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Worrying, social problem-solving abilities, and social problem-solving confidence
Behav. Res. Ther. Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 327-330, 1994 Copyright Q 1994 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved OOOS-7967/94 $6.00 + 0.00
Pergamon
Worrying,
social problem-solving
abilities,
and social problem-solving
confidence
GRAHAM C. L. DAVEY Psychology
Department,
The City University,
Northampton
(Received 3 February
Square, London ECIV
OHB, England
1993)
Summary-This study investigated the relationship between worrying and two features of social problem solving: problem-solving ability and confidence. However, while levels of worrying were significantly related to both poor problem-solving confidence and poor perceived control over the problem-solving process, worrying was unrelated to problem-solving ability per se. The failure to find a relationship between worrying and social problem-solving skills was found separately at both low and high levels of worrying, and also when levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for. These results provide no support for the hypothesis that chronic worrying results from poor social problem-solving abilities, but the results are consistent with the belief that worrying is primarily an anxiety-related phenomenon with any problem-solving deficits occurring at the level of solution implementation rather than solution generation.
Recent studies of the phenomenon of worrying have begun to focus attention on the role that worrying might play in both normal and abnormal functioning. Initial studies have demonstrated that worrying is highly correlated with measures of trait anxiety (Davey, Hampton, Farrell & Davidson, 1992; Meyer, Miller, Metzger & Borkovec, 1990: Tallis, Eysenck & Mathews, 1991) state anxiety (Meyer et al., 1990; Metzger, Miller, Cohen, Sofka & Borkovec, 1990: Wisocki, Handen & Morse, 1986) and depression (Meyer et al., 1990; Metzger et al., 1990). There is also a clear link between worrying and a number of anxiety disorders. For example, worrying is an important defining feature of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (Barlow, Blanchard, Vermilyea, Vermilyea & DiNardo, 1986), and may be present to some extent in all of the DSM-III-R disorders (Barlow, 1988). Brown, Antony and Barlow (1992) found that scores on the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) distinguished GAD Ss from all other anxiety disorder patients, and also that patients diagnosed as suffering a variety of other anxiety disorders (panic disorder, panic disorder with agoraphobia, social phobia, simple phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder) also scored higher on worry than normal control Ss. Nevertheless, worrying is a term that is used in many different ways in a variety of different contexts: in its pathological form it is seen as an unwanted, uncontrollable, aversive cognitive activity associated with negative thoughts and some sense of emotional discomfort (cf Borkovec & Lyonfields, 1992; Borkovec, 1985). In other contexts it is seen as a constructive and appropriate task-oriented process that contributes to the solving of problems and the reduction of anxiety (e.g. the student who is about to take his/her exams may believe that it is necessary and appropriate to worry about them in order to foresee any future problems and perform well, Davey et al., 1992). The fact that the construct of worry has a number of paradoxical features was revealed in a study by Davey et al. (1992). They found that measures of worrying were highly correlated with a number of variables normally considered to be features of poor psychological functioning, including trait anxiety, avoidance coping, poor problem-solving confidence, responsibility for negative but not positive outcomes, and the tendency to define events as threats. However, once levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for in a partial correlation analysis, worrying was then significantly related to more constructive psychological factors such as problem-focussed coping and information seeking (see also Davey, 1993). Davey et al. (1992) hypothesized that these different features of worrying might represent the two conceptions of worrying, with the former representing the pathological, unwanted process and the latter representing the constructive, task-oriented process. In addition, they suggested that the two might be closely related in that pathological worrying might result from the thwarting of task-oriented worrying. Davey et al. (1992) went on to hypothesize that one of the ways in which task-oriented worrying might be thwarted is as a result of trait factors preventing the individual from accepting any solutions that worrying has generated. The Davey et al. study suggested that such trait factors might include poor problem-solving confidence, perceived lack of control over the problem-solving process, a tendency to seek further problems within problems (e.g. catastrophizing, Vasey & Borkovec, 1993), amongst others. All of these processes are highly correlated with trait anxiety, and trait anxiety is the best single representative of this cluster of features. Within this hypothesis, pathological worrying is generated because trait factors, such as those associated with trait anxiety, prevent the individual reaching a solution that is acceptable to them. This generates further worrying which initiates a worry-anxiety spiral. Currently, there is evidence to suggest that pathological worrying is highly correlated with measures of poor problem-solving confidence, and poor perceived control over the problem-solving process (Davey et al., 1992, Studies 1 and 3) and this is consistent with predictions from the thwarted problem-solving hypothesis. Furthermore, Tallis et al. (1991) have also found that during decision making worriers hold unrealistically high evidence expectations; that is, they require more evidence on which to base a decision, and as a result delay reaching decisions on problems when compared with nonworriers. One feature of the thwarted problem-solving hypothesis of pathological worrying that is not clear is whether thwarted problem-solving is associated with deficiencies in problem-solving ability per se, or merely poor problem-solving confidence. If it is merely the latter, then the implication is that worriers can reach as good a solution to a problem as nonworriers, but have less faith either in the solution or their ability to implement it. The present study is designed to investigate whether worrying is related to poor problem-solving abilities. Ss’ social problem-solving was assessed with the Means-Ends Problem-Solving (MEPS) inventory (Platt & Spivack, 1975). Scores on 327
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the MEPS were compared with measures of worry (the PSWQ, and the Worry Domains Questionnaire, WDQ), and trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1983) and also to a number of other constructs that have been shown previously to be directly associated with worrying (these include coping style, information-seeking style, and measures of problem-solving confidence, cf Davey e/ ul., 1992; Davey, 1993). METHOD
Subjects
The Ss were 82 students studying at an Open University Summer School. Their ages ranged from 21 to 68 years, with a mean age of 40.1 years. There were 28 males and 54 females. All Ss were volunteers who were not paid for their participation.
All Ss were given a questionnaire that consisted of seven sections: (1) The Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) (Endler & Parker, 1990) (2) The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) (Meyer et al., 1990), (3) The Worry Domains Questionnaire (WDQ) (Tallis, Eysenck & Mathews, 1992), (4) a measure of trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1983), (5) The Miller Behavioural Style Scale (MBSS) (Miller, 1987) (6) The Problem-Solving Inventory (PSI) (Heppner & Petersen, 1982), and (7) The Means-Ends Problem-Solving inventory (MEPS) (Platt & Spivack, 1975). CISS.This is a 48-item coping scale which measures coping on three sub-scales: task-oriented coping, emotional coping and avoidance coping. In particular, task-oriented coping measures the degree to which the individual approaches problems in a purposeful and adaptive way. PSWQ. This is a 16-item worry questionnaire designed to achieve a measure of the frequency and intensity of worrying in general. B’OQ. This is a 25item content-based worry questionnaire which yields a global worry score from 5 sub-scales or domains. These domains are relationships, lack of confidence, aimless future, work incompetence, and financial. This second worry measure was included because it gives an indication of the severity of worrying about a variety of subjects, and not just an individual indication of the severity of worry in general (as the PSWQ does). This is important because it allows an assessment of the relationship between problem-solving ability and worrying across a range of topics. Trail anxiety. Individual levels of trait anxiety were measured using Spielberger’s STAI Y-2 self-evaluation questionnaire. MESS. This consists of 4 hypothetical uncontrollable, stress-evoking situations (e.g. “vividly imagine that you are afraid of the dentist and have to get some dental work done”). Each scene is followed by 8 statements that represent different ways of dealing with the situation. Four of these statements are of a monitoring or information-seeking variety and 4 are of a blunting or information-avoiding variety. Ss are asked to indicate the statements that they think might apply to them. Three measures can be derived from this scale: (i) a total ‘monitoring’ score, (ii) a total ‘blunting’ score and (iii) a monitoring/blunting difference score which is determined by subtracting the blunting score from the monitoring score. The information-seeking cognitive style of monitoring has previously been shown to be significantly associated with worrying (Davey et al., 1992; Davey, 1993). PSI. The adaptation of this inventory used in the present study included 32 items which were rated on a 4-point scale. The PSI measures each of three problem-solving constructs: (i) problem-solving confidence (the individual’s confidence in engaging in a wide range of problem-solving activities), (ii) approach-avoidance style (whether an individual approaches or avoids different problem-solving activities), and (iii) personal control (the individual’s perception of their degree of control over their emotions and behaviours while problem-solving). Low scores on this inventory indicate behaviours and attitudes normally associated with adaptive problem-solving. MEPS. The MEPS was designed to provide a measure of real-life problem-solving ability by examining the individual’s ability to conceptualize step-by-step means (strategies) to achieving a goal. The S is presented with the beginning and the end of a problem and has to construct an appropriate story that will link the beginning and the end. In the present study a shortened version of the MEPS was used in which Ss were presented with 6 separate situations and asked to “make up a story that connects the beginning that is given to you with the ending given to you. In other words, you have to make up the middle of the story. It is important that the section of the story that you write makes the overall story coherent and sensible and represents an ideal strategy for overcoming the problem situation.” (Platt & Spivack, 1975, have shown that shortened versions of the MEPS are no less valid than the full IO-situation inventory.) Ss were asked to write at least one paragraph for each story. An example situation is “Mr A was listening to the people speak at a meeting about how to make things better in his neighbourhood. He wanted to say something important and have a chance to be a leader too. The story ends with him being elected leader and presenting a speech. You begin the story at the meeting where he wanted to have a chance to be a leader.” Ss’ responses to the situations depicted in the MEPS were scored on two dimensions: (i) relevant means and (ii) effectiveness. An individual ‘relevant mean’ is scored for each discrete step which is effective in enabling the hero of the story to reach the resolution stage of the story or to overcome an obstacle preventing the hero from reaching the goal of the story. A measure of the effectiveness of each response was also taken (after Marx, Williams & Claridge, 1992). Raters evaluated Ss’ strategies for their effectiveness on a 7-point scale, and a problem-solving strategy was considered to be effective if it maximized positive and minimized negative short- and long-term consequences, both personally and socially (cf D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971). The relevant means and effectiveness scores for all 6 situations were averaged to produce a single relevant means score and a single effectiveness score for each S. Two raters separately scored all Ss for both relevant means and effectiveness. The first rater was entirely independent of the study and had no prior knowledge of the experimental hypothesis. The interrater reliability for both scoring dimensions was very good with correlation coefficients of 0.79 for relevant means and 0.84 for effectiveness. Only scores from the first, independent rater were used in the eventual data analysis.
RESULTS
As with other studies of worrying, both PSWQ and WDQ scores were highly correlated with levels of trait anxiety (r = 0.66, P < 0.001 and r = 0.58, P < 0.001, respectively), with poor problem-solving confidence (r = 0.58, P < 0.001 and r = 0.47, P < 0.001, respectively), and with poor perceived personal control over the problem-solving process (r = 0.49,
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Table I. Correlations between MEPS ‘relevant means’ and ‘effectiveness’ scores and scores on the remainina auestionnaires Relevant means CISS Task-oriented Emotion-oriented Avoidance coping Worry questionnaires WDQ
PSWQ STAI Y-2 trau anxiety MBSS Monitoring Blunting Monitoring-blunting difference PSI Problem-solving confidence Approach-avoidance style Personal control
Table 2. Correlations
0.12 0.05 -0.09
0.18 0.08 0.09
0.05 0.05 0.07
0.15 0.04 0.08
0.12 0.02 0.06
-0.01 -0.30* 0.05
0.01 -0.29’ -0.10
between Hi and Lo worry scores and MEPS scores Relevant means
Effectiveness
0.29’ 0.1 I 0.02
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PSWQ Hi (N Lo (N WDQ Hi (N Lo (N
= 41) = 41)
0.08 0.21
= 41) = 41)
0.16 0.13
Effectiveness 0.04 0.03 -0.00 -0.12
*P i 0.01. Note that high scores on the PSI denote poor perceived problem-solving efficacy.
P < 0.001 and I = 0.45, P -C 0.001, respectively). In addition, scores on the WDQ were significantly correlated with a monitoring information-seeking style as measures by the MBSS (r = 0.33, P < 0.01) (cf Davey et al., 1992; Davey, 1993). Table 1 shows the correlation coefficients between the MEPS relevant means and effectiveness scores and scores on the other scales in the study. This shows that the only significant relationships between MEPS scores and the other scales in the study were between relevant means and task-oriented coping (r = 0.29) between relevant means and an approachoriented style to problem-solving activities (r = 0.30) and between effectiveness scores and an approach-oriented style to problem-solving activities (I = 0.29). There were no significant relationships between both worry measures and either relevant means or effectiveness. However, it is possible that at least two factors might have been masking any simple relationship between worrying and MEPS scores. First, the relationship between worrying and problem-solving ability might not be monotonic. For instance, at relatively low levels of worrying there may be a positive relationship between worrying and problem-solving ability which reflects the task-oriented nature of worrying that is found when trait anxiety levels are partialled out (cfDavey et al., 1992). In contrast, higher levels of worry may in fact be counterproductive by generating anxiety and negative cognitions that may interfere with effective problem-solving. The relationship between worrying and effective problem-solving may therefore follow a bitonic inverted U-shape function. In order to test this possibility both PSWQ and WDQ scores were subjected to a median split and correlations with MEPS scores calculated separately for the Hi and Lo groups (median scores were PSWQ = 41, WDQ = 57). Nevertheless, partitioning worry scores into high and low worrying groups still failed to result in any significant correlations with MEPS scores (see Table 2). Secondly, as Davey et al. (1992) hypothesized, worrying and trait anxiety may be essentially independent constructs, and it may be that levels of worrying per se reflect problem-solving abilities but that this relationship is masked by the disruptive influence of factors associated with trait anxiety (e.g. poor problem-solving confidence, perception of poor personal control over problem-solving, etc.). In order to assess this possibility partial correlations between worry scores and MEPS scores were calculated after levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for. However, even when trait anxiety was partialled out there was still no significant correlation between worry scores and MEPS scores (partial correlations: WDQ and relevant means, r = 0.15; WDQ and effectiveness, r = 0.01: PSWQ and relevant means, r = 0.02; PSWQ and effectiveness, r = 0.00; all Ps > 0.1).
DISCUSSION
The results of the present study suggest that there is no significant relationship, either positive or negative, between worrying and social problem-solving ability. The failure to discover any relationship between worrying and problem-solving ability was found separately at both high and low levels of worrying, and also when levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for. At a theoretical level these results do not provide any support for the hypothesis that increased levels of worrying might be caused by deficiencies in social problem-solving skills. These results are in contrast to the findings that worrying is highly related to poor problem-solving confidence and poor perceived control over the problem-solving process, In combination, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that pathological worrying is not generated by poor problem-solving skills per se, but by an individual’s lack of belief in the adequacy of their problem-solving abilities and their ability to implement solutions (cf Davey et al., 1992). However, MEPS scores were significantly related to two measures: task-oriented coping styles and an approach-oriented style to problem-solving activities. These are measures that one would intuitively expect problem-solving skills to be associated with, and these correlations provide some degree of confidence in the validity of the MEPS scores as measures of problem-solving ability. Interestingly, MEPS scores were not significantly related to either problem-solving confidence or the individual’s perception of the degree of control over their emotions and behaviours while problem solving (the problem-solving confidence and personal control sub-scales of the PSI). This suggests that the factors which determine the confidence an individual has in their solutions to social problems are largely independent of their actual ability to produce efficient solutions, The factors which determine problem-solving confidence may therefore reside independently in trait factors (such as trait anxiety, Davey et al., 1992) or as a tendency towards elevated evidence requirements for a successful solution (Tallis et al., 1991). The present results are also consistent with some theorizing by Marx et al. (1992) on the relationships between problem-solving capabilities and anxiety and depression. They found that a group of clinically anxious Ss scored
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significantly better on problem-solving skills than clinically depressed patients (although marginally worse than the nonclinical controls). They hypothesized that anxiety and depression may cause problem-solving deficits at different levels: depressed Ss appear to have difficulties in the earlier stages of problem solving which leads to ineffective solutions. whereas anxious Ss seem to have difficulties in the later stages-possibly at the levelof implementation of the solution. The fact that worrying is highly characteristic of all the anxiety disorders (Barlow, 1988; Brown et al., 1992), and that worrying is significantly associated with poor problem-solving confidence, and not poor problem-solving ability per se, adds further credibility to this hypothesis. Acknowledgemenfs-The author is grateful to Elizabeth Marx for providing advice and information about the MEPS, to David Potter for his diligent and devoted attention to the data analysis, and to the Open University for allowing access to their students as subjects for this study. REFERENCES Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiefy and its disorders. New York: Guilford Press. Barlow, D. H., Blanchard, E. B., Vermilyea, J. A., Vermilyea, D. B. & DiNardo, P. A. (1986). Generalized anxiety and generalized anxiety disorder: Description and reconceptualization. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 4044. Borkovec, T. D. (1985). Worry: A potentially valuable concept. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 481482. Borkovec T. D. & Lyonfields J. D. (1992). Worry: Thought suppression of emotional processing. In Krohne, H. W. (Ed.), Vigilance and avoidance. Toronto: Hogrefre & Huber. Brown, T. A., Antony, M. M. & Barlow, D. H. (1992). Psychometric properties of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire in a clinical anxiety disorders sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 33-31. Davey, G. C. L. (1993). A comparison of three worry questionnaires. Behauiour Research and Therapy, 31, 51-56. Davey, G. C. L., Hampton, J., Farrell, J. & Davidson, S. (1992). Some characteristics of worrying: Evidence for worrying and anxiety as separate constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 133-147. D’Zurilla, T. J. & Goldfried, M. R. (1971). Problem-solving and behaviour modification. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78, 1077126. Endler, N. S. & Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Miltidimensional assessment of coping: A critical evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 844854. Heppner, P. P. & Petersen, C. H. (1982). The development and implications of a personal problem-solving inventory. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 6675. Marx, E. M., Williams, J. M. G. & Claridge, G. C. (1992). Depression and social problem solving. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 78-86. Metzger, R. L., Miller, M. L., Cohen, M., Sofka, M. & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Worry changes decision making: The effect of negative thoughts on cognitive processing. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 78888. Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L. & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 487495. Miller, S. M. (1987). Monitoring and blunting: validation of a questionnaire to assess styles of information-seeking under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 487495. Platt, J. J. & Spivack, G. (1975). Unidimensionality of the Means-Ends Problem-Solving (MEPS) procedure. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 15-16. Spielberger, C. C. (1983). Srate-traif Anxiefy Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Tallis, F., Eysenck, M. & Mathews, A. (1991). Elevated evidence requirements and worry. Personalify and Individual D@erences, 12, 21-27. Tallis, F., Eysenck, M. & Mathews, A. (1992). A questionnaire for the measurement of nonpathological worry. Personality and Individual Dl@erences, 13, 161-168. Vasey, M. & Borkovec, T. D. (1992). A catastrophizing assessment of worrisome thoughts. Cognitive Therapy and Research. In press. Wisocki, P. A., Handen, B. & Morse, C. K. (1986). The worry scale as a measure of anxiety among homebound and community elderly. Behavior Therapist, 5, 91-95.
Pergamon
Worrying,
social problem-solving
abilities,
and social problem-solving
confidence
GRAHAM C. L. DAVEY Psychology
Department,
The City University,
Northampton
(Received 3 February
Square, London ECIV
OHB, England
1993)
Summary-This study investigated the relationship between worrying and two features of social problem solving: problem-solving ability and confidence. However, while levels of worrying were significantly related to both poor problem-solving confidence and poor perceived control over the problem-solving process, worrying was unrelated to problem-solving ability per se. The failure to find a relationship between worrying and social problem-solving skills was found separately at both low and high levels of worrying, and also when levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for. These results provide no support for the hypothesis that chronic worrying results from poor social problem-solving abilities, but the results are consistent with the belief that worrying is primarily an anxiety-related phenomenon with any problem-solving deficits occurring at the level of solution implementation rather than solution generation.
Recent studies of the phenomenon of worrying have begun to focus attention on the role that worrying might play in both normal and abnormal functioning. Initial studies have demonstrated that worrying is highly correlated with measures of trait anxiety (Davey, Hampton, Farrell & Davidson, 1992; Meyer, Miller, Metzger & Borkovec, 1990: Tallis, Eysenck & Mathews, 1991) state anxiety (Meyer et al., 1990; Metzger, Miller, Cohen, Sofka & Borkovec, 1990: Wisocki, Handen & Morse, 1986) and depression (Meyer et al., 1990; Metzger et al., 1990). There is also a clear link between worrying and a number of anxiety disorders. For example, worrying is an important defining feature of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (Barlow, Blanchard, Vermilyea, Vermilyea & DiNardo, 1986), and may be present to some extent in all of the DSM-III-R disorders (Barlow, 1988). Brown, Antony and Barlow (1992) found that scores on the Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) distinguished GAD Ss from all other anxiety disorder patients, and also that patients diagnosed as suffering a variety of other anxiety disorders (panic disorder, panic disorder with agoraphobia, social phobia, simple phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder) also scored higher on worry than normal control Ss. Nevertheless, worrying is a term that is used in many different ways in a variety of different contexts: in its pathological form it is seen as an unwanted, uncontrollable, aversive cognitive activity associated with negative thoughts and some sense of emotional discomfort (cf Borkovec & Lyonfields, 1992; Borkovec, 1985). In other contexts it is seen as a constructive and appropriate task-oriented process that contributes to the solving of problems and the reduction of anxiety (e.g. the student who is about to take his/her exams may believe that it is necessary and appropriate to worry about them in order to foresee any future problems and perform well, Davey et al., 1992). The fact that the construct of worry has a number of paradoxical features was revealed in a study by Davey et al. (1992). They found that measures of worrying were highly correlated with a number of variables normally considered to be features of poor psychological functioning, including trait anxiety, avoidance coping, poor problem-solving confidence, responsibility for negative but not positive outcomes, and the tendency to define events as threats. However, once levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for in a partial correlation analysis, worrying was then significantly related to more constructive psychological factors such as problem-focussed coping and information seeking (see also Davey, 1993). Davey et al. (1992) hypothesized that these different features of worrying might represent the two conceptions of worrying, with the former representing the pathological, unwanted process and the latter representing the constructive, task-oriented process. In addition, they suggested that the two might be closely related in that pathological worrying might result from the thwarting of task-oriented worrying. Davey et al. (1992) went on to hypothesize that one of the ways in which task-oriented worrying might be thwarted is as a result of trait factors preventing the individual from accepting any solutions that worrying has generated. The Davey et al. study suggested that such trait factors might include poor problem-solving confidence, perceived lack of control over the problem-solving process, a tendency to seek further problems within problems (e.g. catastrophizing, Vasey & Borkovec, 1993), amongst others. All of these processes are highly correlated with trait anxiety, and trait anxiety is the best single representative of this cluster of features. Within this hypothesis, pathological worrying is generated because trait factors, such as those associated with trait anxiety, prevent the individual reaching a solution that is acceptable to them. This generates further worrying which initiates a worry-anxiety spiral. Currently, there is evidence to suggest that pathological worrying is highly correlated with measures of poor problem-solving confidence, and poor perceived control over the problem-solving process (Davey et al., 1992, Studies 1 and 3) and this is consistent with predictions from the thwarted problem-solving hypothesis. Furthermore, Tallis et al. (1991) have also found that during decision making worriers hold unrealistically high evidence expectations; that is, they require more evidence on which to base a decision, and as a result delay reaching decisions on problems when compared with nonworriers. One feature of the thwarted problem-solving hypothesis of pathological worrying that is not clear is whether thwarted problem-solving is associated with deficiencies in problem-solving ability per se, or merely poor problem-solving confidence. If it is merely the latter, then the implication is that worriers can reach as good a solution to a problem as nonworriers, but have less faith either in the solution or their ability to implement it. The present study is designed to investigate whether worrying is related to poor problem-solving abilities. Ss’ social problem-solving was assessed with the Means-Ends Problem-Solving (MEPS) inventory (Platt & Spivack, 1975). Scores on 327
328
CASE HISTORIES AND SHORTER
COMMUNlCATIONS
the MEPS were compared with measures of worry (the PSWQ, and the Worry Domains Questionnaire, WDQ), and trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1983) and also to a number of other constructs that have been shown previously to be directly associated with worrying (these include coping style, information-seeking style, and measures of problem-solving confidence, cf Davey e/ ul., 1992; Davey, 1993). METHOD
Subjects
The Ss were 82 students studying at an Open University Summer School. Their ages ranged from 21 to 68 years, with a mean age of 40.1 years. There were 28 males and 54 females. All Ss were volunteers who were not paid for their participation.
All Ss were given a questionnaire that consisted of seven sections: (1) The Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) (Endler & Parker, 1990) (2) The Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ) (Meyer et al., 1990), (3) The Worry Domains Questionnaire (WDQ) (Tallis, Eysenck & Mathews, 1992), (4) a measure of trait anxiety (Spielberger, 1983), (5) The Miller Behavioural Style Scale (MBSS) (Miller, 1987) (6) The Problem-Solving Inventory (PSI) (Heppner & Petersen, 1982), and (7) The Means-Ends Problem-Solving inventory (MEPS) (Platt & Spivack, 1975). CISS.This is a 48-item coping scale which measures coping on three sub-scales: task-oriented coping, emotional coping and avoidance coping. In particular, task-oriented coping measures the degree to which the individual approaches problems in a purposeful and adaptive way. PSWQ. This is a 16-item worry questionnaire designed to achieve a measure of the frequency and intensity of worrying in general. B’OQ. This is a 25item content-based worry questionnaire which yields a global worry score from 5 sub-scales or domains. These domains are relationships, lack of confidence, aimless future, work incompetence, and financial. This second worry measure was included because it gives an indication of the severity of worrying about a variety of subjects, and not just an individual indication of the severity of worry in general (as the PSWQ does). This is important because it allows an assessment of the relationship between problem-solving ability and worrying across a range of topics. Trail anxiety. Individual levels of trait anxiety were measured using Spielberger’s STAI Y-2 self-evaluation questionnaire. MESS. This consists of 4 hypothetical uncontrollable, stress-evoking situations (e.g. “vividly imagine that you are afraid of the dentist and have to get some dental work done”). Each scene is followed by 8 statements that represent different ways of dealing with the situation. Four of these statements are of a monitoring or information-seeking variety and 4 are of a blunting or information-avoiding variety. Ss are asked to indicate the statements that they think might apply to them. Three measures can be derived from this scale: (i) a total ‘monitoring’ score, (ii) a total ‘blunting’ score and (iii) a monitoring/blunting difference score which is determined by subtracting the blunting score from the monitoring score. The information-seeking cognitive style of monitoring has previously been shown to be significantly associated with worrying (Davey et al., 1992; Davey, 1993). PSI. The adaptation of this inventory used in the present study included 32 items which were rated on a 4-point scale. The PSI measures each of three problem-solving constructs: (i) problem-solving confidence (the individual’s confidence in engaging in a wide range of problem-solving activities), (ii) approach-avoidance style (whether an individual approaches or avoids different problem-solving activities), and (iii) personal control (the individual’s perception of their degree of control over their emotions and behaviours while problem-solving). Low scores on this inventory indicate behaviours and attitudes normally associated with adaptive problem-solving. MEPS. The MEPS was designed to provide a measure of real-life problem-solving ability by examining the individual’s ability to conceptualize step-by-step means (strategies) to achieving a goal. The S is presented with the beginning and the end of a problem and has to construct an appropriate story that will link the beginning and the end. In the present study a shortened version of the MEPS was used in which Ss were presented with 6 separate situations and asked to “make up a story that connects the beginning that is given to you with the ending given to you. In other words, you have to make up the middle of the story. It is important that the section of the story that you write makes the overall story coherent and sensible and represents an ideal strategy for overcoming the problem situation.” (Platt & Spivack, 1975, have shown that shortened versions of the MEPS are no less valid than the full IO-situation inventory.) Ss were asked to write at least one paragraph for each story. An example situation is “Mr A was listening to the people speak at a meeting about how to make things better in his neighbourhood. He wanted to say something important and have a chance to be a leader too. The story ends with him being elected leader and presenting a speech. You begin the story at the meeting where he wanted to have a chance to be a leader.” Ss’ responses to the situations depicted in the MEPS were scored on two dimensions: (i) relevant means and (ii) effectiveness. An individual ‘relevant mean’ is scored for each discrete step which is effective in enabling the hero of the story to reach the resolution stage of the story or to overcome an obstacle preventing the hero from reaching the goal of the story. A measure of the effectiveness of each response was also taken (after Marx, Williams & Claridge, 1992). Raters evaluated Ss’ strategies for their effectiveness on a 7-point scale, and a problem-solving strategy was considered to be effective if it maximized positive and minimized negative short- and long-term consequences, both personally and socially (cf D’Zurilla & Goldfried, 1971). The relevant means and effectiveness scores for all 6 situations were averaged to produce a single relevant means score and a single effectiveness score for each S. Two raters separately scored all Ss for both relevant means and effectiveness. The first rater was entirely independent of the study and had no prior knowledge of the experimental hypothesis. The interrater reliability for both scoring dimensions was very good with correlation coefficients of 0.79 for relevant means and 0.84 for effectiveness. Only scores from the first, independent rater were used in the eventual data analysis.
RESULTS
As with other studies of worrying, both PSWQ and WDQ scores were highly correlated with levels of trait anxiety (r = 0.66, P < 0.001 and r = 0.58, P < 0.001, respectively), with poor problem-solving confidence (r = 0.58, P < 0.001 and r = 0.47, P < 0.001, respectively), and with poor perceived personal control over the problem-solving process (r = 0.49,
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Table I. Correlations between MEPS ‘relevant means’ and ‘effectiveness’ scores and scores on the remainina auestionnaires Relevant means CISS Task-oriented Emotion-oriented Avoidance coping Worry questionnaires WDQ
PSWQ STAI Y-2 trau anxiety MBSS Monitoring Blunting Monitoring-blunting difference PSI Problem-solving confidence Approach-avoidance style Personal control
Table 2. Correlations
0.12 0.05 -0.09
0.18 0.08 0.09
0.05 0.05 0.07
0.15 0.04 0.08
0.12 0.02 0.06
-0.01 -0.30* 0.05
0.01 -0.29’ -0.10
between Hi and Lo worry scores and MEPS scores Relevant means
Effectiveness
0.29’ 0.1 I 0.02
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PSWQ Hi (N Lo (N WDQ Hi (N Lo (N
= 41) = 41)
0.08 0.21
= 41) = 41)
0.16 0.13
Effectiveness 0.04 0.03 -0.00 -0.12
*P i 0.01. Note that high scores on the PSI denote poor perceived problem-solving efficacy.
P < 0.001 and I = 0.45, P -C 0.001, respectively). In addition, scores on the WDQ were significantly correlated with a monitoring information-seeking style as measures by the MBSS (r = 0.33, P < 0.01) (cf Davey et al., 1992; Davey, 1993). Table 1 shows the correlation coefficients between the MEPS relevant means and effectiveness scores and scores on the other scales in the study. This shows that the only significant relationships between MEPS scores and the other scales in the study were between relevant means and task-oriented coping (r = 0.29) between relevant means and an approachoriented style to problem-solving activities (r = 0.30) and between effectiveness scores and an approach-oriented style to problem-solving activities (I = 0.29). There were no significant relationships between both worry measures and either relevant means or effectiveness. However, it is possible that at least two factors might have been masking any simple relationship between worrying and MEPS scores. First, the relationship between worrying and problem-solving ability might not be monotonic. For instance, at relatively low levels of worrying there may be a positive relationship between worrying and problem-solving ability which reflects the task-oriented nature of worrying that is found when trait anxiety levels are partialled out (cfDavey et al., 1992). In contrast, higher levels of worry may in fact be counterproductive by generating anxiety and negative cognitions that may interfere with effective problem-solving. The relationship between worrying and effective problem-solving may therefore follow a bitonic inverted U-shape function. In order to test this possibility both PSWQ and WDQ scores were subjected to a median split and correlations with MEPS scores calculated separately for the Hi and Lo groups (median scores were PSWQ = 41, WDQ = 57). Nevertheless, partitioning worry scores into high and low worrying groups still failed to result in any significant correlations with MEPS scores (see Table 2). Secondly, as Davey et al. (1992) hypothesized, worrying and trait anxiety may be essentially independent constructs, and it may be that levels of worrying per se reflect problem-solving abilities but that this relationship is masked by the disruptive influence of factors associated with trait anxiety (e.g. poor problem-solving confidence, perception of poor personal control over problem-solving, etc.). In order to assess this possibility partial correlations between worry scores and MEPS scores were calculated after levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for. However, even when trait anxiety was partialled out there was still no significant correlation between worry scores and MEPS scores (partial correlations: WDQ and relevant means, r = 0.15; WDQ and effectiveness, r = 0.01: PSWQ and relevant means, r = 0.02; PSWQ and effectiveness, r = 0.00; all Ps > 0.1).
DISCUSSION
The results of the present study suggest that there is no significant relationship, either positive or negative, between worrying and social problem-solving ability. The failure to discover any relationship between worrying and problem-solving ability was found separately at both high and low levels of worrying, and also when levels of trait anxiety had been controlled for. At a theoretical level these results do not provide any support for the hypothesis that increased levels of worrying might be caused by deficiencies in social problem-solving skills. These results are in contrast to the findings that worrying is highly related to poor problem-solving confidence and poor perceived control over the problem-solving process, In combination, these findings are consistent with the hypothesis that pathological worrying is not generated by poor problem-solving skills per se, but by an individual’s lack of belief in the adequacy of their problem-solving abilities and their ability to implement solutions (cf Davey et al., 1992). However, MEPS scores were significantly related to two measures: task-oriented coping styles and an approach-oriented style to problem-solving activities. These are measures that one would intuitively expect problem-solving skills to be associated with, and these correlations provide some degree of confidence in the validity of the MEPS scores as measures of problem-solving ability. Interestingly, MEPS scores were not significantly related to either problem-solving confidence or the individual’s perception of the degree of control over their emotions and behaviours while problem solving (the problem-solving confidence and personal control sub-scales of the PSI). This suggests that the factors which determine the confidence an individual has in their solutions to social problems are largely independent of their actual ability to produce efficient solutions, The factors which determine problem-solving confidence may therefore reside independently in trait factors (such as trait anxiety, Davey et al., 1992) or as a tendency towards elevated evidence requirements for a successful solution (Tallis et al., 1991). The present results are also consistent with some theorizing by Marx et al. (1992) on the relationships between problem-solving capabilities and anxiety and depression. They found that a group of clinically anxious Ss scored
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significantly better on problem-solving skills than clinically depressed patients (although marginally worse than the nonclinical controls). They hypothesized that anxiety and depression may cause problem-solving deficits at different levels: depressed Ss appear to have difficulties in the earlier stages of problem solving which leads to ineffective solutions. whereas anxious Ss seem to have difficulties in the later stages-possibly at the levelof implementation of the solution. The fact that worrying is highly characteristic of all the anxiety disorders (Barlow, 1988; Brown et al., 1992), and that worrying is significantly associated with poor problem-solving confidence, and not poor problem-solving ability per se, adds further credibility to this hypothesis. Acknowledgemenfs-The author is grateful to Elizabeth Marx for providing advice and information about the MEPS, to David Potter for his diligent and devoted attention to the data analysis, and to the Open University for allowing access to their students as subjects for this study. REFERENCES Barlow, D. H. (1988). Anxiefy and its disorders. New York: Guilford Press. Barlow, D. H., Blanchard, E. B., Vermilyea, J. A., Vermilyea, D. B. & DiNardo, P. A. (1986). Generalized anxiety and generalized anxiety disorder: Description and reconceptualization. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 4044. Borkovec, T. D. (1985). Worry: A potentially valuable concept. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 23, 481482. Borkovec T. D. & Lyonfields J. D. (1992). Worry: Thought suppression of emotional processing. In Krohne, H. W. (Ed.), Vigilance and avoidance. Toronto: Hogrefre & Huber. Brown, T. A., Antony, M. M. & Barlow, D. H. (1992). Psychometric properties of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire in a clinical anxiety disorders sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 30, 33-31. Davey, G. C. L. (1993). A comparison of three worry questionnaires. Behauiour Research and Therapy, 31, 51-56. Davey, G. C. L., Hampton, J., Farrell, J. & Davidson, S. (1992). Some characteristics of worrying: Evidence for worrying and anxiety as separate constructs. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 133-147. D’Zurilla, T. J. & Goldfried, M. R. (1971). Problem-solving and behaviour modification. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 78, 1077126. Endler, N. S. & Parker, J. D. A. (1990). Miltidimensional assessment of coping: A critical evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 844854. Heppner, P. P. & Petersen, C. H. (1982). The development and implications of a personal problem-solving inventory. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 29, 6675. Marx, E. M., Williams, J. M. G. & Claridge, G. C. (1992). Depression and social problem solving. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 101, 78-86. Metzger, R. L., Miller, M. L., Cohen, M., Sofka, M. & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Worry changes decision making: The effect of negative thoughts on cognitive processing. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 46, 78888. Meyer, T. J., Miller, M. L., Metzger, R. L. & Borkovec, T. D. (1990). Development and validation of the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 28, 487495. Miller, S. M. (1987). Monitoring and blunting: validation of a questionnaire to assess styles of information-seeking under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 487495. Platt, J. J. & Spivack, G. (1975). Unidimensionality of the Means-Ends Problem-Solving (MEPS) procedure. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 31, 15-16. Spielberger, C. C. (1983). Srate-traif Anxiefy Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press. Tallis, F., Eysenck, M. & Mathews, A. (1991). Elevated evidence requirements and worry. Personalify and Individual D@erences, 12, 21-27. Tallis, F., Eysenck, M. & Mathews, A. (1992). A questionnaire for the measurement of nonpathological worry. Personality and Individual Dl@erences, 13, 161-168. Vasey, M. & Borkovec, T. D. (1992). A catastrophizing assessment of worrisome thoughts. Cognitive Therapy and Research. In press. Wisocki, P. A., Handen, B. & Morse, C. K. (1986). The worry scale as a measure of anxiety among homebound and community elderly. Behavior Therapist, 5, 91-95.