- Email: [email protected]
Dairy Compost as a Source of Turkey Brooder Bedding1
2004 Poultry Science Association, Inc.
Dairy Compost as a Source of Turkey Brooder Bedding1 D. D. Frame,2 E. J. Kelly, N. Fields, and L. G. Bagley Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences Department, Utah State University Logan, Utah 84322-4815
SUMMARY Dairy compost (DC) was evaluated as a possible bedding substrate for brooding turkeys. This study compared livability, weight gain, and footpad score between pine shavings (PS) and DC for 2 strains of turkeys. There were no significant differences in either strain for livability through 35 d of age. Mean body weight at 35 d in the DC treatment compared with PS was less in strain B but not significantly different in strain A. Footpad score in the DC treatment was significantly greater in both strains compared with PS; however, brooder performance as measured by mortality and ambulatory disturbances was not affected in either strain. Results suggest DC may have limited but possible value as a bedding material for brooding turkeys. Key words: bedding, brooder, dairy compost, litter, turkey 2004 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 13:614–618
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Wood shavings are the most common source of poultry bedding in the US. In some areas they may be difficult or expensive to obtain. Comprehensive nutrient management plans (CNMP) require that large animal production units, such as dairies, monitor and account for the removal, disposal, sale, or land application of animal waste products. At times, difficulties may arise as dairies work to comply with their CNMP in regard to appropriate disposal of manure. Composted dairy waste solids have been extensively evaluated for potentially pathogenic bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. [1, 2, 3]. This product has been successfully used as free stall bedding in dairies [2, 4]. Even though at least one study [5] has reported that litter type and management does not affect 1
tom performance, other studies [6, 7] concluded that litter wetness or composition did affect the prevalence of footpad dermatitis in turkeys. The objective of this study was to explore the feasibility of using a dairy manure-origin compost product (DC) as a source of brooder bedding for turkeys. This would potentially benefit the poultry industry, by providing an alternative bedding material, and the dairy industry, by facilitating an additional method of manure use in their waste management programs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Treatment Allocation and Housing Tom turkey poults were received September 15, 2003, at the Utah State University Turkey Research Center in Ephraim, Utah. The brooder was constructed with a concrete floor and con-
This research was supported by the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4810. Approved as journal paper no. 7606. 2 To whom correspondence should be addressed: [email protected].
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at Umea University Library on April 3, 2015
Primary Audience: Poultry Producers, Veterinarians, Researchers
FRAME ET AL.: DAIRY COMPOST FOR TURKEY BEDDING
Bedding Material Pine shavings baled in 0.09m3 plastic bags were used as the control for this experiment. The shavings were purchased from a local commercial distributor. Particle size ranged from 2 × 2 mm to 25 × 5 mm. The DC was obtained from a local dairy. Raw manure from the milking parlor and holding pens was liquefied and transported to the on-farm manure processing facility. Solids were separated from the liquid portion by running the manure through a fan screen and auger. The resultant sludge was placed in windrows 3 m wide and 1 m deep at the apex, tapering to about 6 cm deep at the outermost edges. Length of windrows was variable. The windrows were allowed to aerobically decompose, being periodically turned by machinery designed for the process. Peak internal temperature of the composting material measured by the dairy producer was 45°C. The most likely reason that higher temperatures were not reported was because the producer did not record temperature at the actual peak of heat production. Particle size varied considerably, from less than 1 mm2 to chips 15 × 25 mm. Most particles ranged from 2 to 5 mm2.
Bacteriologic characterization was performed through a local laboratory [8]. Data Collection Preliminary bacterial studies were performed on the DC before delivery to the Turkey Research Center. A total bacterial plate count was obtained on a representative sample of DC following a previously published plate dilution technique procedure. (In our protocol, sterile distilled water was substituted for Butterfield’s buffer and DIFCO Plate Count Agar was substituted for Bacto-Potato Dextrose Agar [9].) A total bacterial count was also performed on the shavings before poult placement. Drag swabs were taken of the DC while still in windrows to check for the possible presence of E. coli and Salmonella spp., these being the most likely potential bacterial pathogens of poultry commonly encountered in material of fecal origin. After being dragged through the DC for a minimum of 30 linear meters, each swab was placed in an individual sterile plastic bag and transported to the laboratory for subsequent bacterial culture [10]. A postmortem evaluation was performed on all poults that died within the 5-wk brooding period. To evaluate the effect of bedding material in the present study, footpad condition was compared between treatments by randomly selecting 30 poults at 14 and 35 d of age from each pen and evaluating the footpads according to the subjective 0 to 3 category scoring system of Chen, et al. [11]. No visible irritation or litter adhesion was given a score of 0. Slight litter adhesion with or without small scabs was given a score of 1 (we included adhesions to the underside of the toes in this category for the 14-d-old evaluation). Large scabs with slight ulceration were given a score of 2. Footpads with severe, large, or deep ulcers extending through the epidermis were assigned a score of 3. Statistical Analysis Because of obvious differences in strain mortality and body weight, it was concluded that between-strain interactions would be of limited value in the analysis of these 2 factors. Body weight treatment differences within strain were evaluated using completely random-
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at Umea University Library on April 3, 2015
sisted of 16 equally sized pens, each pen with a floor space of 20.9 m2. Eight of the 16 pens were covered to a depth of approximately 3.5 cm with pine shavings (PS) as bedding material. The remaining 8 pens were covered 3.5 cm deep with DC. Two strains of turkey were used in this test (strains A and B). Four replicate pens of each of the 2 bedding types were used per strain. Each pen contained 262 poults with 12.5 poults/m2. All turkeys received the same commercial poult starter diets throughout the experiment. Treatment pens were assigned in a completely randomized design (i.e., one-way design). Turkeys were moved out of the brooder into a growout facility at 5 wk of age, and the study was terminated. After the DC and PS were placed in the empty brooder pens, drag swabs (1 per pen) were collected and evaluated for Escherichia coli and Salmonella by the same procedure. Footpad scores were taken on a random sample of 30 poults per pen on d 14 and 35. A random sample of 30 poults per pen was weighed at 35 d of age.
615
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616 TABLE 1. Frequency of isolation of selected gram-negative aerobic bacteria from dairy compost (DC) and pine shavings (PS) drag swabsA
ding type. Mortality was analyzed within strain using completely randomized design ANOVA [12].
Positive (n)/cultured (n) Sample DC (prearrival) DC (in pens) PS (in pens)
Escherichia coli O157 E. coliB 0/10 0/8 0/8
2/10 0/8 3/8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Salmonella OtherC 0/10 1/8 7/8
9/10 7/8 2/8
ized ANOVA [12]. Footpad score was analyzed using chi-squared test for independence for footpad score by bedding type and strain by bedding type interactions. Mortality was divided into 2 categories for evaluative purposes: total mortality and mortality that might be a direct or indirect result of litter characteristics (LA). LA mortality was classified by necropsy findings of substantial bedding material in the crop, ventriculus, or proventriculus— especially when accompanied by the absence of true feed in the digestive tract; evidence of emaciation caused by digestive tract blockage with litter; or foot or leg lesions that might have been influenced by detrimental characteristics of the bed-
Total bacterial plate count of DC taken directly out of the windrow was 9 × 107 cfu/g. Bacterial growth consisted of Pseudomonas sp. (non-aeruginosa), Acinetobacter lwoffi, Staphylococcus sp. (non-aureus), Enterobacter cloacae, Proteus mirabilis, and Enterobacter agglomerans (Erwinia herbicola). Escherichia coli (not O157) was isolated from 2 of 10 samples (data not shown). No Salmonella growth was obtained. Total bacterial plate count of PS was 7 × 106 cfu/g. Bacterial growth isolated from PS consisted of Klebsiella ozaenae, Citrobacter freundii, E. coli (not 0157), Salmonella montevideo, Salmonella braenderup, and Salmonella heidelberg (data not shown). The high isolation rate of Salmonella out of the PS was surprising, especially because the shavings were packaged in plastic bags. The bags had been stored in an enclosed shed, and mice were occasionally noticed in the vicinity; however, the widespread isolation among multiple sealed bags lends credence to prebagging contamination of undetermined origin. Results of PS and DC drag swabs are shown in Table 1. Qualitative bacteriologic testing before placement of the DC failed to isolate Salmonella spp. or O157 E. coli. Culturing indicated only moderate
TABLE 2. Total and LA mortality (number of poults per pen replicateA) by strain and bedding material at 35 d of ageB Pen replicate Strain Total mortality A B LA mortality A B
Bedding
1
2
3
4
Mean
PS DC PS DC
10 17 26 28
14 9 13 23
25 12 14 20
19 20 10 25
17.0a 14.5a 15.8a 24.0a
PS DC PS DC
4 3 4 7
5 1 6 8
9 3 4 6
4 6 7 9
5.5a 3.3a 5.3a 7.5a
Column means within age and within strain with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). Mortality in number of poults per 262-poult pen replicate. B Total mortality = all mortality 0 to 35 d of age; LA = mortality that might be a direct or indirect result of litter characteristics; PS = pine shavings; DC = dairy compost. a
A
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DC (pre-arrival) = dairy compost swabbed while still in windrows; DC (in pens) = dairy compost swabbed after farm delivery and spread out in the pens; PS (in pens) = pine shavings swabbed after being spread out in the pens. B Non-O157 C Non-E. coli and non-Salmonella enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp., or other types of bacteria. A
Bacteriologic Findings
FRAME ET AL.: DAIRY COMPOST FOR TURKEY BEDDING
617
TABLE 3. Foot pad scores by strain and bedding material at 14 and 35 d of ageA Footpad score frequency Age 14 d
Strain A B
35 d
A B
Bedding a
PS DCb PSa DCb PSc DCd PSc DCd
0
1
2
3
192 170 199 154 189 102 148 111
48 70 41 86 50 126 90 123
0 0 0 0 1 12 2 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a–d
prevalence of non-O157 E. coli. Salmonella isolated from one DC pen after spreading out the bedding was most likely caused by a cross-contamination with the PS. Other researchers [1, 2, 3] have reported that bacterial growth may recur after compost has passed the heating stage or if the compost fails to reach adequate bactericidal temperature during the heating period.
the same poult van. Although cumulative 35-d mortality was higher in strain B, causes and proportions of mortality were similar for both strains, except that starve-out loss (particularly on d 4 and 5) was more prevalent in strain B. At delivery the mean weight of strain B poults was less than that of strain A, perhaps contributing to a greater predisposition for more strain B poults not to find and consume adequate feed and water during the first week of life.
Mortality There was no significant difference (P < 0.05) in total or LA mortality within either strain (Table 2). Most LA mortality occurred between 4 and 7 d of age (range was 3 to 16 d). Predominant causes of mortality in this trial included omphalitis (1 to 6 d), dehydration (3 to 5 d), failure to consume feed (3 to 8 d), nonspecific poult enteritis (7 to 10 d), and spontaneous turkey cardiomyopathy (13 to 19 d). No Salmonella was isolated at necropsy. Mortality appeared rather high in this study, but no definitive general or strain-related reasons were apparent. Both strains were hatched in the same hatchery and delivered to the brooder in
Footpad Scoring At 14 d of age strains A and B showed a significantly (P < 0.03) greater footpad score for the DC litter treatment, and at 35 d of age, both strains continued to show a significant (P < 0.01) difference (Table 3). Weights Body weights of strain B poults reared on DC were significantly decreased, by 11 to 103 g (95% confidence interval), at 35 d of age, but there was no significant difference in strain A body weight between litter treatments (Table 4).
TABLE 4. Mean body weight (g) by strain and bedding material at 35 d of ageA Pen replication Strain A B
Bedding
1
2
3
4
Mean
PS DC PS DC
1,127 1,109 1,031 872
1,129 1,176 1,057 963
1,205 1,213 979 1,017
1,128 1,173 1,037 1,023
1,147a 1,168a 1,026a 969b
Column means within a strain with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). PS = pine shavings; DC = dairy compost.
a,b A
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at Umea University Library on April 3, 2015
Different superscripts within age and strain denote a significant difference in the frequency of foot pad damage due to treatments (P < 0.05). PS = pine shavings; DC = dairy compost.
A
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CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. Mote, C. R., B. L. Emerton, J. S. Allison, H. H. Dowlen, and S. P. Oliver. 1988. Survival of coliform bacteria in static compost piles of dairy waste solids intended for freestall bedding. J. Dairy Sci. 71:1676–1681. 2. Carroll, E. J., and D. E. Jasper. 1978. Distribution of enterobacteriaceae in recycled manure bedding on California dairies. J. Dairy Sci. 61:1498–1508. 3. Lung, A. J., C. M. Lin, J. M. Kim, M. R. Marshall, R. Nordstedt, N. P. Thompson, and C. I. Wei. 2001. Destruction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enteritidis in cow manure composting. J. Food Prot. 64:1309–1314. 4. Sunderland, S. 2003. Hilltop Dairy, Chester, UT. Personal communication. 5. Hester, P. Y., A. L. Sutton, and R. G. Elkin. 1987. Effect of light intensity, litter source, and litter management on the incidence of leg abnormalities and performance in male turkeys. Poult. Sci. 66:666–675. 6. Ekstrand, C., and B. Algers. 1997. Rearing conditions and footpad dermatitis in Swedish turkey poults. Acta Vet. Scand. 38:167–174. 7. Clark, S., G. Hansen, P. McLean, P. Bond, Jr., W. Wakeman, R. Meadows, and S. Buda. 2002. Pododermatitis in turkeys. Avian Dis. 46:1038–1044.
10. A 10.2 cm × 10.2 cm 4-ply sterile cotton swab (Curity, 1996, Futuro Inc., Milford, OH) was saturated in sterile double-strength skim milk. The swab was attached to a sterile clamp attached to a 1 m long pole made of PVC and dragged through the DC for a minimum of 30 linear meters. A total of 10 drag swabs were collected. Each swab was placed in an individual sterile plastic bag, transported to the laboratory, placed in 100 mL of DIFCO Universal Pre-enrichment Broth (UPB) (Bectin Dickinson and Company, Sparks, MD), incubated for 24 h at 37°C, and then streaked onto MacConkey agar. Concurrently, 1 mL of the incubated UPB culture was inoculated into 10 mL of tetrathionate brilliant green (TBG) Salmonella enrichment broth. Plates and TBG broth were incubated for 24 h at 37°C. Each incubated TBG broth culture was streaked onto MacConkey, brilliant green, and xyloselysine-tergitol 4 (XLT4) agars and incubated for 24 h. After being streaked onto selective media, the primary enrichment TBG broth cultures were held for 5 d at room temperature. One milliliter of each culture was inoculated into 10 mL of fresh TBG broth and incubated for 24 h at 37°C as a secondary enrichment. The incubated secondary enrichment TBG broth cultures were streaked onto MacConkey, brilliant green, and XLT4 agars and incubated for 24 h. Representative colonies of suspect E. coli or Salmonella found on any selective media were subcultured onto triple sugar iron agar and lysine iron agar slants and MacConkey agar for subsequent identification by appropriate biochemical tests.
8. Utah State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Central Utah Branch, 1451 South Main, Nephi, UT.
11. Chen, F., S. L. Noll, C. J. Clanton, K. A. Janni, and D. A. Halvorson. 1991. Market turkey performance affected by floor type and brooding method. Appl. Eng. Agric. 7:606–612.
9. BASF Corporation. 1998. Keeping current: Determining mold counts in feeds. KC 8916. BASF Corp. (www.basf.com).
12. STATISTIX. 2003. Version 8.0. Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL.
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1. We concluded that the DC was not colonized by Salmonella spp. before placement and that E. coli prevalence was low. Even though the Salmonella isolation rate was high in the PS, there was no significant difference in mortality between the PS and DC treatments. Isolation of Salmonella at necropsy was considered to be definitive evidence of pathologic influence; therefore, taking postplacement drag swabs of the litter was considered to be of minimal usefulness and was not done. 2. Although turkeys from the DC pens showed a higher frequency of footpad lesions, subsequent brooder performance, as measured by mortality and signs of foot infection or ambulatory problems, was not affected. Because of logistics, this flock could not be grown out on DC during the growing and finishing period. Subsequent studies with turkeys brooded and grown to processing weight on DC would be useful to determine if footpad score begins to become pathologically significant with prolonged exposure to DC. 3. The DC used in this trial as a brooder bedding source for turkeys appears, although successful, as only a marginal alternative to pine shavings. One problem we encountered was that the DC tended to disintegrate, causing a fine dust to accumulate over equipment and floor within the brooder. Although no increase in airsacculitis was found in our study, we caution the use of DC in large commercial size brooders without some method of dust control. Perhaps DC could be used most advantageously in growout buildings where optimum moisture application could minimize dust production from the DC. Another possibility is to minimize the dust problem by mixing the DC with other sources of bedding.
Dairy Compost as a Source of Turkey Brooder Bedding1 D. D. Frame,2 E. J. Kelly, N. Fields, and L. G. Bagley Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences Department, Utah State University Logan, Utah 84322-4815
SUMMARY Dairy compost (DC) was evaluated as a possible bedding substrate for brooding turkeys. This study compared livability, weight gain, and footpad score between pine shavings (PS) and DC for 2 strains of turkeys. There were no significant differences in either strain for livability through 35 d of age. Mean body weight at 35 d in the DC treatment compared with PS was less in strain B but not significantly different in strain A. Footpad score in the DC treatment was significantly greater in both strains compared with PS; however, brooder performance as measured by mortality and ambulatory disturbances was not affected in either strain. Results suggest DC may have limited but possible value as a bedding material for brooding turkeys. Key words: bedding, brooder, dairy compost, litter, turkey 2004 J. Appl. Poult. Res. 13:614–618
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM Wood shavings are the most common source of poultry bedding in the US. In some areas they may be difficult or expensive to obtain. Comprehensive nutrient management plans (CNMP) require that large animal production units, such as dairies, monitor and account for the removal, disposal, sale, or land application of animal waste products. At times, difficulties may arise as dairies work to comply with their CNMP in regard to appropriate disposal of manure. Composted dairy waste solids have been extensively evaluated for potentially pathogenic bacteria, such as Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp. [1, 2, 3]. This product has been successfully used as free stall bedding in dairies [2, 4]. Even though at least one study [5] has reported that litter type and management does not affect 1
tom performance, other studies [6, 7] concluded that litter wetness or composition did affect the prevalence of footpad dermatitis in turkeys. The objective of this study was to explore the feasibility of using a dairy manure-origin compost product (DC) as a source of brooder bedding for turkeys. This would potentially benefit the poultry industry, by providing an alternative bedding material, and the dairy industry, by facilitating an additional method of manure use in their waste management programs.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Treatment Allocation and Housing Tom turkey poults were received September 15, 2003, at the Utah State University Turkey Research Center in Ephraim, Utah. The brooder was constructed with a concrete floor and con-
This research was supported by the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4810. Approved as journal paper no. 7606. 2 To whom correspondence should be addressed: [email protected].
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at Umea University Library on April 3, 2015
Primary Audience: Poultry Producers, Veterinarians, Researchers
FRAME ET AL.: DAIRY COMPOST FOR TURKEY BEDDING
Bedding Material Pine shavings baled in 0.09m3 plastic bags were used as the control for this experiment. The shavings were purchased from a local commercial distributor. Particle size ranged from 2 × 2 mm to 25 × 5 mm. The DC was obtained from a local dairy. Raw manure from the milking parlor and holding pens was liquefied and transported to the on-farm manure processing facility. Solids were separated from the liquid portion by running the manure through a fan screen and auger. The resultant sludge was placed in windrows 3 m wide and 1 m deep at the apex, tapering to about 6 cm deep at the outermost edges. Length of windrows was variable. The windrows were allowed to aerobically decompose, being periodically turned by machinery designed for the process. Peak internal temperature of the composting material measured by the dairy producer was 45°C. The most likely reason that higher temperatures were not reported was because the producer did not record temperature at the actual peak of heat production. Particle size varied considerably, from less than 1 mm2 to chips 15 × 25 mm. Most particles ranged from 2 to 5 mm2.
Bacteriologic characterization was performed through a local laboratory [8]. Data Collection Preliminary bacterial studies were performed on the DC before delivery to the Turkey Research Center. A total bacterial plate count was obtained on a representative sample of DC following a previously published plate dilution technique procedure. (In our protocol, sterile distilled water was substituted for Butterfield’s buffer and DIFCO Plate Count Agar was substituted for Bacto-Potato Dextrose Agar [9].) A total bacterial count was also performed on the shavings before poult placement. Drag swabs were taken of the DC while still in windrows to check for the possible presence of E. coli and Salmonella spp., these being the most likely potential bacterial pathogens of poultry commonly encountered in material of fecal origin. After being dragged through the DC for a minimum of 30 linear meters, each swab was placed in an individual sterile plastic bag and transported to the laboratory for subsequent bacterial culture [10]. A postmortem evaluation was performed on all poults that died within the 5-wk brooding period. To evaluate the effect of bedding material in the present study, footpad condition was compared between treatments by randomly selecting 30 poults at 14 and 35 d of age from each pen and evaluating the footpads according to the subjective 0 to 3 category scoring system of Chen, et al. [11]. No visible irritation or litter adhesion was given a score of 0. Slight litter adhesion with or without small scabs was given a score of 1 (we included adhesions to the underside of the toes in this category for the 14-d-old evaluation). Large scabs with slight ulceration were given a score of 2. Footpads with severe, large, or deep ulcers extending through the epidermis were assigned a score of 3. Statistical Analysis Because of obvious differences in strain mortality and body weight, it was concluded that between-strain interactions would be of limited value in the analysis of these 2 factors. Body weight treatment differences within strain were evaluated using completely random-
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at Umea University Library on April 3, 2015
sisted of 16 equally sized pens, each pen with a floor space of 20.9 m2. Eight of the 16 pens were covered to a depth of approximately 3.5 cm with pine shavings (PS) as bedding material. The remaining 8 pens were covered 3.5 cm deep with DC. Two strains of turkey were used in this test (strains A and B). Four replicate pens of each of the 2 bedding types were used per strain. Each pen contained 262 poults with 12.5 poults/m2. All turkeys received the same commercial poult starter diets throughout the experiment. Treatment pens were assigned in a completely randomized design (i.e., one-way design). Turkeys were moved out of the brooder into a growout facility at 5 wk of age, and the study was terminated. After the DC and PS were placed in the empty brooder pens, drag swabs (1 per pen) were collected and evaluated for Escherichia coli and Salmonella by the same procedure. Footpad scores were taken on a random sample of 30 poults per pen on d 14 and 35. A random sample of 30 poults per pen was weighed at 35 d of age.
615
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616 TABLE 1. Frequency of isolation of selected gram-negative aerobic bacteria from dairy compost (DC) and pine shavings (PS) drag swabsA
ding type. Mortality was analyzed within strain using completely randomized design ANOVA [12].
Positive (n)/cultured (n) Sample DC (prearrival) DC (in pens) PS (in pens)
Escherichia coli O157 E. coliB 0/10 0/8 0/8
2/10 0/8 3/8
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Salmonella OtherC 0/10 1/8 7/8
9/10 7/8 2/8
ized ANOVA [12]. Footpad score was analyzed using chi-squared test for independence for footpad score by bedding type and strain by bedding type interactions. Mortality was divided into 2 categories for evaluative purposes: total mortality and mortality that might be a direct or indirect result of litter characteristics (LA). LA mortality was classified by necropsy findings of substantial bedding material in the crop, ventriculus, or proventriculus— especially when accompanied by the absence of true feed in the digestive tract; evidence of emaciation caused by digestive tract blockage with litter; or foot or leg lesions that might have been influenced by detrimental characteristics of the bed-
Total bacterial plate count of DC taken directly out of the windrow was 9 × 107 cfu/g. Bacterial growth consisted of Pseudomonas sp. (non-aeruginosa), Acinetobacter lwoffi, Staphylococcus sp. (non-aureus), Enterobacter cloacae, Proteus mirabilis, and Enterobacter agglomerans (Erwinia herbicola). Escherichia coli (not O157) was isolated from 2 of 10 samples (data not shown). No Salmonella growth was obtained. Total bacterial plate count of PS was 7 × 106 cfu/g. Bacterial growth isolated from PS consisted of Klebsiella ozaenae, Citrobacter freundii, E. coli (not 0157), Salmonella montevideo, Salmonella braenderup, and Salmonella heidelberg (data not shown). The high isolation rate of Salmonella out of the PS was surprising, especially because the shavings were packaged in plastic bags. The bags had been stored in an enclosed shed, and mice were occasionally noticed in the vicinity; however, the widespread isolation among multiple sealed bags lends credence to prebagging contamination of undetermined origin. Results of PS and DC drag swabs are shown in Table 1. Qualitative bacteriologic testing before placement of the DC failed to isolate Salmonella spp. or O157 E. coli. Culturing indicated only moderate
TABLE 2. Total and LA mortality (number of poults per pen replicateA) by strain and bedding material at 35 d of ageB Pen replicate Strain Total mortality A B LA mortality A B
Bedding
1
2
3
4
Mean
PS DC PS DC
10 17 26 28
14 9 13 23
25 12 14 20
19 20 10 25
17.0a 14.5a 15.8a 24.0a
PS DC PS DC
4 3 4 7
5 1 6 8
9 3 4 6
4 6 7 9
5.5a 3.3a 5.3a 7.5a
Column means within age and within strain with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). Mortality in number of poults per 262-poult pen replicate. B Total mortality = all mortality 0 to 35 d of age; LA = mortality that might be a direct or indirect result of litter characteristics; PS = pine shavings; DC = dairy compost. a
A
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at Umea University Library on April 3, 2015
DC (pre-arrival) = dairy compost swabbed while still in windrows; DC (in pens) = dairy compost swabbed after farm delivery and spread out in the pens; PS (in pens) = pine shavings swabbed after being spread out in the pens. B Non-O157 C Non-E. coli and non-Salmonella enterobacteriaceae, Staphylococcus spp., Pseudomonas spp., or other types of bacteria. A
Bacteriologic Findings
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617
TABLE 3. Foot pad scores by strain and bedding material at 14 and 35 d of ageA Footpad score frequency Age 14 d
Strain A B
35 d
A B
Bedding a
PS DCb PSa DCb PSc DCd PSc DCd
0
1
2
3
192 170 199 154 189 102 148 111
48 70 41 86 50 126 90 123
0 0 0 0 1 12 2 6
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
a–d
prevalence of non-O157 E. coli. Salmonella isolated from one DC pen after spreading out the bedding was most likely caused by a cross-contamination with the PS. Other researchers [1, 2, 3] have reported that bacterial growth may recur after compost has passed the heating stage or if the compost fails to reach adequate bactericidal temperature during the heating period.
the same poult van. Although cumulative 35-d mortality was higher in strain B, causes and proportions of mortality were similar for both strains, except that starve-out loss (particularly on d 4 and 5) was more prevalent in strain B. At delivery the mean weight of strain B poults was less than that of strain A, perhaps contributing to a greater predisposition for more strain B poults not to find and consume adequate feed and water during the first week of life.
Mortality There was no significant difference (P < 0.05) in total or LA mortality within either strain (Table 2). Most LA mortality occurred between 4 and 7 d of age (range was 3 to 16 d). Predominant causes of mortality in this trial included omphalitis (1 to 6 d), dehydration (3 to 5 d), failure to consume feed (3 to 8 d), nonspecific poult enteritis (7 to 10 d), and spontaneous turkey cardiomyopathy (13 to 19 d). No Salmonella was isolated at necropsy. Mortality appeared rather high in this study, but no definitive general or strain-related reasons were apparent. Both strains were hatched in the same hatchery and delivered to the brooder in
Footpad Scoring At 14 d of age strains A and B showed a significantly (P < 0.03) greater footpad score for the DC litter treatment, and at 35 d of age, both strains continued to show a significant (P < 0.01) difference (Table 3). Weights Body weights of strain B poults reared on DC were significantly decreased, by 11 to 103 g (95% confidence interval), at 35 d of age, but there was no significant difference in strain A body weight between litter treatments (Table 4).
TABLE 4. Mean body weight (g) by strain and bedding material at 35 d of ageA Pen replication Strain A B
Bedding
1
2
3
4
Mean
PS DC PS DC
1,127 1,109 1,031 872
1,129 1,176 1,057 963
1,205 1,213 979 1,017
1,128 1,173 1,037 1,023
1,147a 1,168a 1,026a 969b
Column means within a strain with different superscripts differ significantly (P < 0.05). PS = pine shavings; DC = dairy compost.
a,b A
Downloaded from http://japr.oxfordjournals.org/ at Umea University Library on April 3, 2015
Different superscripts within age and strain denote a significant difference in the frequency of foot pad damage due to treatments (P < 0.05). PS = pine shavings; DC = dairy compost.
A
JAPR: Research Report
618
CONCLUSIONS AND APPLICATIONS
REFERENCES AND NOTES 1. Mote, C. R., B. L. Emerton, J. S. Allison, H. H. Dowlen, and S. P. Oliver. 1988. Survival of coliform bacteria in static compost piles of dairy waste solids intended for freestall bedding. J. Dairy Sci. 71:1676–1681. 2. Carroll, E. J., and D. E. Jasper. 1978. Distribution of enterobacteriaceae in recycled manure bedding on California dairies. J. Dairy Sci. 61:1498–1508. 3. Lung, A. J., C. M. Lin, J. M. Kim, M. R. Marshall, R. Nordstedt, N. P. Thompson, and C. I. Wei. 2001. Destruction of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella enteritidis in cow manure composting. J. Food Prot. 64:1309–1314. 4. Sunderland, S. 2003. Hilltop Dairy, Chester, UT. Personal communication. 5. Hester, P. Y., A. L. Sutton, and R. G. Elkin. 1987. Effect of light intensity, litter source, and litter management on the incidence of leg abnormalities and performance in male turkeys. Poult. Sci. 66:666–675. 6. Ekstrand, C., and B. Algers. 1997. Rearing conditions and footpad dermatitis in Swedish turkey poults. Acta Vet. Scand. 38:167–174. 7. Clark, S., G. Hansen, P. McLean, P. Bond, Jr., W. Wakeman, R. Meadows, and S. Buda. 2002. Pododermatitis in turkeys. Avian Dis. 46:1038–1044.
10. A 10.2 cm × 10.2 cm 4-ply sterile cotton swab (Curity, 1996, Futuro Inc., Milford, OH) was saturated in sterile double-strength skim milk. The swab was attached to a sterile clamp attached to a 1 m long pole made of PVC and dragged through the DC for a minimum of 30 linear meters. A total of 10 drag swabs were collected. Each swab was placed in an individual sterile plastic bag, transported to the laboratory, placed in 100 mL of DIFCO Universal Pre-enrichment Broth (UPB) (Bectin Dickinson and Company, Sparks, MD), incubated for 24 h at 37°C, and then streaked onto MacConkey agar. Concurrently, 1 mL of the incubated UPB culture was inoculated into 10 mL of tetrathionate brilliant green (TBG) Salmonella enrichment broth. Plates and TBG broth were incubated for 24 h at 37°C. Each incubated TBG broth culture was streaked onto MacConkey, brilliant green, and xyloselysine-tergitol 4 (XLT4) agars and incubated for 24 h. After being streaked onto selective media, the primary enrichment TBG broth cultures were held for 5 d at room temperature. One milliliter of each culture was inoculated into 10 mL of fresh TBG broth and incubated for 24 h at 37°C as a secondary enrichment. The incubated secondary enrichment TBG broth cultures were streaked onto MacConkey, brilliant green, and XLT4 agars and incubated for 24 h. Representative colonies of suspect E. coli or Salmonella found on any selective media were subcultured onto triple sugar iron agar and lysine iron agar slants and MacConkey agar for subsequent identification by appropriate biochemical tests.
8. Utah State University Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Central Utah Branch, 1451 South Main, Nephi, UT.
11. Chen, F., S. L. Noll, C. J. Clanton, K. A. Janni, and D. A. Halvorson. 1991. Market turkey performance affected by floor type and brooding method. Appl. Eng. Agric. 7:606–612.
9. BASF Corporation. 1998. Keeping current: Determining mold counts in feeds. KC 8916. BASF Corp. (www.basf.com).
12. STATISTIX. 2003. Version 8.0. Analytical Software, Tallahassee, FL.
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1. We concluded that the DC was not colonized by Salmonella spp. before placement and that E. coli prevalence was low. Even though the Salmonella isolation rate was high in the PS, there was no significant difference in mortality between the PS and DC treatments. Isolation of Salmonella at necropsy was considered to be definitive evidence of pathologic influence; therefore, taking postplacement drag swabs of the litter was considered to be of minimal usefulness and was not done. 2. Although turkeys from the DC pens showed a higher frequency of footpad lesions, subsequent brooder performance, as measured by mortality and signs of foot infection or ambulatory problems, was not affected. Because of logistics, this flock could not be grown out on DC during the growing and finishing period. Subsequent studies with turkeys brooded and grown to processing weight on DC would be useful to determine if footpad score begins to become pathologically significant with prolonged exposure to DC. 3. The DC used in this trial as a brooder bedding source for turkeys appears, although successful, as only a marginal alternative to pine shavings. One problem we encountered was that the DC tended to disintegrate, causing a fine dust to accumulate over equipment and floor within the brooder. Although no increase in airsacculitis was found in our study, we caution the use of DC in large commercial size brooders without some method of dust control. Perhaps DC could be used most advantageously in growout buildings where optimum moisture application could minimize dust production from the DC. Another possibility is to minimize the dust problem by mixing the DC with other sources of bedding.