s s o c i a t e d with high academic performance. Their interaction r e s u l t s c a n be s u m m a r i z e d b y s t a t i n g t h a t t h e l o w i n t e l l i g e n c e g r o u p s s c o r e d l o w a n d a t comparable l e v e l s i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r l e v e l s of t e s t a n x i e t y . A t t h e high i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l t h e a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e ( i n E n g l i s h a n d M a t h e m a t i c s ) was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e b i l i t a t e d by h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y . The y c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s of h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y o n p e r f o r m a n c e were n e s t e d i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e of i n t e l l i g e n c e , a n d t h a t s c h o o l g i r l s w i t h i n a lower r a n g e of i n t e l l i g e n c e a c h i e v e d l e s s an d a t c o m p a r a b l e l e v e l s r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r test a n x i e t y l e v e l s . T h e f i n d i n g s a r e more o r less i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e o n e s r e p o r t e d b y Gaudry a n d F i t z g e r a l d (1971 1. Unfortunately, S h ar ma a n d Rao d i d n o t l o o k f o r t h e i m p a c t of t h e worry c o g n i t i o n s , too. may be c l e a r from t h e a b o v e , r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t e s t a n x i e t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , and performance are complex o n e s . F u r t h e r m o r e , w e a r e h a r d l y aware of l o n g i t u d i n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h i n t h e t e s t a n x i e t y and p e r f o r m a n c e i n t e r a c t i o n s . A s
relationships, I n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h a t above-mentioned u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e s t u d y b y S h ar ma a n d Rao ( 1 9 8 3 1 , i n 1980 1983 a s t u d y w a s conducted by t a k i n g t e s t anxiety, including b o t h t h e w o r r y an d e m o t i o n a l i t y c o m p o n e n t s , a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a s independent variables. T h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s were a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e i n d i c e s , c o n s i s t i n g of t h e sum of g r a d e s of male a n d female D u t c h c h i l d r e n i n t h e i r f i r s t a n d s e c o n d year a t secondary school.
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117
METHOD W e s t u d i e d a group of secondary s c h o o l c h i l d r e n ( 5 7 Sample. b o y s and 97 g i r l s ) i n t h e i r f i r s t ( a g e d a b o u t 1 2 y e a r s ) a n d i n t h e i r n e x t or s e c o n d y e a r (aged a b o u t 1 3 y e a r s ) a t s e c o n d a r y school. T h e y were t e s t e d i n s i x g r o u p s , c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 2 5 children ( 6 classes) e a c h , approximately t h r e e months after t h e beginning of t h e i r first year course, and also i n t h e i r s e c o n d y e a r c o u r s e ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 14 m o n t h s l a t e r ) .
Measures. W e a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e T e s t A n x i e t y I n v e n t o r y (Van d e r P l o e g , 1 9 8 2 , 1 9 8 3 1 , a D u t c h a d a p t a t i o n of t h e S p i e l b e r g e r T e s t A n x i e t y I n v e n t. o r y ( S p i e l b e r g e r , 1 9 8 0 ) . T h e TAI-D ( T A I - D u t c h ) p r o v i d e s a t o t a l s c o r e , a n d two s u b s c o r e s i n d i c a t i n g : w o r r y (W) a n d e m o t i o n a l i t y (El. T h e D u t c h TAI a p p e a r s t o be a n i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t , r e l i a b l e and v a l i d s c a l e f o r m e a s u r i n g t e s t a n x i e t y i n Dutch s p e a k i n g p o p u l a t i o n s . The S t a t e - T r a i t - A n x i e t y I n v e n t o r y (STAI-DY, Van d e r P l o e g , D e f a r e s , a n d S p i e l b e r g e r , 1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 : Van d e r P l o e g , 1 9 8 1 , 1 9 8 4 1 , a D u t c h a d a p t a t i o n of t h e S p i e l b e r g e r S t a t e - T r a i t A n x i e t y I n v e n t o r y , Form Y , ( S p i e l b e r g e r , G o r s u c h , a n d L u s h e n e , W e made 1 9 7 0 ; S p i e l b e r g e r , 1 9 8 3 ) was a d m i n i s t e r e d a s w e l l . u s e of t h e t r a i t a n x i e t y ( T - A n x i e t y ) s c o r e . T h e STAI-DY c a n be c o n s i d e r e d a s a r e l i a b l e and v a l i d s c a l e f o r m e a s u r i n g a n x i e t y i n The N e t h e r l a n d s . T h e l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e was b a s e d u p o n two s e p a r a t e i n d i c e s w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e c h i l d r e n ' s a b i l i t i e s upon l e a v i n g e l e m e n t a r y school. I n t h e s i x t h year a t primary school an independ e n t t e s t i n g o f f i c e a d v i s e d a b o u t t h e l e v e l of intelligence and t h e b e s t l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l . I n The Besides N e t h e r l a n d s o n e c a n c h o o s e b e t w e e n s e v e r a l streams. t h i s i n d e p e n d e n t a d v i c e w e made u s e o f t h e a d v i c e g i v e n b y t h e t e a c h e r s a n d t h e h e a d of t h e p r i m a r y s c h o o l a b o u t t h e b e s t s e c o n d a r y stream t o be f o l l o w e d . T h e s e two a d v i c e s a r e h i g h l y p<.OOl; for and s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e l a t e d ( f o r boys r = . 7 2 , p(.OOl). W e c o m b i n e d t h e s e two a d v i c e s and g i r l s r = .64, c o n s t r u c t e d o n e s c o r e i n d i c a t i n g t h e l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g we s h a l l d i v i d e t h e g r o u p i n t o p u p i l s w i t h e i t h e r h i g h o r l o w l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e m e d i a n of t h e c o m b i n e d i n t e l l i g e n c e scores. Procedure. T h e a n x i e t y t e s t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d t o s m a l l groups under standard conditions. T h e i n t e l l i g e n c e score w a s obtained following t h e above d e s c r i b e d s t a n d a r d rule. t h e most A c h i e v e m e n t scores were o b t a i n e d b y i n s p e c t i o n of i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t , t h e one a t t h e e n d of t h e c o u r s e , just before t h e summer h o l i d a y s . T h i s r e p o r t is d e c i s i v e a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t a p u p i l w i l l go on t o t h e n e x t (second, or t h i r d ) form. I n t h e first year t h e p u p i l s follow seven c o u r s e s : t h r e e l a n g u a g e s , Dutch, F r e n c h , E n g l i s h , and H i s t o r y , Geography, B i o l o g y and M a t h e m a t i c s . I n t h e s e c o n d y e a r two o t h e r c o u r s e s are added: t h e German l a n g u a g e a n d P h y s i c s . In most of o u r a n a l y s i s w e h a v e summed u p t h e g r a d e s o b t a i n e d a t
H. M. van der PIoeg
I18
these
summer r e p o r t s , t h e t o t a l of w h i c h a t t h e e n d y e a r b e i n g t h e sum o f s e v e n , a n d a t t h e e n d s e c o n d y e a r t h e sum of n i n e g r a d e s . first
of of
the the
RESULTS
C o r r e l a t i o n a l A n a l y s i s . T e s t a n x i e t y , measured i n t h e i r f i r s t y e a r a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l , i s a b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r of a c h i e v e m e n t W i t h i n t e s t a n x i e t y w o r r y i s a somewhat than trait anxiety. b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r t h a n e m o t i o n a l i t y , a s is r e p o r t e d b y many others. T h e i n f l u e n c e of t e s t a n x i e t y o n T e s t Anxiety (TAI T o t a l ) . t h e mean sum o f g r a d e s , i n t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d y e a r a t s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l i s r e p o r t e d i n Table 1 ( l e f t p a r t ) , f o r b o y s and g i r l s s e p a r a t e l y . For t h e high test anxious boys a s w e l l a s g i r l s t h e perLow t e s t a n x i o u s f o r m a n c e i n d i c e s a r e more o r l e s s t h e same. b o y s , h o w e v e r , o b t a i n h i g h e r mean s u m s o f g r a d e s t h a n t h e i r female counterparts. T h i s may i n d i c a t e t h a t b o y s e x p e r i e n c e l a r g e r p e r f o r m a n c e d e c r e m e n t s from b e i n g a n x i o u s t h a n f e m a l e p u p i l s i n t h e same c l a s s e s .
Table
1:
Mean Sum of G r a d e s , g r o u p s d i v i d e d i n t o below and a b o v e m e d i a n TAI T o t a l a n d m e d i a n s c o r e f o r I n t e l 1i g e n c e
TEST ANXIETY
SUM OF GRADES
INTELLIGENCE
LOW
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
54.2 50.9
46.0 46.6
47.8 45.7
53.6 51.0
67.2 63.2
57.4 57.0
50.7 57.5
67.6 63.7
FIRST Y E A R BOYS
GIRLS SECOND YEAR
BOYS GIRLS
Worry. Intelligence and Academic Behavior in Dutch School Children
I I9
Intelligence. B e s i d e s t h e i n f l u e n c e of test a n x i e t y w e h a v e a l s o s t u d i e d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e upon t h e sum o f grades. As c a n be s e e n i n T a b l e 1 ( r i g h t p a r t ) , i n w h i c h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e a b o u t t h e same a s c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e d e c r e m e n t s i n f l u e n c e d b y t e s t a n x i e t y , lower l e v e l s o f i n t e l l i g e n c e h a v e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s upon t h e mean sum o f these detrimental grades. Whereas, i n t h e male g r o u p s , e f f e c t s of test anxiety a r e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e , w i t h regard t o i n t e l l i g e n c e t h e p i c t u r e is less c l e a r . In t h e f i r s t year a somewhat l a r g e r d i v e r s i t y is t o be s e e n i n t h e g r o u p o f g i r l s , However, i n t h e s e c o n d y e a r t h e means f o r b o y s d i f f e r more. a s s t a t e d b e f o r e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e very small. i n t e r a c t i o n o f t e s t a n x i e t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e . Both t e s t a n x i e t v and i n t e l l i a e n c e a r e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e a c h i e v e m e n t of t h e p u p i l s u n d e r s t u d y .
The
T a b l e 2 shows t h a t o u r g r o u p s o f p u p i l s were d i v i d e d w i t h i n t h e i r own s e x - g r o u p a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m e d i a n s c o r e s f o r t e s t a n x i e t y and f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e . A f t e r w a r d s we c o m p u t e d t h e mean sum o f g r a d e s o b t a i n e d by t h e d i f f e r e n t s u b g r o u p s o f b o y s a n d g i r l s i n t h e i r f i r s t , and i n t h e i r s e c o n d y e a r a t s e c o n d a r y school. The h i g h e s t means a r e o b t a i n e d by low a n x i o u s a n d h i g h intelligent pupils. High a n x i o u s a n d low i n t e l l i g e n t p u p i l s a r e t h e worst p e r f o r m e r s . I n t h e g r o u p s of g i r l s i t c a n be o b s e r v e d t h a t g i r l s w i t h a lower l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a r e h a r d l y i n f l u e n c e d b y h i g h e r T h e p e r f o r m a n c e s of low i n t e l l i g e n t l e v e l s of test a n x i e t y . g i r l s a r e c o m p a r a b l e , t o some e x t e n t , i r r e s p e c t i v e of t h e i r l e v e l of test anxiety. But i n t h e g r o u p s w i t h a h i g h e r l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , h i g h l e v e l s of test a n x i e t y produces l a r g e performance decrements. The p e r f o r m a n c e d i s c r e p a n c y i s more o u t s p o k e n f o r b o y s t h a n Also, i n t h e second year, these differences are f o r girls. more o u t s p o k e n t h a n i n t h e f i r s t y e a r .
H.M. van der Ploeg
120
Table
2:
Mean Sum of Grades, Groups divided into below and above median scores for Test Anxiety (TAI Total) and for Intelligence
BOYS
GIRLS
FIRST YEAR
INTELLIGENCE
INTELLIGENCE
TEST ANXIETY
LOW
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
50.7 46.4.
56.2 47.6
46.9 44.9
53.4 48.6
60.7 57.7
71.7 57.6
58.5 56.7
66.0 59.8
LOW HIGH SECOND YEAR TEST ANXIETY LOW HIGH
The interaction of worry and intelligence. In Table summarized the mean sum of grades for the groups with scores below and above the median for intelligence.
3 we have of pupils worry -and
Performance decrements are larger with the high intelligent groups. Furthermore, worry causes more detrimental effects In these analyses, than the total score for test anxiety. girls with a lower level of intelligence seem to be less influenced by worry cognitions than low intelligent boys. Also, high intelligent boys seem to be the ones most influenced by the worry factor, especially in their second year.
Worry, Intelligence and Academic Behavior in Dutch School Children
Table
3:
121
Mean Sum of Grades, Groups divided into below and above median scores for Worry and for Intelligence.
BOYS
GIRLS
FIRST YEAR
INTELLIGENCE
INTELLIGENCE
WORRY
LOW
HIGH
LOW
HIGH
LOW HIGH
51.1 45.1
56.2 41.6
48.4 44.1
54.2 40.1
63.6 56.3
11.1 51.6
59.0 56.2
61.6 59.5
SECOND YEAR WORRY LOW HIGH
The interaction fo emotionality and intelligence. Finally, we
studied the interaction of emotionality and intelligence. Again, emotionality "causes" less performance decrements than worry. Low intelligent girls are hardly influenced by high emotionality. High intelligent boys seem to be the most influenced pupils in these analyses. In the second year at seondary school the discrepancies between low and high levels of emotionality are greater than in the first year. Further anal s e s . Several separate analyses of variance ( 2 x 2 x 2 A N h e carried out. The sum of grades, the grade for the Dutch language (the mother tongue) and the one for Mathematics, in the first as well as in the second year, were the dependent variables. Intelligence, test anxiety (TAI total), and sex were the dependent variables.
A consistent main effect of test anxiety was observed with low test anxious boys o r girls scoring higher than their high test anxious counterparts. Also, a consistent main effect of intelligence was observed with low intelligent boys or girls scoring lower than their more intelligent counterparts. The main effect for sex turned out to be statistically significant for the sum of grades in the second year and f o r Mathematics in the first and in the second year, with boys scoring higher.
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Worry, Intelligence and Academic Behavior in Dutch School Children
113
S i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s of t e s t a n x i e t y a nd i n t e l l i g e n c e were o b s e r v e d i n a l l c a s e s , e x c e p t f o r t h e g r a d e s f o r t h e D utc h language i n t h e f i r s t year a t school. F i n a l l y , t h e r e was a r a t h e r weak i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n a n x i e t y , and s e x f o r Mathematics i n t h e second y e a r .
test
T h u s , w e c a n c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e most d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t of t e s t a n x i e t y a n d e s p e c i a l l y of t h e w o r r y c o m p o n e n t , c a n be s e e n i n t h e groups w i t h a h i g h e r l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e . G r o u p s w i t h a lower l e v e l of i n t e l l i g e n c e p e r f o r m a t a lower l e v e l a n d seem t o be l e s s i n f l u e n c e d b y t e s t a n x i e t y a n d i t s components.
DISCUSSION The f i n d i n g s t h a t i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e t e s t a n x i e t y a nd i n t e l l i gence a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to achievement and secondly t h a t h i g h test a n x i o u s b o y s an d g i r l s a c h i e v e lower t h a n t h e i r low a n x i o u s c o u n t e r p a r t s are c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n s of p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t w a s f o u n d t h a t t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g e f f e c t s of h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y on p e r f o r m a n c e a r e n e s t e d i n t h e u p p e r r a n g e of intelligence. B o y s a n d g i r l s w i t h a lower l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a c h i e v e d l e s s an d were l e s s i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e i m p a i r i n g e f f e c t s o f test a n x i e t y . T h i s f i n d i n g was f o u n d a l s o b y Sharma a n d Rao ( 1 9 8 3 ) f o r a c u l t u r a l l y d i f f e r e n t g r o u p of f e m a l e p u p i l s i n I n d i a , and is c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e r e s u l t s r e p o r t e d b y Gau d r y a n d F i t z g e r a l d ( 1 9 7 1 ) o n A u s t r a l i a n h i g h s c h o o l b o y s an d g i r l s . t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e I n t h e g r o u p o f low i n t e l l i g e n t b o y s , w o r r y f a c t o r p r o d u c e s i n o u r s t u d y l a r g e r mean p e r f o r m a n c e d i s c r e p a n c i e s u p o n c o m p a r i n g low and h i g h t e s t a n x i o u s v e r s u s low a n d h i g h w o r r y i n g b o y s . Also, f o r low a s w e l l a s f o r h i g h i n t e l l i g e n t g i r l s t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e w o r r y c o m p o n e n t of test a n x i e t y p r o d u c e s somewhat l a r g e r d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n low a n d h i g h t e s t a n x i o u s v e r s u s low a n d h i g h w o r r y i n g g i r l s . W o r r y , a s a s e l f - r e l a t e d c o g n i t i o n , is of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of p e r f o r m a n c e i m p a i r m e n t , more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e ( g e n e r a l ) c o n c e p t o f t e s t a n x i e t y . T h i s c o g n i t i v e compon e n t i s h i g h l y r e l a t e d t o t h e d e b i l i t a t i n g effects o f h i g h t e s t a n x i e t y o n t h e academic b e h a v i o r o f p u p i l s i n t h e u p p e r range of i n t e l l i g e n c e . T h e s e h i g h i n t e l l i g e n t a n d h i g h a n x i o u s p u p i l s / s t u d e n t s may i m p r o v e a f t e r g e t t i n g r i d of t h e i r a n x i e t i e s , e v e n i f i t w o u l d be o n l y a s l i g h t p a r t of i t . B e s i d e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p r o g r a m s f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t an d h e l p of p u p i l s w i t h h i g h l e v e l s of w o r r y i n g , a l s o t h e i r s t u d y h a b i t s , t h e amount o f time s p e n t on t h e i r s t u d i e s , t h e i r social s t a n d a r d s as w e l l a s t h e i r v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n s and t h e i r p e r c e i v e d p a r e n t a l p r e s s u r e
124
H. M. van der Ploeg
t o s u c c e e d d e s e r v e our a t t e n t i o n . For some of t h e s e r e l a t i v e l y young p u p i l s t h e s e p a r e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s m u s t h a v e b e e n r a t h e r s t r e s s f u l , a n d may h a v e c a u s e d a l o t o f a n x i e t y a n d s e l f - r e l a t e d c o g n i t i o n s (Van d e r P l o e g - S t a p e r t a n d Van der Ploeg , 1984).
I n o u r f u r t h e r s t u d y of t h e t e s t a n x i e t y phe nom e non, b e s i d e s o t h e r b e f o r e mentioned r e l e v a n t v a r i a b l e s , w e want t o i n c l u d e these parental pressures. B e c a u s e i t i s most p r o b a b l e t h a t i n our ( D u t c h ) c u l t u r e p a r e n t s r e q u i r e d i f f e r e n t a c h i e v e m e n t s f r o m t h e i r s o n s t h a n t h e y d o from t h e i r d a u g h t e r s , a n d b e c a u s e ( t e s t ) a n x i e t y may be d i f f e r e n t i a l l y f e l t a n d r e p o r t e d , it is o f g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between b o y s and g i r l s i n t h e s t u d y of test a n x i e t y .