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Body composition and fat distribution among older Jat females: A rural–urban comparison
HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology 62 (2011) 374–385
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Body composition and fat distribution among older Jat females: A rural–urban comparison Maninder Kaur a,∗, Indu Talwar b a b
Department of Home Science, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 17 September 2009 Accepted 20 May 2010
a b s t r a c t The aim of the present cross-sectional study is to describe and compare age related changes in body composition and fat patterning among rural and urban Jat females of Haryana State, India. A total of 600 females (rural = 300, urban = 300), ranging in age from 40 to 70 years were selected by the purposive sampling method. Body weight, height, two circumferences (waist and hip) and skinfold thickness at five different sites (biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) were taken on each participant. To study total adiposity, indices such as body mass index (BMI), grand mean thickness (GMT), total body fat and percentage fat were analyzed statistically. The fat distribution pattern was studied using waist/hip ratio, subscapular/triceps ratio and responsiveness of five skinfold sites towards accumulation of fat at different sites with advancing age. Results indicate a decline in almost every dimension including level of fatness between the mid-fourth and mid-fifth decades of life in both rural and urban females. Urban Jat females were heavier (57.36 kg vs. 56.07 kg, p > 0.05) and significantly taller (1553.3 mm vs. 1534.5 mm, p < 0.001) than their rural counterparts. Urban females also exhibited higher mean values for both the circumferences, five skinfold thicknesses as well as for lean body mass, total fat and percentage fat than the rural females. This is also evident from their higher mean values for body mass index and grand mean thickness. Waist/hip ratio values in rural and urban females showed upper body fat predominance, with urban females
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 09466555333. E-mail address: maninderkaur [email protected] (M. Kaur). 0018-442X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2010.05.004
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having relatively more abdominal fat. Results of subscapular/triceps ratio showed that rural and urban females gained proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat at trunk and extremity sites until 45 years of age. Subsequently trunk skinfolds increased relatively more in thickness. The magnitude of this increase was comparatively greater in rural females up to 55 years and among urban females from 55 to 70 years. The profiles of subcutaneous fat accumulation and sensitivity of each skinfold site also revealed more fat deposition in the trunk region compared to extremities in both rural and urban females. The present study demonstrated differential rates of fat redistribution among rural and urban females. © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
Introduction Body composition changes attributable to aging are characterized by a progressive reduction in fat free mass and an increase in fat mass (Baumgartner et al., 1995; Zamboni et al., 2003). Both these age-related body composition changes seem to be independently associated with an increased risk of functional limitation (Janssen et al., 2002; Sternfeld et al., 2002). Fat redistributes centrally, with increases in waist circumference thought to reflect increases in visceral fat with age (Borkan et al., 1985). Even if weight is stable, people tend to become fatter with age as muscle mass diminishes and is replaced by fat (Gallagher et al., 2000). The remaining muscle may be infiltrated by fat (Goodpaster et al., 2000). There is a loss of bone mass from a peak in the early 20s. From these changes have come important hypotheses regarding the contribution of each of these components of body composition to health. Data on body composition allow a more direct assessment of the contribution to health of fat and lean body mass. Body composition and fat patterning are under the influence of genetic factors and can be modulated by age, sex, nutrition and several cultural and socio-economic factors present in the environment. There are various ways to study the distribution of body fat, for example (i) by centripetal fat ratio or trunk–extremity ratio, (ii) by combining waist/hip ratio and skinfold ratios (Fiori et al., 2000), (iii) by principal component analysis on a set of skinfolds (Mueller and Reid, 1979; Ramirez and Mueller, 1980), (iv) from the residual of the regression of each log transformed skinfold on the mean log transformed fatness, which in human females is linked to fertility (Brown and Konner, 1987; Norgan, 1997), female ovarian function being particularly sensitive to energy balance and energy flux (Ellison, 2003). Unfortunately, there is paucity of knowledge on body composition and fat patterning among aged and elderly people especially on females in India (Bagga and Sakaurkar, 2003; Ghosh, 2004; Tyagi et al., 2005). In almost every country both the number as well as proportion of older persons is growing faster than any other age group. By 2025, the number of older women is expected to rise from 107 to 373 million in Asia (World Health Organization, 1998). The aim of the present study is to describe and compare age related changes in body composition and body fat distribution pattern in Jat females from rural and urban area of Haryana State of India. For these women, data of a similar nature are completely non-existent. Materials and methods Study site and participants Haryana is a state in northwest India. The natural boundaries are the Shivalik hills in the north, the river Yamuna in the east and the river Ghaggar in the west. The southwestern boundary is provided by the range of Aravalli hills, which run through southern Delhi and the Gurgaon district up to Alwar. The people of Haryana belong to the Indo-Aryan type and in parts to the Indo-Dravidian type. Haryana’s population comprises a number of castes (jatis) i.e. Brahmins, Rajputs, Jats and Ahirs. The Jats occupy a prominent place in Haryana, being the single largest group in the region. The main sub-castes (gotras)
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Table 1 General information and dietary habits of rural and urban Jat females. Rural females
Education Educated Un-educated Occupation Working Housewife Type of diet Vegetarian Non-vegetarian Frequency of consumption 2 times/day 3 times/day 4 times/day
Urban females
N
%
N
%
159 141
53 47
210 90
70 30
45 255
15 85
102 198
34 66
285 15
95 5
276 24
92 8
207 90 3
69 30 1
105 186 9
35 62 3
within Jats are Ahlawat, Dahiya, Dalal, Deswal, Dhanda, Hooda, Jaglian, Jakhar, Lamba, Kadian, Malik, and Sahrawat. All the females in the present study belong to one endogamous group, that is to the Jats of Haryana. The rural and urban sub-groups of the Jat population have the same broad genetic constitution, but they have been exposed to different environment settings. Jats in the urban area were mainly engaged in trade, commerce, government, and private jobs. Most of the families residing in the rural area were engaged in agriculture. The Jat people in Haryana are conservative and they continue to follow old practices as a matter of routine and custom. Village girls cover their heads, while daughters-inlaw cover their faces in the presence of elderly persons in the house or outside. With the spread of education, social barriers against the urban females are rapidly collapsing, so their position is becoming better than that of rural females. Both rural and urban Jat females of the present study were mainly vegetarian (Table 1). Daily intake of fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products were below the recommended level in both the rural and urban Jat females. Literacy rate was very low among Jat females in Haryana State and most of the elderly women were illiterate. The present study demonstrated that mean and median age at natural menopause of rural Jat females was 48.19 ± 1.53 years and 49.11 ± 2.31 years respectively, while among urban Jat females it was 49.38 ± 1.94 years and 49.92 ± 2.66 years, respectively. Thus, urban females experienced menopause at a later age as compared to their rural counterparts. All the participants were of middle socio-ecomomic status as assessed by their annual income ranging from 90,000 to 140,000 rupees. Data collection The fieldwork for the present investigation was carried out in the year 2006 and 2007 in rural and urban areas of Haryana (North India) (Fig. 1). A cross-sectional sample of 300 rural and equal numbers of urban women in the age range of 40–70 years was studied. For administrative purposes, 21 districts of Haryana State are grouped into four divisions Ambala, Gurgaon, Hissar, Rohtak. Seventyfive rural and equal numbers of urban participants were selected from each division by the purposive sampling method. Females with an unusual gynecological history, kidney or liver disease, organ transplant/estrogen replacement therapy, physical deformity, or chronic illness as well as lactating and pregnant females were excluded from the study. All the rural and urban participants were stratified into six age groups: 40–45 years, 46–50 years, 51–55 years, 56–60 years, 61–65 years, and 66–70 years. Age in years had been obtained from the date of birth, which most of the urban females could recall, whereas in majority of rural females and some aged urban women age had to be ascertained by association with some important socio-cultural and historical events. With this cross-questioning, it was possible to ascertain fairly accurately the correct age of the person.
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Fig. 1. Map indicating the location of study area (Haryana).
A total of 600 Jat females were measured for nine anthropometric variables such as height, weight, waist circumference, hip circumference, biceps skinfold, triceps skinfold, calf skinfold, subscapular skinfold, supra-iliac skinfold. Height and weight were measured by anthropometer and weighing machine respectively. Waist circumference and hip circumferences of each subject were measured with a Freeman’s steel tape. All the skinfold thicknesses were measured using a Harpenden skinfold caliper. Standard techniques as recommended by Weiner and Lourie (1981) were employed for taking various measurements. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as the ratio of weight in kilograms to the height in metres squared. Waist–hip ratio (WHR) was calculated by dividing waist circumference by hip circumference. Grand mean thickness (GMT) was computed by dividing the sum of all skinfold measurements by the number of sites measured to visualize the overall fatness. The subcutaneous fat distribution was assessed by subscapular/triceps ratio. Responsiveness of the five skinfold sites towards deposition of fat was studied by expressing each skinfold thickness as a percent age of GMT. For the estimation of percentage body fat (BF%), density was calculated by the method of Durnin and Womersley (1974) for different age groups. The calculated body density was converted into percentage body fat following the equation given by Siri (1956). All statistical analyses were undertaken using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0. Student’s t-test was used to determine significance of rural–urban differences at the level of p < 0.05(*), p < 0.01(**), p < 0.001(***). Results Table 2 presents mean and standard deviation values for height, weight, waist circumference, and hip circumference of rural and urban Jat females. The highest mean value for height at 40–45years was 1580.3 mm in rural and 1586.0 mm in urban females, whereafter, a regular decline was noticed at all successive age groups under study until it reached 1494.6 mm in rural and 1524.2 mm in urban females. Rural females were found to be shorter than urban females at all age levels, but statistically significant (p < 0.001) differences were found only in age groups from 56 to 60 years to 66 to 70 years. Maximum mean value for weight was observed at 46–50 years (59.20 kg) in rural and 51–55 years (60.64 kg) in urban females followed by a decline in their mean values. Urban females were heavier than rural females at all ages but t-values revealed statistically non-significant differences at all age levels. Beginning with an initial mean value of 803.7 mm in rural and 827.6 mm in urban females, waist circumference increased until 46–50 years, thereafter a regular decrease set into finally reach its minimum mean value in the age group 66–70 years in both the rural and urban females (Table 2). A slow and regular growth of hip circumference was registered until 46–50 years (910.7 mm) in rural
378
Table 2 Mean and standard deviation values of anthropometric variables of rural and urban Jat females.
40–45 Rural Urban t-Value 46–50 Rural Urban t-Value 51–55 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value Total Rural Urban ***
Significance at p < 0.001.
N
Waist circumference (mm)
Hip circumference (mm)
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
Mean
SD
50 50
1580.3 1586.0 −0.62
50.2 40.2
58.56 59.34 −0.38
11.46 8.49
803.7 827.6 −1.44
87.9 77.3
902.2 904.9 −0.13
71.1 120.1
50 50
1571.3 1582.3 −0.74
59.3 60.9
59.20 59.68 −0.22
6.67 13.37
815.5 831.0
86.7 74.8
910.7 920.2
119.0 98.3
50 50
1537.0 1556.3 −1.84
53.5 50.9
58.26 60.64 −1.29
6.68 11.10
800.1 820.5 −1.20
53.2 107.5
907.0 923.9 −0.92
65.6 111.3
50 50
1523.6 1550.8 −2.92***
46.2 46.8
55.5 56.92 −1.07
6.29 6.95
799.0 803.3 −0.33
53.9 71.2
901.0 910.4 −0.48
94.2 98.7
50 50
1500.5 1540.0 −4.15***
38.4 55.2
54.00 55.00 −0.50
9.77 10.01
785.4 799.5 −0.76
77.6 104.1
892.5 901.9 −0.39
95.3 137.2
50 50
1494.6 1524.2 −3.04***
53.8 42.7
50.88 52.60 −0.93
9.02 9.41
784.1 797.4 −0.78
71.6 95.1
883.9 894.5 −0.55
82.0 107.1
1534.5 1553.3
59.8 53.1
56.07 57.36
8.96 10.41
798.0 813.2
73.4 89.8
899.5 909.3
89.3 112.4
300 300
Height (mm)
Weight (kg)
SD
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Table 3 Mean and standard deviation values of biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular and supra-iliac skinfold (mm) of rural and urban Jat females. Age group (years)
N
Skinfold Biceps
40–45 Rural Urban t-Value 46–50 Rural Urban t-Value 51–55 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value Total Rural Urban t-Value ** ***
Subscapular
Supra-iliac
Mean
SD
Triceps Mean
SD
Calf Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
50 50
18.96 19.98 −1.48
3.11 3.73
23.44 24.02 −0.78
3.90 3.51
24.50 25.04 −0.57
4.70 4.62
31.56 32.26 −0.74
5.54 3.70
25.30 26.52 −1.58
4.40 3.20
50 50
18.48 18.76
2.97 2.47
21.34 22.52
2.89 5.28
22.84 24.60
3.84 5.61
31.38 31.70
4.59 5.42
24.86 25.44
4.73 4.69
50 50
16.88 17.54 −1.21
2.17 3.17
20.50 21.84 −2.07
3.01 3.42
21.88 22.96 −1.58
3.36 3.44
29.38 30.84 −1.90
4.49 3.02
23.76 24.52 −1.05
3.84 3.37
50 50
15.50 15.75 −0.18
2.33 3.13
19.50 19.12 0.65
3.14 2.60
20.46 21.80 −1.95
3.76 3.03
27.76 28.86 −1.51
3.95 3.28
22.64 23.46 −1.25
3.40 3.09
50 50
14.82 13.46 2.71
2.39 2.60
18.96 18.76 0.35
2.53 3.11
18.86 19.66 −1.47
2.91 2.50
25.10 28.40 −4.50***
3.72 3.59
20.60 23.07 −3.97***
2.92 3.24
50 50
12.78 12.90 −0.27
2.03 2.29
17.60 18.28 −1.36
2.17 2.77
17.96 18.40 −0.76
2.82 2.89
23.96 26.84 −3.48***
4.33 3.91
20.32 21.16 −1.33
3.31 2.98
300 300
16.24 16.34 −0.34
3.30 3.93
20.22 20.75 −2.61**
2.35 2.60
21.08 22.10 −2.77***
4.24 4.52
28.19 29.82 −4.11***
5.30 4.32
22.91 24.03 −3.35***
4.25 3.86
Significance at p < 0.01. Significance at p < 0.001.
and 51–55 years (923.9 mm) in urban females, thereafter a declining trend was observed until the last age group in both the rural and urban females. Waist and hip circumferences of urban females were more developed than their rural counterparts, although statistically non-significant results were obtained at all age groups under consideration. Descriptive statistics for biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac skinfolds are presented in Table 3. Rural and urban Jat females showed a maximum mean value of all the skinfolds (biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) at 40–45 years, thereafter a gradual and continuous age related decline in the mean values was noticed. The sites of minimum and maximum fat deposition were biceps and subscapular respectively in both the rural and the urban Jat females. The overall pattern of subcutaneous fat deposition was biceps < triceps < calf < supra-illiac < subscapular in both groups of the Jat females. The urban females displayed fatter skinfolds at all ages as compared to their rural counterparts except at the age of 61–65 years, where the rural females showed a significantly (p < 0.001) higher mean value of biceps skinfold than the urban females. The urban females had significantly (p < 0.001) higher overall mean values of calf, subscapular and supra-iliac skinfolds than the rural Jat females. Table 4 summarizes the mean and standard deviation values of total body fat, percentage body fat and lean body mass of rural and urban Jat females. A slow and regular decrease in the mean values of total body fat from 40 to 45 years until the last age group in both rural and urban females was observed. Urban subjects were found to have more total body fat than their rural counterparts but statistically significant (p < 0.01) difference was reported only in the age group 51–55 years. Percentage body fat
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Table 4 Age-wise mean and standard deviation values of total body fat, lean body mass, and percentage body fat of rural and urban Jat females. Age group (years)
40–5 Rural Urban t-Value 46–0 Rural Urban t-Value 51–5 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value * **
N
Total body fat
% Body fat
Lean body mass
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
50 50
22.19 22.85 −0.78
4.56 3.61
37.87 38.46 −1.65
2.02 1.48
36.36 36.48 −0.18
7.09 5.05
50 50
22.14 22.64 −0.54
2.73 5.84
37.41 37.73 0.81
1.81 2.14
37.05 37.03 0.01
4.28 7.75
50 50
21.31 22.63 −1.74*
2.85 4.54
36.53 37.25 −2.35**
1.66 1.34
36.94 38.00 −0.95
4.10 6.68
50 50
19.80 20.47 −1.31
2.46 2.68
35.66 35.95 −0.97
1.72 1.20
35.69 36.44 −0.86
4.10 4.41
50 50
18.67 19.52 −1.14
3.43 3.94
34.60 35.39 −2.72**
1.58 1.29
35.32 35.47 −0.12
6.52 6.15
50 50
17.09 18.18 −1.72
2.92 3.37
33.66 34.55 −2.76**
1.71 1.50
33.78 33.41 −0.50
6.28 6.21
Significance at p < 0.05. Significance at p < 0.01.
revealed a declining trend with advancing age, i.e. maximum mean values occurred among the rural (37.87%) and the urban (38.46%) Jat females in the age group 40–45 years. The urban females had higher mean values of percentage body fat as compared to the rural females, and t-values showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) in the age groups of 51–55 years, 61–65 years and 66–70 years. In the rural females, beginning with an initial mean value of 36.36 kg in the age group 40–45 years, lean body mass increased to 37.05 kg in the age group 46–50 years followed by a decline in the mean values until 66–70 years. In the urban females, this characteristic demonstrated an increment until 51–55 years; thereafter, a decline in the mean values sets in. Urban females had slightly higher mean values of lean body mass than rural females, although t-values showed no significant differences. Table 5 displays age-wise mean and standard deviation values of body mass index, waist–hip ratio, grand mean thickness and ratio of subscapular/triceps skinfolds among rural and urban Jat females. Body mass index of both rural and urban Jat females showed an increase until 51–55 years and thereafter a gradual decrease in the mean values of this index was noticed. Body mass index of urban females was higher than their rural counterparts, but the differences were not statistically significant in most of the age groups. A maximum mean value of the waist-to-hip ratio was reported at the age of 40–45 years in rural and urban females. There were no statistically significant differences between these two groups at most of the age levels. Grand mean thickness (GMT) displayed an ageassociated decrease in mean values with maximum mean values recorded at 40–45 years in both the rural and urban groups of females. As has been evident from the trunk–extremity ratios, rural and urban females gained proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat on the trunk and extremities until the age of 45 years, whereafter rural females exhibited higher values for this ratio than their urban counterparts until 55 years of age, thereby, showing a higher amount of fat in their trunk region than the urban females. After 55 years of age, urban females showed considerably higher ratios than the rural females until 70 years of age. This indicated that urban females had comparatively thicker trunk skinfolds than their rural counterparts.
Table 5 Age-wise mean and standard deviation values of indices of adiposity and fat patterning among rural and urban Jat females.
40–45 Rural Urban t-Value 46–50 Rural Urban t-Value 51–55 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value a ** ***
N
Body mass index (BMI)
Waist to hip ratio (WHR)
Grand mean thickness (GMT)
Ratio of subscapular to triceps skinfold
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SDa
50 50
23.39 23.63 −0.31
4.25 3.60
0.89 0.92 −2.00***
0.07 0.06
24.68 25.56 −1.43
3.48 2.57
1.34 1.34
– –
50 50
24.02 24.48 −0.52
2.87 5.37
0.89 0.91 −0.48
0.28 0.06
23.78 24.60 −1.19
2.83 3.95
1.47 1.40
– –
50 50
24.78 24.97 −0.24
3.59 3.96
0.88 0.89 −0.33
0.07 0.08
22.48 23.54 −2.32**
2.35 2.21
1.43 1.41
– –
50 50
23.92 23.96 0.44
2.80 2.88
0.88 0.88 0.36
0.06 0.07
21.17 21.79 −1.35
2.31 1.75
1.42 1.50
– –
50 50
24.07 23.13 1.09
4.86 3.58
0.87 0.88 −0.46
0.12 0.08
19.66 20.67 −2.72***
1.94 1.71
1.32 1.51
– –
50 50
22.41 22.83 −1.21
4.23 4.32
0.88 0.89 −0.75
0.07 0.06
18.52 19.51 −2.52**
1.92 2.01
1.36 1.46
– –
SD – standard deviation not provided.
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Age group (years)
Significance at p < 0.01. Significance at p < 0.001.
381
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Table 6 Age group wise response of different skinfold thickness sites towards accumulation of body fat (in percentage) among rural and urban Jat females. Age group (years)
Skinfold Biceps
40–45 46–50 51–55 56–60 61–65 66–70
Triceps
Calf
Supra-illiac
Subscapular
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
76.82 77.71 75.08 73.21 75.38 69.00
78.16 76.26 74.51 72.28 65.11 66.11
94.97 89.73 91.19 92.11 96.43 95.03
93.97 91.54 92.77 87.74 90.75 93.69
99.27 96.04 97.33 96.64 95.93 96.97
97.96 100.00 97.53 100.04 95.11 94.31
102.51 104.54 105.69 106.94 104.78 109.71
103.75 103.41 104.16 107.66 111.61 108.45
127.87 131.95 130.69 131.12 127.67 129.37
126.21 128.86 131.01 132.44 137.39 137.57
Responsiveness of different skinfold thickness sites towards accumulation of body fat among the rural and urban Jat females is presented in Table 6. Subscapular and supra-illiac skinfold thickness sites displayed maximum age-associated sensitivity towards fat accumulation, whereas a minimum was observed for the biceps skinfold in both groups of Jat females. Discussion Human aging is often defined as a process of change that occurs in an individual during the course of time following maturity. This process finds its reflection in age related changes that take place in various body systems including the skeleton (Kobyliansky et al., 1995). A perceptible decrease in height after maturity was reported by a number of previous studies (Hussain, 1997; Rahman et al., 1998; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Sánchez-García et al., 2007; Kaur, 2008). In the Baltimore longitudinal study of aging, Sorkin et al. (1999) observed that height loss began at about age 30 years and accelerated with increasing age. Consistent with those findings, in the present study, maximum mean value of height was reported at the age of 40–45 years in both the rural and urban Jat females, thereafter a declining trend with advancing age was noticed. Sánchez-García et al. (2007) observed that as age advances, the skeletal system undergoes structural modifications such as demineralization, which reduces the width of vertebrae and deforms the long bones of the lower extremities. Rossman (1986) stated that the amount of apparent decrease in height with age is not only a result of the aging process, but also a birth cohort effect. Urban females of the present study were significantly taller than their rural counterparts. A similar trend was observed in Kunbi females (Hussain, 1997) and Punjabi Brahmin females (Kaur, 2008). On the contrary, rural Jat Sikh females of Punjab were taller than their urban Jat Sikh counterparts (Singal et al., 1999). The analysis of the present study depicted that rural and urban Jat females gained weight up to age group 46–50 and 51–55 years respectively, followed by a decline in their mean values until the last age group. A decreasing trend in weight after middle age has been reported in numerous crosssectional studies (Hussain, 1997; Rahman et al., 1998; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Sánchez-García et al., 2007; Kaur, 2008). Age related decrease in weight may be attributed to decline in total body water, fat free mass, and bone mineral contents and density after menopause among healthy women (Chumlea et al., 1997; Guo et al., 1997; Zeller et al., 1997). Urban females of the present study were heavier than rural females. A similar trend has been shown by various cross-sectional studies (Hussain, 1997; Singal et al., 1999; Kaur, 2008). In the present research based on body mass index (BMI) characteristics (World Health Organization, 1998), 66% rural and 65% urban Jat females fall in the normal range (BMI 18.5–24.9 kg/m2 ); the remainder of rural (33.34%) and urban (35%) females represent nutritionally vulnerable groups i.e. underweight and overweight. A trend of increasing waist circumference and hip circumference among rural and urban females was observed until the fifth decade of life followed by a gradual decline until 70 years. These findings are in consensus with the observations of most of the existing studies (Hussain, 1997; Bartali et al., 2002; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Kaur, 2003). Urban Jat females showed larger circumferences than their age matched rural counterparts.
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It has been found that waist–hip ratio (WHR) is associated with disease risk and with mortality in both men and women (Lapidus et al., 1989; Folsom et al., 2000). One salient feature of the WHR as a health related measure is that it is partially independent of total adiposity; thus for a given level of WHR, there may be considerable variability in total adiposity (Pouliot et al., 1994). In the present study, according to waist–hip ratio values both rural and urban females showed upper body fat predominance. However, urban females had relatively more abdominal fat than their rural counterparts. Predominance for upper body fat with increasing age has also been demonstrated by other workers (Poehlman et al., 1995; Tyagi et al., 2005). The highest mean value of all the skinfolds was reported at age of 40–45 years among rural and urban females, whereafter, a decrease in their mean values to the last age group was observed. The age associated decrease in skinfold thickness at different sites has been well described in the literature (Kaur, 2003; Tyagi et al., 2005). Urban Jat females had higher skinfold thickness values at all the five body sites (biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) than their rural counterparts, which clearly indicated that urban females had more subcutaneous fat than rural females. This in turn, is supported by the findings of McGarvey (1989), Lerman-Garber et al. (1999) and Kaur (2003). Durnin and Womersley (1974) observed that skinfold thickness correlates with body fat. In the present study, skinfold thicknesses, total body fat, as well as percentage body fat, displayed maximum mean value at the age of 40–45 years followed by a decrease in the mean values at successive age levels. Forbes (1976) illustrated that a decrease in lean body mass was characteristic of aging regardless of energy intake. A number of cross-sectional studies (Broˇzek, 1963; Forbes, 1987) indicated that a decrease in amounts of water, muscle and bone occur in both men and women and these trends began as early as the 5th or 6th decade of life. Evans (1998) also stated that advancing age is associated with a number of changes in body composition; notable among these changes is a reduction in fat free mass that occurs primarily as a result of losses in skeletal mass. In the present study, higher mean values for weight, circumferences, skinfolds and body fat among urban females may be attributed to less manual work and increased intake of calories, especially in the form of fats and simple carbohydrates, leading to an accumulation of fat in body tissues. A large body of evidence indicates that changes in body composition reflect changes in energy metabolism in the body. Females in general, gain proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat at trunk and extremity sites, so that the trunk/extremity ratio is reasonably stable through the fourth decade. Subsequently trunk skinfolds increase proportionally more in thickness than extremity skinfolds (Malina, 2005). Similar findings have been reported by the present study. Sensitivity of the five skinfold thicknesses varied from site to site in various age groups. Subscapular and supra-iliac sites were found to be the most sensitive sites towards accumulation of fat with increasing age followed by calf, triceps and biceps sites in both the groups of females. Summarizing, urban Jat females of the present study possessed larger overall dimensions than their rural counterparts. Both rural and urban females showed a decrease in almost every dimension including the level of fatness between mid-fourth and mid-fifth decade of life. Upper body fat preponderance was highlighted relatively more in urban females, as was evident from WHR ratios. Differences in body composition among rural and urban Jat females probably reflected changes in their energy metabolism. Redistribution of body fat was found in both groups after the mid-fourth decade of life. Subscapular/triceps ratio of subcutaneous fat accumulation and sensitivity of each skinfold site showed an android pattern of fatness, showing more fat deposition in the trunk region compared to the extremities. Interestingly, rural and urban females had a differential rate of fat accumulation at different age groups. Rural females had a greater amount of fat in the trunk region up to 55 years of age than their urban counterparts, who, in turn, deposited a considerably higher amount of fat in the trunk region up to 70 years of age. This differential pattern of fat redistribution caused the apparent differences in body physique of rural and urban Jat females. Acknowledgement The author (Maninder Kaur) is grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for the financial assistance to carry out this work.
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HOMO - Journal of Comparative Human Biology journal homepage: www.elsevier.de/jchb
Body composition and fat distribution among older Jat females: A rural–urban comparison Maninder Kaur a,∗, Indu Talwar b a b
Department of Home Science, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, Haryana, India Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history: Received 17 September 2009 Accepted 20 May 2010
a b s t r a c t The aim of the present cross-sectional study is to describe and compare age related changes in body composition and fat patterning among rural and urban Jat females of Haryana State, India. A total of 600 females (rural = 300, urban = 300), ranging in age from 40 to 70 years were selected by the purposive sampling method. Body weight, height, two circumferences (waist and hip) and skinfold thickness at five different sites (biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) were taken on each participant. To study total adiposity, indices such as body mass index (BMI), grand mean thickness (GMT), total body fat and percentage fat were analyzed statistically. The fat distribution pattern was studied using waist/hip ratio, subscapular/triceps ratio and responsiveness of five skinfold sites towards accumulation of fat at different sites with advancing age. Results indicate a decline in almost every dimension including level of fatness between the mid-fourth and mid-fifth decades of life in both rural and urban females. Urban Jat females were heavier (57.36 kg vs. 56.07 kg, p > 0.05) and significantly taller (1553.3 mm vs. 1534.5 mm, p < 0.001) than their rural counterparts. Urban females also exhibited higher mean values for both the circumferences, five skinfold thicknesses as well as for lean body mass, total fat and percentage fat than the rural females. This is also evident from their higher mean values for body mass index and grand mean thickness. Waist/hip ratio values in rural and urban females showed upper body fat predominance, with urban females
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 09466555333. E-mail address: maninderkaur [email protected] (M. Kaur). 0018-442X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2010.05.004
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having relatively more abdominal fat. Results of subscapular/triceps ratio showed that rural and urban females gained proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat at trunk and extremity sites until 45 years of age. Subsequently trunk skinfolds increased relatively more in thickness. The magnitude of this increase was comparatively greater in rural females up to 55 years and among urban females from 55 to 70 years. The profiles of subcutaneous fat accumulation and sensitivity of each skinfold site also revealed more fat deposition in the trunk region compared to extremities in both rural and urban females. The present study demonstrated differential rates of fat redistribution among rural and urban females. © 2011 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.
Introduction Body composition changes attributable to aging are characterized by a progressive reduction in fat free mass and an increase in fat mass (Baumgartner et al., 1995; Zamboni et al., 2003). Both these age-related body composition changes seem to be independently associated with an increased risk of functional limitation (Janssen et al., 2002; Sternfeld et al., 2002). Fat redistributes centrally, with increases in waist circumference thought to reflect increases in visceral fat with age (Borkan et al., 1985). Even if weight is stable, people tend to become fatter with age as muscle mass diminishes and is replaced by fat (Gallagher et al., 2000). The remaining muscle may be infiltrated by fat (Goodpaster et al., 2000). There is a loss of bone mass from a peak in the early 20s. From these changes have come important hypotheses regarding the contribution of each of these components of body composition to health. Data on body composition allow a more direct assessment of the contribution to health of fat and lean body mass. Body composition and fat patterning are under the influence of genetic factors and can be modulated by age, sex, nutrition and several cultural and socio-economic factors present in the environment. There are various ways to study the distribution of body fat, for example (i) by centripetal fat ratio or trunk–extremity ratio, (ii) by combining waist/hip ratio and skinfold ratios (Fiori et al., 2000), (iii) by principal component analysis on a set of skinfolds (Mueller and Reid, 1979; Ramirez and Mueller, 1980), (iv) from the residual of the regression of each log transformed skinfold on the mean log transformed fatness, which in human females is linked to fertility (Brown and Konner, 1987; Norgan, 1997), female ovarian function being particularly sensitive to energy balance and energy flux (Ellison, 2003). Unfortunately, there is paucity of knowledge on body composition and fat patterning among aged and elderly people especially on females in India (Bagga and Sakaurkar, 2003; Ghosh, 2004; Tyagi et al., 2005). In almost every country both the number as well as proportion of older persons is growing faster than any other age group. By 2025, the number of older women is expected to rise from 107 to 373 million in Asia (World Health Organization, 1998). The aim of the present study is to describe and compare age related changes in body composition and body fat distribution pattern in Jat females from rural and urban area of Haryana State of India. For these women, data of a similar nature are completely non-existent. Materials and methods Study site and participants Haryana is a state in northwest India. The natural boundaries are the Shivalik hills in the north, the river Yamuna in the east and the river Ghaggar in the west. The southwestern boundary is provided by the range of Aravalli hills, which run through southern Delhi and the Gurgaon district up to Alwar. The people of Haryana belong to the Indo-Aryan type and in parts to the Indo-Dravidian type. Haryana’s population comprises a number of castes (jatis) i.e. Brahmins, Rajputs, Jats and Ahirs. The Jats occupy a prominent place in Haryana, being the single largest group in the region. The main sub-castes (gotras)
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Table 1 General information and dietary habits of rural and urban Jat females. Rural females
Education Educated Un-educated Occupation Working Housewife Type of diet Vegetarian Non-vegetarian Frequency of consumption 2 times/day 3 times/day 4 times/day
Urban females
N
%
N
%
159 141
53 47
210 90
70 30
45 255
15 85
102 198
34 66
285 15
95 5
276 24
92 8
207 90 3
69 30 1
105 186 9
35 62 3
within Jats are Ahlawat, Dahiya, Dalal, Deswal, Dhanda, Hooda, Jaglian, Jakhar, Lamba, Kadian, Malik, and Sahrawat. All the females in the present study belong to one endogamous group, that is to the Jats of Haryana. The rural and urban sub-groups of the Jat population have the same broad genetic constitution, but they have been exposed to different environment settings. Jats in the urban area were mainly engaged in trade, commerce, government, and private jobs. Most of the families residing in the rural area were engaged in agriculture. The Jat people in Haryana are conservative and they continue to follow old practices as a matter of routine and custom. Village girls cover their heads, while daughters-inlaw cover their faces in the presence of elderly persons in the house or outside. With the spread of education, social barriers against the urban females are rapidly collapsing, so their position is becoming better than that of rural females. Both rural and urban Jat females of the present study were mainly vegetarian (Table 1). Daily intake of fruits, vegetables, milk and milk products were below the recommended level in both the rural and urban Jat females. Literacy rate was very low among Jat females in Haryana State and most of the elderly women were illiterate. The present study demonstrated that mean and median age at natural menopause of rural Jat females was 48.19 ± 1.53 years and 49.11 ± 2.31 years respectively, while among urban Jat females it was 49.38 ± 1.94 years and 49.92 ± 2.66 years, respectively. Thus, urban females experienced menopause at a later age as compared to their rural counterparts. All the participants were of middle socio-ecomomic status as assessed by their annual income ranging from 90,000 to 140,000 rupees. Data collection The fieldwork for the present investigation was carried out in the year 2006 and 2007 in rural and urban areas of Haryana (North India) (Fig. 1). A cross-sectional sample of 300 rural and equal numbers of urban women in the age range of 40–70 years was studied. For administrative purposes, 21 districts of Haryana State are grouped into four divisions Ambala, Gurgaon, Hissar, Rohtak. Seventyfive rural and equal numbers of urban participants were selected from each division by the purposive sampling method. Females with an unusual gynecological history, kidney or liver disease, organ transplant/estrogen replacement therapy, physical deformity, or chronic illness as well as lactating and pregnant females were excluded from the study. All the rural and urban participants were stratified into six age groups: 40–45 years, 46–50 years, 51–55 years, 56–60 years, 61–65 years, and 66–70 years. Age in years had been obtained from the date of birth, which most of the urban females could recall, whereas in majority of rural females and some aged urban women age had to be ascertained by association with some important socio-cultural and historical events. With this cross-questioning, it was possible to ascertain fairly accurately the correct age of the person.
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Fig. 1. Map indicating the location of study area (Haryana).
A total of 600 Jat females were measured for nine anthropometric variables such as height, weight, waist circumference, hip circumference, biceps skinfold, triceps skinfold, calf skinfold, subscapular skinfold, supra-iliac skinfold. Height and weight were measured by anthropometer and weighing machine respectively. Waist circumference and hip circumferences of each subject were measured with a Freeman’s steel tape. All the skinfold thicknesses were measured using a Harpenden skinfold caliper. Standard techniques as recommended by Weiner and Lourie (1981) were employed for taking various measurements. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as the ratio of weight in kilograms to the height in metres squared. Waist–hip ratio (WHR) was calculated by dividing waist circumference by hip circumference. Grand mean thickness (GMT) was computed by dividing the sum of all skinfold measurements by the number of sites measured to visualize the overall fatness. The subcutaneous fat distribution was assessed by subscapular/triceps ratio. Responsiveness of the five skinfold sites towards deposition of fat was studied by expressing each skinfold thickness as a percent age of GMT. For the estimation of percentage body fat (BF%), density was calculated by the method of Durnin and Womersley (1974) for different age groups. The calculated body density was converted into percentage body fat following the equation given by Siri (1956). All statistical analyses were undertaken using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 14.0. Student’s t-test was used to determine significance of rural–urban differences at the level of p < 0.05(*), p < 0.01(**), p < 0.001(***). Results Table 2 presents mean and standard deviation values for height, weight, waist circumference, and hip circumference of rural and urban Jat females. The highest mean value for height at 40–45years was 1580.3 mm in rural and 1586.0 mm in urban females, whereafter, a regular decline was noticed at all successive age groups under study until it reached 1494.6 mm in rural and 1524.2 mm in urban females. Rural females were found to be shorter than urban females at all age levels, but statistically significant (p < 0.001) differences were found only in age groups from 56 to 60 years to 66 to 70 years. Maximum mean value for weight was observed at 46–50 years (59.20 kg) in rural and 51–55 years (60.64 kg) in urban females followed by a decline in their mean values. Urban females were heavier than rural females at all ages but t-values revealed statistically non-significant differences at all age levels. Beginning with an initial mean value of 803.7 mm in rural and 827.6 mm in urban females, waist circumference increased until 46–50 years, thereafter a regular decrease set into finally reach its minimum mean value in the age group 66–70 years in both the rural and urban females (Table 2). A slow and regular growth of hip circumference was registered until 46–50 years (910.7 mm) in rural
378
Table 2 Mean and standard deviation values of anthropometric variables of rural and urban Jat females.
40–45 Rural Urban t-Value 46–50 Rural Urban t-Value 51–55 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value Total Rural Urban ***
Significance at p < 0.001.
N
Waist circumference (mm)
Hip circumference (mm)
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
Mean
SD
50 50
1580.3 1586.0 −0.62
50.2 40.2
58.56 59.34 −0.38
11.46 8.49
803.7 827.6 −1.44
87.9 77.3
902.2 904.9 −0.13
71.1 120.1
50 50
1571.3 1582.3 −0.74
59.3 60.9
59.20 59.68 −0.22
6.67 13.37
815.5 831.0
86.7 74.8
910.7 920.2
119.0 98.3
50 50
1537.0 1556.3 −1.84
53.5 50.9
58.26 60.64 −1.29
6.68 11.10
800.1 820.5 −1.20
53.2 107.5
907.0 923.9 −0.92
65.6 111.3
50 50
1523.6 1550.8 −2.92***
46.2 46.8
55.5 56.92 −1.07
6.29 6.95
799.0 803.3 −0.33
53.9 71.2
901.0 910.4 −0.48
94.2 98.7
50 50
1500.5 1540.0 −4.15***
38.4 55.2
54.00 55.00 −0.50
9.77 10.01
785.4 799.5 −0.76
77.6 104.1
892.5 901.9 −0.39
95.3 137.2
50 50
1494.6 1524.2 −3.04***
53.8 42.7
50.88 52.60 −0.93
9.02 9.41
784.1 797.4 −0.78
71.6 95.1
883.9 894.5 −0.55
82.0 107.1
1534.5 1553.3
59.8 53.1
56.07 57.36
8.96 10.41
798.0 813.2
73.4 89.8
899.5 909.3
89.3 112.4
300 300
Height (mm)
Weight (kg)
SD
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Age group (years)
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Table 3 Mean and standard deviation values of biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular and supra-iliac skinfold (mm) of rural and urban Jat females. Age group (years)
N
Skinfold Biceps
40–45 Rural Urban t-Value 46–50 Rural Urban t-Value 51–55 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value Total Rural Urban t-Value ** ***
Subscapular
Supra-iliac
Mean
SD
Triceps Mean
SD
Calf Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
50 50
18.96 19.98 −1.48
3.11 3.73
23.44 24.02 −0.78
3.90 3.51
24.50 25.04 −0.57
4.70 4.62
31.56 32.26 −0.74
5.54 3.70
25.30 26.52 −1.58
4.40 3.20
50 50
18.48 18.76
2.97 2.47
21.34 22.52
2.89 5.28
22.84 24.60
3.84 5.61
31.38 31.70
4.59 5.42
24.86 25.44
4.73 4.69
50 50
16.88 17.54 −1.21
2.17 3.17
20.50 21.84 −2.07
3.01 3.42
21.88 22.96 −1.58
3.36 3.44
29.38 30.84 −1.90
4.49 3.02
23.76 24.52 −1.05
3.84 3.37
50 50
15.50 15.75 −0.18
2.33 3.13
19.50 19.12 0.65
3.14 2.60
20.46 21.80 −1.95
3.76 3.03
27.76 28.86 −1.51
3.95 3.28
22.64 23.46 −1.25
3.40 3.09
50 50
14.82 13.46 2.71
2.39 2.60
18.96 18.76 0.35
2.53 3.11
18.86 19.66 −1.47
2.91 2.50
25.10 28.40 −4.50***
3.72 3.59
20.60 23.07 −3.97***
2.92 3.24
50 50
12.78 12.90 −0.27
2.03 2.29
17.60 18.28 −1.36
2.17 2.77
17.96 18.40 −0.76
2.82 2.89
23.96 26.84 −3.48***
4.33 3.91
20.32 21.16 −1.33
3.31 2.98
300 300
16.24 16.34 −0.34
3.30 3.93
20.22 20.75 −2.61**
2.35 2.60
21.08 22.10 −2.77***
4.24 4.52
28.19 29.82 −4.11***
5.30 4.32
22.91 24.03 −3.35***
4.25 3.86
Significance at p < 0.01. Significance at p < 0.001.
and 51–55 years (923.9 mm) in urban females, thereafter a declining trend was observed until the last age group in both the rural and urban females. Waist and hip circumferences of urban females were more developed than their rural counterparts, although statistically non-significant results were obtained at all age groups under consideration. Descriptive statistics for biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac skinfolds are presented in Table 3. Rural and urban Jat females showed a maximum mean value of all the skinfolds (biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) at 40–45 years, thereafter a gradual and continuous age related decline in the mean values was noticed. The sites of minimum and maximum fat deposition were biceps and subscapular respectively in both the rural and the urban Jat females. The overall pattern of subcutaneous fat deposition was biceps < triceps < calf < supra-illiac < subscapular in both groups of the Jat females. The urban females displayed fatter skinfolds at all ages as compared to their rural counterparts except at the age of 61–65 years, where the rural females showed a significantly (p < 0.001) higher mean value of biceps skinfold than the urban females. The urban females had significantly (p < 0.001) higher overall mean values of calf, subscapular and supra-iliac skinfolds than the rural Jat females. Table 4 summarizes the mean and standard deviation values of total body fat, percentage body fat and lean body mass of rural and urban Jat females. A slow and regular decrease in the mean values of total body fat from 40 to 45 years until the last age group in both rural and urban females was observed. Urban subjects were found to have more total body fat than their rural counterparts but statistically significant (p < 0.01) difference was reported only in the age group 51–55 years. Percentage body fat
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Table 4 Age-wise mean and standard deviation values of total body fat, lean body mass, and percentage body fat of rural and urban Jat females. Age group (years)
40–5 Rural Urban t-Value 46–0 Rural Urban t-Value 51–5 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value * **
N
Total body fat
% Body fat
Lean body mass
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
50 50
22.19 22.85 −0.78
4.56 3.61
37.87 38.46 −1.65
2.02 1.48
36.36 36.48 −0.18
7.09 5.05
50 50
22.14 22.64 −0.54
2.73 5.84
37.41 37.73 0.81
1.81 2.14
37.05 37.03 0.01
4.28 7.75
50 50
21.31 22.63 −1.74*
2.85 4.54
36.53 37.25 −2.35**
1.66 1.34
36.94 38.00 −0.95
4.10 6.68
50 50
19.80 20.47 −1.31
2.46 2.68
35.66 35.95 −0.97
1.72 1.20
35.69 36.44 −0.86
4.10 4.41
50 50
18.67 19.52 −1.14
3.43 3.94
34.60 35.39 −2.72**
1.58 1.29
35.32 35.47 −0.12
6.52 6.15
50 50
17.09 18.18 −1.72
2.92 3.37
33.66 34.55 −2.76**
1.71 1.50
33.78 33.41 −0.50
6.28 6.21
Significance at p < 0.05. Significance at p < 0.01.
revealed a declining trend with advancing age, i.e. maximum mean values occurred among the rural (37.87%) and the urban (38.46%) Jat females in the age group 40–45 years. The urban females had higher mean values of percentage body fat as compared to the rural females, and t-values showed statistically significant differences (p < 0.01) in the age groups of 51–55 years, 61–65 years and 66–70 years. In the rural females, beginning with an initial mean value of 36.36 kg in the age group 40–45 years, lean body mass increased to 37.05 kg in the age group 46–50 years followed by a decline in the mean values until 66–70 years. In the urban females, this characteristic demonstrated an increment until 51–55 years; thereafter, a decline in the mean values sets in. Urban females had slightly higher mean values of lean body mass than rural females, although t-values showed no significant differences. Table 5 displays age-wise mean and standard deviation values of body mass index, waist–hip ratio, grand mean thickness and ratio of subscapular/triceps skinfolds among rural and urban Jat females. Body mass index of both rural and urban Jat females showed an increase until 51–55 years and thereafter a gradual decrease in the mean values of this index was noticed. Body mass index of urban females was higher than their rural counterparts, but the differences were not statistically significant in most of the age groups. A maximum mean value of the waist-to-hip ratio was reported at the age of 40–45 years in rural and urban females. There were no statistically significant differences between these two groups at most of the age levels. Grand mean thickness (GMT) displayed an ageassociated decrease in mean values with maximum mean values recorded at 40–45 years in both the rural and urban groups of females. As has been evident from the trunk–extremity ratios, rural and urban females gained proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat on the trunk and extremities until the age of 45 years, whereafter rural females exhibited higher values for this ratio than their urban counterparts until 55 years of age, thereby, showing a higher amount of fat in their trunk region than the urban females. After 55 years of age, urban females showed considerably higher ratios than the rural females until 70 years of age. This indicated that urban females had comparatively thicker trunk skinfolds than their rural counterparts.
Table 5 Age-wise mean and standard deviation values of indices of adiposity and fat patterning among rural and urban Jat females.
40–45 Rural Urban t-Value 46–50 Rural Urban t-Value 51–55 Rural Urban t-Value 56–60 Rural Urban t-Value 61–65 Rural Urban t-Value 66–70 Rural Urban t-Value a ** ***
N
Body mass index (BMI)
Waist to hip ratio (WHR)
Grand mean thickness (GMT)
Ratio of subscapular to triceps skinfold
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SDa
50 50
23.39 23.63 −0.31
4.25 3.60
0.89 0.92 −2.00***
0.07 0.06
24.68 25.56 −1.43
3.48 2.57
1.34 1.34
– –
50 50
24.02 24.48 −0.52
2.87 5.37
0.89 0.91 −0.48
0.28 0.06
23.78 24.60 −1.19
2.83 3.95
1.47 1.40
– –
50 50
24.78 24.97 −0.24
3.59 3.96
0.88 0.89 −0.33
0.07 0.08
22.48 23.54 −2.32**
2.35 2.21
1.43 1.41
– –
50 50
23.92 23.96 0.44
2.80 2.88
0.88 0.88 0.36
0.06 0.07
21.17 21.79 −1.35
2.31 1.75
1.42 1.50
– –
50 50
24.07 23.13 1.09
4.86 3.58
0.87 0.88 −0.46
0.12 0.08
19.66 20.67 −2.72***
1.94 1.71
1.32 1.51
– –
50 50
22.41 22.83 −1.21
4.23 4.32
0.88 0.89 −0.75
0.07 0.06
18.52 19.51 −2.52**
1.92 2.01
1.36 1.46
– –
SD – standard deviation not provided.
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Age group (years)
Significance at p < 0.01. Significance at p < 0.001.
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Table 6 Age group wise response of different skinfold thickness sites towards accumulation of body fat (in percentage) among rural and urban Jat females. Age group (years)
Skinfold Biceps
40–45 46–50 51–55 56–60 61–65 66–70
Triceps
Calf
Supra-illiac
Subscapular
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
76.82 77.71 75.08 73.21 75.38 69.00
78.16 76.26 74.51 72.28 65.11 66.11
94.97 89.73 91.19 92.11 96.43 95.03
93.97 91.54 92.77 87.74 90.75 93.69
99.27 96.04 97.33 96.64 95.93 96.97
97.96 100.00 97.53 100.04 95.11 94.31
102.51 104.54 105.69 106.94 104.78 109.71
103.75 103.41 104.16 107.66 111.61 108.45
127.87 131.95 130.69 131.12 127.67 129.37
126.21 128.86 131.01 132.44 137.39 137.57
Responsiveness of different skinfold thickness sites towards accumulation of body fat among the rural and urban Jat females is presented in Table 6. Subscapular and supra-illiac skinfold thickness sites displayed maximum age-associated sensitivity towards fat accumulation, whereas a minimum was observed for the biceps skinfold in both groups of Jat females. Discussion Human aging is often defined as a process of change that occurs in an individual during the course of time following maturity. This process finds its reflection in age related changes that take place in various body systems including the skeleton (Kobyliansky et al., 1995). A perceptible decrease in height after maturity was reported by a number of previous studies (Hussain, 1997; Rahman et al., 1998; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Sánchez-García et al., 2007; Kaur, 2008). In the Baltimore longitudinal study of aging, Sorkin et al. (1999) observed that height loss began at about age 30 years and accelerated with increasing age. Consistent with those findings, in the present study, maximum mean value of height was reported at the age of 40–45 years in both the rural and urban Jat females, thereafter a declining trend with advancing age was noticed. Sánchez-García et al. (2007) observed that as age advances, the skeletal system undergoes structural modifications such as demineralization, which reduces the width of vertebrae and deforms the long bones of the lower extremities. Rossman (1986) stated that the amount of apparent decrease in height with age is not only a result of the aging process, but also a birth cohort effect. Urban females of the present study were significantly taller than their rural counterparts. A similar trend was observed in Kunbi females (Hussain, 1997) and Punjabi Brahmin females (Kaur, 2008). On the contrary, rural Jat Sikh females of Punjab were taller than their urban Jat Sikh counterparts (Singal et al., 1999). The analysis of the present study depicted that rural and urban Jat females gained weight up to age group 46–50 and 51–55 years respectively, followed by a decline in their mean values until the last age group. A decreasing trend in weight after middle age has been reported in numerous crosssectional studies (Hussain, 1997; Rahman et al., 1998; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Sánchez-García et al., 2007; Kaur, 2008). Age related decrease in weight may be attributed to decline in total body water, fat free mass, and bone mineral contents and density after menopause among healthy women (Chumlea et al., 1997; Guo et al., 1997; Zeller et al., 1997). Urban females of the present study were heavier than rural females. A similar trend has been shown by various cross-sectional studies (Hussain, 1997; Singal et al., 1999; Kaur, 2008). In the present research based on body mass index (BMI) characteristics (World Health Organization, 1998), 66% rural and 65% urban Jat females fall in the normal range (BMI 18.5–24.9 kg/m2 ); the remainder of rural (33.34%) and urban (35%) females represent nutritionally vulnerable groups i.e. underweight and overweight. A trend of increasing waist circumference and hip circumference among rural and urban females was observed until the fifth decade of life followed by a gradual decline until 70 years. These findings are in consensus with the observations of most of the existing studies (Hussain, 1997; Bartali et al., 2002; Perissinotto et al., 2002; Kaur, 2003). Urban Jat females showed larger circumferences than their age matched rural counterparts.
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It has been found that waist–hip ratio (WHR) is associated with disease risk and with mortality in both men and women (Lapidus et al., 1989; Folsom et al., 2000). One salient feature of the WHR as a health related measure is that it is partially independent of total adiposity; thus for a given level of WHR, there may be considerable variability in total adiposity (Pouliot et al., 1994). In the present study, according to waist–hip ratio values both rural and urban females showed upper body fat predominance. However, urban females had relatively more abdominal fat than their rural counterparts. Predominance for upper body fat with increasing age has also been demonstrated by other workers (Poehlman et al., 1995; Tyagi et al., 2005). The highest mean value of all the skinfolds was reported at age of 40–45 years among rural and urban females, whereafter, a decrease in their mean values to the last age group was observed. The age associated decrease in skinfold thickness at different sites has been well described in the literature (Kaur, 2003; Tyagi et al., 2005). Urban Jat females had higher skinfold thickness values at all the five body sites (biceps, triceps, calf, subscapular, and supra-iliac) than their rural counterparts, which clearly indicated that urban females had more subcutaneous fat than rural females. This in turn, is supported by the findings of McGarvey (1989), Lerman-Garber et al. (1999) and Kaur (2003). Durnin and Womersley (1974) observed that skinfold thickness correlates with body fat. In the present study, skinfold thicknesses, total body fat, as well as percentage body fat, displayed maximum mean value at the age of 40–45 years followed by a decrease in the mean values at successive age levels. Forbes (1976) illustrated that a decrease in lean body mass was characteristic of aging regardless of energy intake. A number of cross-sectional studies (Broˇzek, 1963; Forbes, 1987) indicated that a decrease in amounts of water, muscle and bone occur in both men and women and these trends began as early as the 5th or 6th decade of life. Evans (1998) also stated that advancing age is associated with a number of changes in body composition; notable among these changes is a reduction in fat free mass that occurs primarily as a result of losses in skeletal mass. In the present study, higher mean values for weight, circumferences, skinfolds and body fat among urban females may be attributed to less manual work and increased intake of calories, especially in the form of fats and simple carbohydrates, leading to an accumulation of fat in body tissues. A large body of evidence indicates that changes in body composition reflect changes in energy metabolism in the body. Females in general, gain proportionally similar amounts of subcutaneous fat at trunk and extremity sites, so that the trunk/extremity ratio is reasonably stable through the fourth decade. Subsequently trunk skinfolds increase proportionally more in thickness than extremity skinfolds (Malina, 2005). Similar findings have been reported by the present study. Sensitivity of the five skinfold thicknesses varied from site to site in various age groups. Subscapular and supra-iliac sites were found to be the most sensitive sites towards accumulation of fat with increasing age followed by calf, triceps and biceps sites in both the groups of females. Summarizing, urban Jat females of the present study possessed larger overall dimensions than their rural counterparts. Both rural and urban females showed a decrease in almost every dimension including the level of fatness between mid-fourth and mid-fifth decade of life. Upper body fat preponderance was highlighted relatively more in urban females, as was evident from WHR ratios. Differences in body composition among rural and urban Jat females probably reflected changes in their energy metabolism. Redistribution of body fat was found in both groups after the mid-fourth decade of life. Subscapular/triceps ratio of subcutaneous fat accumulation and sensitivity of each skinfold site showed an android pattern of fatness, showing more fat deposition in the trunk region compared to the extremities. Interestingly, rural and urban females had a differential rate of fat accumulation at different age groups. Rural females had a greater amount of fat in the trunk region up to 55 years of age than their urban counterparts, who, in turn, deposited a considerably higher amount of fat in the trunk region up to 70 years of age. This differential pattern of fat redistribution caused the apparent differences in body physique of rural and urban Jat females. Acknowledgement The author (Maninder Kaur) is grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for the financial assistance to carry out this work.
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