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Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
C H A P T E R
45 Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi Lixian Yao*, Cuihua Bai, Donglin Luo College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
O U T L I N E 1 Introduction
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5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi
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2 Nutrient concentration in litchi plant
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6 Nutrient management in litchi
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3 Nutrient accumulation and distribution in litchi plant
7 Future research
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References
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4 Nutrient imbalance in litchi
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1 Introduction Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), a tropical and subtropical woody perennial fruit tree with lifespans from decades to centuries, is cultivated in the region from 17 to 25°N in latitude and from 98 to 117°E in longitude (Qi et al., 2016). Commercial plantation of litchi is developed in Africa (e.g., South Africa, Mauritius, Madagascar, Gabon, and Congo), America (e.g., the United States, Brazil, Mexico, Panama, Cuba, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and Tobago), Asia (China, India, Thailand, Vietnam, Bengal, and Nepal), Europe (e.g., Spain, France, and Italy) (Farina et al., 2017; Huang, 2007), and Oceania (Australia) (Diczbalis, 2007). Among them, litchi cultivation area and fruit yield in China account for 69.2% and 62.9% of the total litchi cultivation area and total fruit yield worldwide, respectively (Qi et al., 2016). However, low and unstable fruit yield confuses litchi growers and researchers. Lack of suitable nutrient management has been recognized as one of the major constraints for litchi production. Understanding the nutrient requirement, diagnosis, and management in litchi is indispensable to achieve profitable litchi production.
2 Nutrient concentration in litchi plant Foliar nutrient content reflects the nutritional status in a crop. Litchi grows perennially, and foliar nutrient concentration varies with the nutrient, the growth stage, and fruiting (Luo et al., 2019; Menzel et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2015). A recent study reports the tissue nutrient contents in litchi plants of 10 major litchi cultivars (cv. Feizixiao, Guiwei, Dadingxiang, Ziniangxi, Heiye, Lanzhu, Baitangying, Baila, Huaizhi, and Shuangjianyuhebao) with age of about 15 years from southern China when the fruits were harvested (Table 45.1), which yielded from 38.4 to 101.8 kg/tree (Yao et al., 2020). Generally, litchi leaves contain the highest N level and the lowest P value, whereas the trunks have the maximum Ca or N and the minimum S. N or K is detected with the upmost contents in the epicarp, endocarp, pulp,
A.K. Srivastava, Chengxiao Hu (eds.) Fruit Crops: Diagnosis and Management of Nutrient Constraints https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818732-6.00045-9
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© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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TABLE 45.1
Nutrient concentrations in various parts of 10 major litchi cultivars at fruit harvest in South China (DW).
Item
N (g/kg)
P (g/kg)
K (gkg)
Ca (g/kg)
Mg (g/kg)
S (g/kg)
Si (g/kg)
Fe (mg/kg)
Mn (mg/kg)
Cu (mg/kg)
Zn (mg/kg)
B (mg/kg)
Mo (mg/kg)
Leaf
Range
15.5–19.0
0.8–1.8
5.7–36.6
5.9–14.2
1.3–4.1
0.8–2.2
1.4–7.0
100.0–222.1
44.7–482.7
4.4–10.4
18.9–43.8
11.5–24.9
NDa–2.98
Mean
17.4 (1.4)
1.0 (0.3)
11.5 (9.2)
9.5 (2.7)
2.5 (0.9)
1.5 (0.4)
4.0 (2.1)
160.3 (33.7)
187.8 (154.9)
7.4 (2.3)
29.9 (9.4)
17.5 (3.9)
0.66 (1.14)
Range
2.6–8.9
0.3–1.3
3.1–7.8
4.3–12.7
0.4–1.4
0.3–0.8
0.2–1.6
43.1–286.3
6.2–65.4
0.8–16.9
3.9–23.0
3.8–11.7
ND–0.50
Mean
5.7 (1.9)
0.7 (0.3)
4.3 (1.6)
7.7 (3.0)
0.8 (0.3)
0.5 (0.1)
0.7 (0.5)
102.5 (70.8)
26.5 (18.1)
6.8 (6.9)
10.3 (5.6)
7.8 (2.7)
0.09 (0.18)
Range
2.4–4.6
0.1–0.4
0.9–5.5
2.2–5.9
0.4–0.8
0.3–0.8
0.5–2.3
89.2–618.4
4.9–26.8
1.2–6.5
1.9–27.5
3.8–12.6
ND–1.06
Mean
3.7 (0.6)
0.3 (0.1)
1.9 (1.4)
3.9 (1.2)
0.5 (0.2)
0.5 (0.2)
1.1 (0.7)
217.0 (150.0)
14.5 (7.8)
2.9 (1.5)
6.8 (7.4)
7.6 (3.0)
0.22 (0.39)
Range
8.4–16.3
0.6–1.3
5.5–14.0
4.1–10.3
1.1–2.8
0.5–1.0
0.1–1.9
19.1–70.8
15.8–152.5
3.2–89.2
13.0–29.7
9.7–25.5
ND–0.36
Mean
11.5 (2.4)
0.9 (0.2)
9.3 (2.9)
6.2 (1.6)
2.0 (0.6)
0.7 (0.2)
0.8 (0.6)
41.3 (15.1)
70.6 (43.2)
19.3 (28.1)
20.2 (5.3)
15.9 (4.7)
0.11 (0.12)
Range
9.7–17.9
1.1–3.0
3.5–23.1
2.8–10.1
1.7–3.2
0.4–1.3
ND–2.8
26.2–86.9
14.8–176.0
3.2–28.3
16.7–34.0
17.4–26.7
ND–0.30
Mean
13.0 (2.6)
1.9 (0.6)
13.9 (5.7)
5.5 (2.3)
2.2 (0.5)
0.9 (0.3)
1.1 (1.0)
49.3 (19.0)
74.5 (48.9)
11.2 (7.5)
23.4 (5.4)
22.1 (3.6)
0.09 (0.10)
Range
7.9–13.1
1.2–1.7
6.6–15.6
0.0–3.1
0.7–1.1
0.4–1.0
ND–2.8
13.5–143.5
3.0–13.3
4.5–12.0
10.8–25.3
2.6–13.4
0.00–0.12
Mean
10.7 (2.0)
1.5 (0.2)
10.7 (2.9)
0.6 (0.9)
0.8 (0.1)
0.7 (0.2)
1.0 (1.0)
39.5 (38.2)
7.6 (3.6)
9.0 (2.8)
15.7 (4.5)
7.3 (3.1)
0.03 (0.04)
Range
9.3–13.5
1.1–1.7
3.9–12.6
0.2–3.3
0.9–1.7
0.5–1.4
ND–1.9
22.5–60.0
9.9–31.4
5.2–14.1
13.7–35.7
5.8–39.2
0.00–0.28
Mean
11.1 (1.2)
1.4 (0.2)
7.3 (2.7)
1.3 (1.0)
1.3 (0.3)
0.9 (0.3)
0.8 (0.8)
35.8 (14.1)
19.2 (7.8)
10.5 (2.9)
24.4 (7.1)
14.2 (9.4)
0.12 (0.09)
Trunk
Root
Epicarp
Endocarp
Pulp
Seed
a
ND refers to not detectable. Data in the parenthesis are standard deviation.
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Part
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2 Nutrient concentration in litchi plant
and seed, but Ca or Si is present at the bottom level. Ca dominates in the roots, whereas P or S stays with the lowest value. Mo is commonly undetectable in various parts of litchi trees, which suggests that Mo might be an inhibiting nutrient for litchi production in China (Yao et al., 2020). Nutrient contents in litchi fruits (cv. Bengal and Tai So) are ranked in the order of K > N > P > Mg > Ca > Na > Fe > Zn > Cu > Mn > B in Australia (Menzel et al., 1988b). P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B contents in the fruits of three litchi cultivars (cv. Bosworth, Groff, and Kaimana) from Hawaii are reported in terms of fruit nutrient for eating (Wall, 2006). The annual variances of leaf nutrients in 15-year-old fruit bearing plants (cv. Feizixiao) are illustrated in Fig. 45.1 (Yang et al., 2015). Foliar N slowly decreases during the emergence and maturation of the postharvest vegetative flush (from June to October) and significantly rises to the peak before floral initiation (December) and then gradually declines during the development of panicle, flower, and fruit, and further falls to the bottom level at fruit harvest (from February to May) (Fig. 45.1A). Foliar K reaches the lowest value at fruit harvest and then sharply rises during N
Leaf nutrient content (g/kg)
25 20
cd
bc
cd a
a
15
ab
a
ab
a
d
cd
d
a
d
e
d
c
d
b
b
5
a
f
2011-6
2011-9
c
cd
e
f
e
de
abcd
2011-10 2011-11 2011-12
Mg
b
c
(A)
cde
ab
abc
cde
2012-2
2012-3
2012-4
2012-5
Sampling time
2.5
Leaf nutrient content (g/kg)
ab
Ca
10
0
a
d 2.0 1.5
ab e bc
P
a bc
cd
bc
b cd
d
a
1.0
ef
bc
S
cd
Si
b
d
a
a
a bcd
cde
abc
2012-2
2012-3
2012-4
def
f
0.5
g
0.0 2011-6
2011-9
2011-10 2011-11 2011-12
2012-5
Sampling time
(B) Zn
60
Leaf nutrient content (mg/kg)
K
40
B
Mo
a
ab c
ab
b
c
ab
c d
a 20
de
e
a
ab
a
2011-6
2011-9
cd
bc
cd
b
bcd
b
bc
a
abc
a
c
c
2012-2
2012-3
2012-4
2012-5
0
(C)
2011-10 2011-11 2011-12
Sampling time
FIG. 45.1
Annual variations of foliar N, K, Ca, Mg (A), P, S, Si (B), Zn, B, and Mo (C) contents in litchi (cv. Feizixiao).
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45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
FIG. 45.2 Serious fruit crack in litchi (cv. Baitangying) trees overdosed with potassium fertilizer at one application (upper), as compared with those with routine fertilization (down). Photographed by Lixian Yao.
the development of vegetative flush, maintains at a relatively constant value during vegetative flush maturation and floral initiation (from September to December), and continuously falls to the bottom level during panicle, flower, and fruit development (from February to April) and significantly rises again prior to fruit harvest. Contrary to foliar K, foliar Ca stays at the highest level in June and varies with an opposite trend to foliar K, indicating antagonism between leaf K and Ca during the growth period. Balanced application of K and Ca should be cautiously considered due to the interaction between them in practice. For example, in contrast to the litchi (cv. Baitangying) trees with routine fertilization, serious fruit crack was observed in trees overdosed with potassium chlorite at one application in Maoming Guangdong, southern China, in 2011 (Fig. 45.2), which is ascribed to suppressed fruit Ca caused by excessive K. Foliar Mg changes with a similar seasonal pattern to foliar Ca during the growth period. Foliar P arrives at the bottom concentration after fruit harvest and gradually rises, then reduces during the emergence and maturation of the vegetative flush, significantly increases to the maximum value and stays at similar high level before floral initiation (from November to December), and then steadily declines during the emergence of panicle, fruit-set, and development (from December to April) and increases again prior to fruit harvest (Fig. 45.1B). Foliar S gradually varies with an alternative decrease and increase pattern during the emergence and development of vegetative flush and panicle (from June to February) and then continuously rises to the highest value and maintains constant till fruit harvest. Foliar Si significantly fluctuates during the emergence and development of vegetative flush and panicle, remains at a relatively constant level during fruit-set and development, and then sharply declines till fruit harvest. Foliar Zn reaches to the upmost level after fruit harvest and then steadily declines to the lowest value during the emergence and maturation of vegetative flush and then alternatively and moderately rises and declines till fruit harvest (Fig. 45.1C). Foliar B remains at low concentration during the emergence and development of vegetative flush, however, significantly rises while the flush is completely mature in October and markedly declines to the minimum value before floral initiation, then continuously increases to the maximum during the emergence and development of panicle and fruit set (from November to March), and slightly decreases during fruit development and then increases again till fruit harvest. Foliar Mo remains at trace level as compared with all the other nutrients, however, significantly differs with growth stage as well.
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3 Nutrient accumulation and distribution in litchi plant
3 Nutrient accumulation and distribution in litchi plant Investigation on nutrient requirement in litchi is limited. Menzel and Simpson (1987) summarized the nutrient removal by a 100-kg plant (cv. Late Large Red, Bengal, and Tai so) was 90–250 g N, 35–50 g P, 240–320 g K, 20–60 g Ca, 2.0–2.5 g Cl, 1.0–1.4 g Na, 0.6–1.3 g Fe, 0.4–0.7 g Mn, 0.7–1.0 g Zn, 0.5–1.0 g Cu, and 0.3–0.7 g B, with unspecified tree age and yield level. In southern China, the nutrient requirement by litchi plants (Table 45.2) of 10 major cultivars (cv. Feizixiao, Guiwei, Dadingxiang, Ziniangxi, Heiye, Lanzhu, Baitangying, Baila, Huaizhi and Shuangjianyuhebao) is reported (Yao et al., 2020). To nourish a litchi plants capable of yielding 50 kg fruit, 811.9 298.3 g N, 86.4 34.5 g P, 586.0 259.2 g K, 792.5 421.3 g Ca, 112.8 54.7 g Mg, 66.0 14.7g S, 117.6 76.0g Si, 11.58 7.41g Fe, 4.79 3.18g Mn, 0.98 0.99g Cu, 1.44 0.44 g Zn, 1.02 0.42 g B, and 24.41 37.50 mg Mo are needed in the aboveground parts of the plants, with the ratios of N:P:K:Ca:Mg:S being 1:0.11:0.72:0.98:0.14:0.08. And a total of 114.5 12.8g N, 14.4 1.6 g P, 105.1 31.5 g K, 21.6 8.2 g Ca, 12.5 1.6 g Mg, 7.7 2.3 g S, 10.4 10.1g Si, 0.16 0.13g Cu, 0.27 0.24 g Zn, 0.55 0.50 g Fe, 0.33 0.29 g Mn, 0.14 0.08 g B, and 0.63 0.58 mg Mo is removed by harvesting 50kg fruit of the 10 major litchi cultivars, with the ratios of N:P:K:Ca:Mg:S being 1:0.13:0.92:0.19:0.11:0.07. At fruit harvest, 42.1%–78.7% of the total nutrient requirement for all nutrients except Mo is allocated in the trunk, while 15.8 5.3% of N, 18.9 11.0% of P, 20.2 7.7% of K, 3.4 1.7% of Ca, 12.6 6.3% of Mg, 11.1 5.0% of S, 10.3 12.5% of Si, 8.6 8.8% of Cu, 8.2 5.5% of Zn, 23.8 21.5% of Fe, 20.3 17.7% of Mn, 15.1 11.3% of B, and 23.8 24.5% of Mo are taken away by fruit harvest (Table 45.3) (Yao et al., 2020). The highly variable distribution of Mo in litchi plant supports the observation of Jongruaysup et al. (1994) who reported that Mo is readily remobilized in Mo-adequate plants, but not remobilized in Mo-deficient plants. Feizixiao is the most widely planted cultivar in China. Approximately 259.5 28.4 g of N, 28.3 2.6 g of P, 186.5 19.6 g of K, 41.6 9.2 g of Ca, 36.1 4.7 g of Mg, 12.4 36.1 g of S, 316.8 53.4 mg of Zn, 201.1 29.0 mg of B, and 1.4 0.3 mg of Mo are needed to produce 55.2 7.8 kg of fruit, 39.78 2.60 kg of matured vegetative flush, and 8.44 1.96 kg of panicle for 10-year-old Feizixiao plants in 1 year, with the nutrient ratios of N:P:K:Ca:Mg being 1:0.11:0.72:0.16:0.14 for the vegetative flush, 1:0.12:0.75:0.22:0.12 for the panicle, and 1:0.13:1.06:0.16:0.12 for the fruit (Yao et al., 2017b). Moreover, all of the N, P, K, Mg, S, Mo, 67.5% of Zn, and 20.2% of B accumulated in litchi panicle are transferred from the terminal vegetative flush (the last autumn flush). Litchi plant hardly absorbs nutrients after the maturation of the terminal shoot and before flowering, with the exception of Ca, Zn, and B absorption during this stage. Almost all of the N, K, Ca, Zn, and S required by fruit development are newly taken up by the plant during fruit swelling, and partial P, Mg, B, and Mo are translocated from the first and the second vegetative flushes (Yao et al., 2017b).
TABLE 45.2
Nutrient accumulated in the aboveground parts of 10 major litchi cultivars to yield 50 kg fruit in South China.
Part
Item
N (g)
P (g)
K (g)
Ca (g)
Mg (g)
S (g)
Si (g)
Fe (g)
Mn (g)
Cu (g)
Zn (g)
B (g)
Mo (mg)
Fruit
Range
95.4– 135.1
12.4– 17.2
68.4– 169.8
12.7– 42.0
9.3– 14.1
4.5– 11.3
0.5– 28.0
0.23– 1.76
0.08– 1.10
0.05– 0.48
0.13– 0.94
0.07– 0.37
0.0–1.61
Mean
114.5 (12.8)
14.4 (1.6)
105.1 (31.5)
21.6 (8.2)
12.5 (1.6)
7.7 (2.3)
10.4 (10.1)
0.55 (0.50)
0.33 (0.29)
0.16 (0.13)
0.27 (0.24)
0.14 (0.08)
0.63 (0.58)
Range
124.9– 428.3
6.1– 41.5
48.3– 829.8
54.3– 322.3
10.1– 79.1
9.9– 22.2
11.2– 158.6
0.84– 5.04
0.60– 5.76
0.06– 1.32
0.21– 0.89
0.12– 0.38
0.0– 35.55
Mean
237.2 (106.9)
14.6 (10.0)
176.2 (232.2)
135.1 (86.5)
35.7 (23.0)
18.7 (3.7)
61.4 (51.6)
2.33 (1.30)
2.22 (1.75)
0.34 (0.51)
0.40 (0.22)
0.23 (0.08)
8.36 (13.39)
Range
126.6– 825.1
14.6– 89.1
117.0– 619.3
170.0– 1124.4
24.3– 147.9
22.1– 57.5
4.9– 121.6
1.41– 29.25
0.47– 5.21
0.10– 1.76
0.19– 1.58
0.295– 0.15
0.0– 60.34
Mean
460.2 (225.0)
57.4 (27.4)
304.7 (146.2)
635.8 (354.8)
64.6 (37.1)
39.6 (11.4)
45.8 (32.7)
8.70 (7.75)
2.24 (1.84)
0.48 (0.54)
0.77 (0.37)
0.65 (0.41)
15.42 (25.14)
Range
403.0– 1156.4
38.5– 145.9
233.7– 1140.7
257.2– 1318.2
48.1– 218.8
37.2– 82.0
36.1– 281.4
3.08– 31.04
1.24– 10.51
0.26– 3.37
0.74– 2.27
0.54– 1.85
0.0– 81.96
Mean
811.9 (298.3)
86.4 (34.5)
586.0 (259.2)
792.5 (421.3)
112.8 (54.7)
66.0 (14.7)
117.6 (76.0)
11.58 (7.41)
4.79 (3.18)
0.98 (0.99)
1.44 (0.44)
1.02 (0.42)
24.41 (37.50)
Leaf
Trunk
Total
Data in the parenthesis are standard deviation.
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45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
TABLE 45.3
Nutrient distribution (%) in various parts of 10 major litchi cultivars in South China.
Part
Item
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
Si
Fe
Mn
Cu
Zn
B
Mo
Fruit
Range
10.1– 23.9
1.3– 39.7
8.1– 34.1
1.4– 5.8
1.1– 20.8
0.4– 17.0
0.6– 37.4
6.4– 75.7
9.1–69.9
0.9– 26.7
3.2– 20.8
5.5– 44.1
0– 64.5
Mean
15.8 (5.3)
18.9 (11.0)
20.2 (7.7)
3.4 (1.7)
12.6 (6.3)
11.1 (5.0)
10.3 (12.5)
23.8 (21.5)
20.3 (17.7)
8.6 (8.8)
8.2 (5.5)
15.1 (11.3)
23.8 (24.5)
Range
18.5– 44.7
10.7– 28.4
14.4– 72.7
8.9– 28.1
17.1– 51.4
22.4– 36.1
22.0– 94.4
6.2– 66.5
16.043.4
4.8– 46.7
13.9– 63.4
11.3– 36.8
0– 72.6
Mean
30.0 (9.0)
16.9 (6.3)
25.6 (17.4)
18.0 (6.9)
30.4 (10.3)
28.7 (4.0)
48.2 (21.3)
27.3 (16.8)
27.1 (8.8)
25.3 (14.8)
47.1 (16.0)
24.2 (8.5)
45.0 (24.2)
Range
31.4– 71.3
33.8– 74.1
19.1– 72.0
66.1– 88.3
40.6– 67.7
51.9– 70.1
5.1– 75.6
15.4– 85.8
14.1– 71.1
45.4– 94.2
15.9– 81.8
35.0– 83.2
0– 80.1
Mean
54.1 (11.7)
63.4 (13.2)
54.3 (15.8)
78.7 (7.4)
56.3 (10.1)
59.4 (5.6)
42.1 (20.6)
48.0 (19.4)
53.5 (16.5)
68.5 (17.5)
45.0 (17.9)
60.5 (15.4)
21.0 (31.6)
Leaf
Trunk
Data in the parenthesis are standard deviation.
As a heavily trimmed cultivar with high growth speed, the nutrient removal by harvesting 55.2 7.8 kg fruit and trimming 39.78 2.60 kg vegetative flush from Feizixiao plants is summed up to 320.6 49.8 g N, 33.7 5.3 g P, 273.2 39.3 g K, 143.5 28.6 g Ca, 38.5 8.4 g Mg, 16.1 2.5 g S, 544.2 91.3 mg Zn, 357.9 45.9 mg B, and 1.2 0.3 mg Mo, which is the minimum nutrient requirement for the growth and development of vegetative flush, panicle and fruit, and the maintenance of soil fertility during the next growth period (Yao et al., 2017b). This implies that fertilization soon after fruit harvest is the key for emergence and development of healthy vegetative flush in heavily trimmed litchi cultivars like Feizixiao.
4 Nutrient imbalance in litchi Foliar nutrient deficient symptoms in litchi are not easy to be clearly discriminated in field condition worldwide because the symptoms associated with insects, pathogens, pesticides, herbicides, growth regulators, climate, and so on might be mixed with those caused by nutrient deficiency. The functions of nutrients in litchi were reviewed by Menzel and Simpson (1987), and the deficiency symptoms of some nutrients including N, P, K, Fe, Cu, Zn, and B were described or illustrated in South Africa (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010). Visual symptoms of N, K, Mg, Fe, and Zn in litchi (cv. Brewster and Mauritius) grown in gravel culture and irrigated with modified Hoagland solution or nutrient solutions minus N, K, Mg, Mn, Zn, or Fe were recorded in Florida of the United States (Thomas et al., 1995). Digital pictures of typical foliar nutrient deficiency symptoms in litchi (cv. Huaizhi) nourished with optimum nutrient (complete nutrient) solution or nutrient-omitted solutions are recently recorded in China (Figs. 45.3–45.13). FIG. 45.3 Foliar N deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
FIG. 45.4
Foliar P deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan
Zhang.
FIG. 45.5 Foliar K deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
FIG. 45.6
Foliar Mg deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
FIG. 45.7 Foliar S deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
668
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
FIG. 45.8 Foliar Fe deficiency in litchi tree cultivated in calcareous soil in Luzhou Sichuan, southwest China. Photographed by Lixian Yao.
FIG. 45.9 Foliar Fe deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu Sun.
FIG. 45.10 Foliar Mn deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu Sun.
FIG. 45.11 qiu Sun.
Foliar Cu deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Min-
4 Nutrient imbalance in litchi
669 FIG. 45.12 Foliar Zn deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu Sun.
FIG. 45.13
Foliar B deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu
Sun.
N deficient litchi plant is severely stunted, and obvious symptoms first occur in the older leaves, characterized by even chlorosis and following marginal scorch. While N starvation is prolonged, the younger leaves fade green (gray in print version) and wither in the leaf apices as well (Fig. 45.3). The typical P deficient symptoms include smaller, narrower, and longer young leaves as compared with the old leaves, and all the leaves grow dark green (black in print version) as P starvation prolongs (Fig. 45.4). While a litchi plant is deficient in K, small rufous patches first appear in the apices of old leaves and spread to the margins and base and then merge into obvious patches, and the residue areas change to yellow (light gray in print version) from healthy green (dark gray in print version). The rufous patches also occur in the young leaves, and the whole leaf fades green (gray in print version) while in severe K deficiency (Fig. 45.5). Although symptoms of Ca deficiency in litchi were documented as small leaflets, leaf necrosis along margins, and severe leaf drop by Goldweber (1959), litchi seedlings grow healthy and do not show visual symptoms even after being subjected to Ca-omitted nutrient solutions for 4 months. Leaf drop was recorded for all litchi plants separately grown in gravel and nourished with complete nutrient solution, minus N, P, K, Ca, and Mg solutions over 6 months (Goldweber, 1959), which is likely contributed to the secondary salinity stress caused by nutrient solutions. Ca deficiency is seldom reported and rare in field condition worldwide.
670
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Large irregular necrotic patches first occur in the older leaves of Mg deficient litchi plants, with the remaining areas of the older leaves staying green. The patches progress along leaf apices and margins toward the base, followed by a burned appearance (Fig. 45.6). Symptoms of S deficiency include serious stunting growth, considerably smaller young leaflets with light green (light gray in print version) to yellow (gray in print version) color, and older leaves with green (dark gray in print version) color (Fig. 45.7). Fe is the micronutrient with the maximum requirement by litchi as shown in Table 45.2. However, symptoms of Fe deficiency are not common in acid soils of the main production region worldwide, with the exception in calcareous soils or heavily limed soils. Fe-deficient litchi tree is characterized by obvious interveinal chlorosis of young leaves, poor flowering and fruit-set and extremely low fruit yield in field condition, as found in calcareous soil with pH of 7.5 in Luzhou Sichuan, southwest China (Fig. 45.8). Litchi seedlings grown in minus Fe nutrient solution are significantly stunted, and serious interveinal chlorosis is also observed in the young leaflets. Some seedlings are subjected to dieback, whereas some of them sprout again, but the young leaflets appear pale, almost white in color (Fig. 45.9). Mn deficient symptoms begin as interveinal chlorosis of young leaves, followed by randomized occurred tiny rufous patches on the leaves. Leaf size is not affected by Mn deficiency, and the older leaves stay green (dark gray in print version) (Fig. 45.10). Symptoms of Cu deficiency are similar to those of Mn deficiency, with the exception figure of small young leaflets and bright orange-red (gray in print version) patches between the midribs and the margins (Fig. 45.11). Zn deficient litchi plants are characterized by long and narrow young leaves with curled margins and young leaflets emerging from the axillae of the older leaves, with a caespitose appearance. Brown (gray in print version) patches occur in apices of the young leaflets as the starvation continues, while the old leaves stay healthy (Fig. 45.12). Symptoms of B deficiency start as interveinal chlorosis in the young leaflets, followed by chlorosis of the veins, and brown (gray in print version) stains along the margins as the starvation prolongs (Fig. 45.13). Although foliar Ca deficiency symptoms are not found, fruit abnormality caused by Ca or Ca and B deficiencies associated with bad weather including continuous drought, wet, coldness, or torridity is recently concerned (Yao et al., 2017a). Litchi fruit is significantly stunted during the fruitlet stage and grows abnormally at harvest, and more seriously, the endocarp, superior to the epicarp, turns brown (gray in print version), or the pericarp is cracked and the seed becomes necrosis after being subjected to continuous wet and coldness during fruitlet stage (Fig. 45.14). And, fruit matures with small and abnormal size or cannot turn red (light gray in print version) prior to harvest under xerothermic climate. Comparably, investigation on nutrient toxicity in litchi is scarce up to date. Even fruit yield is significantly suppressed by overuse of boron, no visual symptoms are found in litchi plants in the field condition (Yang et al., 2016).
5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi Leaf analysis or foliar nutrient diagnosis has been recognized as an important tool to improve nutrient management in crop. As a perennial woody fruit tree, leaf age, phenological stage, fruit status, and yield level, vegetative flush control, promotion of floral initiation, fertilization, pest and disease control, and so on greatly affect the relationship between fruit yield and leaf nutrient concentration (Luo et al., 2019; Menzel et al., 1992; Roy et al., 1984). Therefore, a universal leaf nutrient standard might not be suitable for litchi production worldwide. Leaf nutrient standards are proposed in several countries/regions (Table 45.4), and Dai (1999) summarized the leaf nutrient norms for various litchi cultivars in China (Table 45.5). It is difficult to compare the practicability of various leaf nutrient norms due to discrepancies of soil type, cultivar, fruit level, diagnosis time, and even the approaches used to build the norms. For example, after comparing the reliability and diagnosis accuracy of four approaches including critical value approach, sufficiency range approach (also named as standard value approach), modified diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (M-DRIS), and compositional nutrient diagnosis, sufficiency range approach is selected to build the foliar nutrient norms for litchi (cv. Feizixiao) capable of yielding approximately 20 t/ha in southern China, based on leaf nutrient concentrations and fruit yields of 538 samples gathered from 22 orchards within 2 years (Luo et al., 2019). However, it is deemed that variable leaf nutrient standards for different growth stages are necessary because there are significant differences for leaf nutrient concentrations among phenological stages (Luo et al., 2019; Menzel et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2015).
5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi
671
FIG. 45.14 Fruit abnormality (cv. Caomeili and Xianjinfeng) caused by Ca deficiency due to bad weather in southern China. Photographed by Yaliang Gu and Lixian Yao.
Besides leaf analysis, soil analysis is deemed as a useful aid for proper fertilization in litchi as well. Menzel and Simpson (1987) suggested soil attribute standards from trees, nut, vine, and fruit crops for the evaluation of litchi soils in Australia, and litchi soil norms are proposed in Fujian, China, and South Africa as well (Table 45.6) (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010; Zhuang et al., 1994). The variable soil attribute norms for litchi indicate that soil properties differ greatly with regions and might considerably affect nutrient management in litchi grown in different soil types. However, soil nutrient status might not act as reliable indicators for leaf or tissue nutrients in litchi plants. No close relation is observed between tissue elements and soil nutrients in 10 major litchi cultivars from southern China, with the
672
TABLE 45.4
Litchi foliar diagnosis norms from different countries/regions.
Location
Cultivar
Diagnosis stage (sampling time)
Agrilink
N (g/kg)
P (g/kg)
K (g/kg)
Ca (g/kg)
Mg (g/kg)
S (g/kg)
Fe (mg/kg)
Mn Cu (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
Zn (mg/kg)
B (mg/kg)
15–18
1.4–2.2
7–11
6–10
3–5
50–100
100–250
10–25
15–30
40–60
Diczbalis (2007)
7.0–11.0
6.0–10.0 3.0–5.0 –
50–100
100–250
10–25
15–30
25–60
Menzel et al. (1992)
7.7–11.0 2.5–3.7 1.51–1.81 –
–
–
19.6–32.6 11.5–19.2 Luo et al. (2019)
Reference
Tai So, Haak Yip, Wai Chee
1–2 weeks after panicle emergence
15.0–18.0 1.4–2.2
China Mainland
Feizixiao
Fruit bulking (4–5 weeks before harvest)
16.7–19.2 1.06–1.25 5.1–6.7
Feizixiao
Terminal shoot maturation
19.7–22.0 1.69–1.95 10.8–12.7 3.0–4.1
2.5–2.9 1.38–1.57 –
–
–
15.0–18.9 10.8–16.8 Luo et al. (2019)
16–19
3–5
100–250
10–25
15–30
China Taiwan
Haak Yip
1.2–2.7
3.9–11.5
6–10
50–100
25–60
India
Diczbalis (2007)
Low yield population
13.9
1.8
7.8
High yield population
15.1
2.0
7.7
South Africa
Thailand
Diczbalis (2007)
Not specified
Mid-September to midNovember (6–8 month old leaves)
14.6–16.2 1.5–2.0
9.0–10.6
8.0–25.0 2.0–7.0 –
50–200
50–200
10–15
15–40
20–75
de Villiers and Joubert (2010)
19.5–20.3 1.8–1.9
10.0
2.9–3.5
29–30
49–62
12–14
15–16
14
Diczbalis (2007)
2.3–2.5
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Australia
673
5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi
TABLE 45.5
TABLE 45.6
Foliar nutrient standards for litchi in China (Dai, 1999).
Cultivar
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
Lanzhu
1.5–2.2
0.12–0.18
0.7–1.4
0.3–0.8
0.18–0.38
Dazao
1.5–2.0
0.11–0.16
0.7–1.2
0.3–0.5
0.12–0.25
Heli
1.6–2.3
0.12–0.18
0.8–1.4
0.5–1.35
0.2–0.4
Nuomici
1.5–1.8
0.13–0.18
0.7–1.2
–
–
Huaizhi
1.4–1.6
0.11–0.15
0.6–1.0
–
–
Chenzi
1.4–1.8
0.12–0.17
0.8–1.2
–
–
Soil attribute norms for litchi. Norms for trees, nut, vine, and fruit crops (Menzel and Simpson, 1987) Low
No action required
High
Norms for litchi (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010)
Norms for litchi (Zhuang et al., 1994)
<5.0
5.0–5.5
>5.5
5.7–6.8
–
Low
Medium
High
–
–
Organic C (%)
<1.0
1–3
>3.0
–
–
NO-3-N
<20
20–40
>40
–
–
P (mg/kg)
<20
20–60
>60
5–10 (resin), 15–25 (bray 1)
–
K (mg/kg)
<78
78–195
>195
60–80 (sandy soil), 80–200 (clay soil)
–
Ca (mg/kg)
<1200
1200–2000
>2000
–
–
Mg (mg/kg)
<192
192–384
>384
–
–
2.5–5.0
–
No action required
–
–
Cl (mg/kg)
<250
–
–
Na (mg/kg)
<390
–
–
Electrical conductivity (ms/cm)
<0.4
–
–
Cu (mg/kg)
0.3–10.0
–
1.0–5.0
Zn (mg/kg)
2–15
–
1.5–5.0
Mn (mg/kg)
2–50
–
1.5–5.0
Fe (mg/kg)
2–50
–
B (mg/kg)
1.0–5.0
–
Al (mg/kg)
<540
0–30
Mo (mg/kg)
–
–
Soil attribute pH
(mg/kg)
Ca/Mg
0.4–1.0
0.15–0.32
exception that foliar K, Ca, and Mg significantly correlate with soil available K and exchangeable Ca and Mg (Table 45.7) (Yao et al., 2020). Moreover, no close relation is computed between fruit yield and soil attributes including soil pH, organic matter, alkaline hydrolyzable N, Oslen-P, and available K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, and Mo (Yao et al., 2020). Therefore, the utilization of soil nutrient standards might be limited due to the lack of linkage between soil properties versus tissue nutrients and fruit yield in litchi, as compared with the foliar nutrient norms in litchi.
674
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
TABLE 45.7 Soil nutrient
Pearson coefficients between soil nutrients and tissue nutrients in various parts of 10 major litchi cultivars in southern China (Yao et al., 2020). Leaf
Trunk
Root
Epicarp
Endocarp
Pulp
Seed
a
N
0.525
0.394
0.428
0.035
0.093
0.114
0.073
b
P
0.143
0.580
0.491
0.162
0.450
0.634*
0.602*
K
0.636*
0.071
0.162
0.086
0.308
0.106
0.046
Ca
0.627*
0.733*
0.380
0.206
0.224
0.329
0.246
Mg
0.669*
0.566
0.562
0.049
0.259
0.288
0.351
S
0.137
0.452
0.245
0.077
0.142
0.032
0.011
Si
0.416
0.129
0.328
0.067
0.003
0.033
0.223
Fe
0.111
0.250
0.368
0.605*
0.800**
0.126
0.732*
Mn
0.480
0.391
0.535
0.390
0.327
0.345
0.328
Cu
0.242
0.107
0.689*
0.064
0.017
0.634*
0.505
Zn
0.180
0.269
0.044
0.366
0.173
0.540
0.213
B
0.131
0.040
0.249
0.173
0.261
0.024
0.204
Mo
0.274
0.281
0.151
0.294
0.025
0.305
0.399
* and ** denote significant at 0.05 level. a Soil N refers to alkaline hydrolyzable N. b Soil P refers to Olsen-P.
6 Nutrient management in litchi Systematic nutrient management program in litchi is inadequately studied up to date. Fertilization practices to obtain greater tree size and bearing canopy for young tree in several countries were summarized in Australia, India, South Africa, and the United State (Table 45.8) (Menzel and Simpson, 1987; de Villiers and Joubert, 2010). The total amount of nutrients and timing differ greatly in different regions or even in different orchards in the same region. A tentative nutrition program, illustrating the fertilizer choices based on phenological stage of litchi, is also suggested in Australia (Menzel and Simpson, 1987). In China, the total amount of nutrient input per year in litchi is commonly determined by target fruit yield, rather than by tree age. It maybe be linked with the fact that besides the old trees have been cultivated for decades or even for hundreds of years, most of the commercial litchi trees were planted in the late 1980s and the early 1990s in China and now are at fruit bearing stage (Yao, 2009). Although the nutrient takeaway by litchi fruit and flush is documented, the suitable fertilizer doses cannot be precisely calculated solely by nutrient removal because use efficiencies of fertilizers are not available in litchi. However, the reasonable fertilizer rates might be estimated by field experiments involving in fruit yield response to fertilizers. Chen et al. (1998) suggested that 0.84 kg N, 0.5 kg P2O5, and 1.2 kg K2O (N:P2O5:K2O ¼ 1:0.6:1.43) are applied for litchi canopy capable of yielding 50-kg fruit (cv. Guiwei) by a 5-year field trial. Dai et al. (1998) proposed 0.8 kg N, 1.0 kg P2O5, and 1.5 kg K2O (N:P2O5:K2O ¼ 1:1.25:1.875) for producing 43.1 kg fruits (cv. Lanzhu) from a 5-year experiment. 0.25–0.5 kg N is recommended to generate 23.4–30.1 kg fruit (cv. Chenzi) through a 6-year experiment (Liang and Dai, 1984), with the ratios of N:P2O5:K2O being 1:2:6 or 1:1:3. Excessive N promotes the development of vegetative flushing and leads to poor flowering and fruit setting in litchi (Liang and Dai, 1984; Menzel et al., 1988a), whereas overdose of K postpones fruit development and harvest and increases titratable acid content in fruit, leading to lower ratio of soluble sugar over acid in the pulp (Su et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2015). As compared with the N:P:K ratio of nutrient accumulation and removal in litchi (Yao et al., 2017b, 2020), both P and K might be overused in the previous studies (Chen et al., 1998; Dai et al., 1998; Liang and Dai, 1984). He et al. (2003) examined the effect of application ratio of K over N fertilizer (K2O/N 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6, with the ratio of P2O5/ N ¼ 0.6) on litchi fruit (cv. Sanyuehong) yield in three orchards in Guangxi, southern China, over 3 years and suggested that when K and N fertilizers are applied at the ratio of K2O/N ¼ 1.2, litchi yield the maximum. After investigating the response of fruit yield, quality and harvest time to K over N fertilization ratio (K2O/N 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, and 1.4) in litchi
675
6 Nutrient management in litchi
TABLE 45.8
Fertilizer practices for litchi trees in Australia, India, South Africa, and the United States. Amount of nutrients (g/tree/year)
Country/region
Tree age
N
P
K
Timing of fertilization (northern hemisphere equivalent)
Australia
1
60
12
100
July, November, March
2
90
18
150
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
3
150
30
220
4
180
60
300
1
190
10
25
2
350
40
100
N monthly, P, K trimonthly, organic in March in Years 2 and 3
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
3
530
70
150
4
390
10
50
1–3
175–350
20–60
105–235
December, February, April
4–6
650–1200
75–125
300–470
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
1
28
13
25
2
84
21
50
3
196
26
75
4–5
280
26
100
6–7
420
53
150
8–9
560
53
200
10–11
700
79
250
12–13
840
79
375
14–15
980
105
500
15 and older
1120
105
500
1
10
15
15
2
14
20
20
3
28
40
40
Australia
India
South Africa
Florida, United States
Hawaii, United States
4
56
80
80
5
112
160
160
1
34
34
34
2
68
66
68
3
136
136
136
4
272–410
272–410
272–410
Reference
de Villiers and Joubert (2010)
Monthly February, May, August
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
Quarter-monthly
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
(cv. Feizixiao) within 4 years, Yang et al. (2015) recommended that use ratio of K2O/N ¼ 1.0–1.2 is suitable for typical red soils with low N and K and medium to abundant P in southern China, based on the supplement of proper P (P2O5/ N ¼ 0.3), Ca, Mg, B, and Mo nutrients. Further, fertilization programs in China are commonly recommended in terms of phenological stage (Table 45.9). The total amount of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg is divided into three to four splits after fruit harvest, before flowering, and/or after flower abscission and fruit bulking for fruit-bearing trees. Forty-five percent to 65% of N, 30%–45% P, 22.2%–30% of K, and 30%–40% Ca of the total nutrient dosage are used after fruit harvest; 15%–25% of N, 25%–35% of P, 35%–47.8% of K, and 40% of Ca and Mg are applied during fruit bulking stage, and the residue is added before flowering and/or after flower abscission.
676 TABLE 45.9
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Fertilization programs for litchi in China. Total amount of nutrients (g/tree)
Cultivar
N
P2O5
K2O
Ca
Guiwei (14 a, 62.7 kg/tree), Nuomici (16 a, 62.7 kg/tree)
709
284
887
Guiwei (21 a, 50 kg/tree)
840
500
1200
Feizixiao (5 a, 18.1 kg/tree)
450
130
540
80
Guiwei (10 a, 5.2 kg/tree)
350
120
300
150
Mg
Timing
Reference
71
After fruit harvest: N 55%, P 30%, K 30% Before flowering: N 20%, P 35%, K 35% Fruit bulking: N 25%, P 35%, K 35%
Zhou et al. (2001)
After fruit harvest: N 65%, P 33.3%, K 25% Before flowering: N 20%, P 33.3%, K 40% Fruit bulking: N 15%, P 33.3%, K 35%
Chen et al. (1998)
40
After fruit harvest: N 45%, P 45%, K 22.2%, Ca 30%, Mg 30% Before flowering: N 10%, P 10%, K 7.4%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% After flower abscission: N 10%, P 10%, K 7.4%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% Fruit bulking: N 25%, P 25%, K 42.6%, Ca 40%, Mg 40%
Li et al. (2011)
60
After fruit harvest: N 45%, P 45%, K 26.1%, Ca 30%, Mg 30% Before flowering: N 10%, P 10%, K 8.7%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% After flower abscission: N 10%, P 10%, K 8.7%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% Fruit bulking: N 25%, P 25%, K 47.8%, Ca 40%, Mg 40%
Besides land application, spraying macro- and secondary nutrient fertilizers is adopted to improve fruit set and quality as well. Foliar urea application at the rate of 120 g/plant after blossom in 6-year Bengal litchi significantly boosts fruit set and size in Brazil (Goncalves et al., 2016). Foliar spray of mixture of Ca and Mg (0.3% CaCl2 + 1.5% MgCl2, w/w) improves fruit pigmentation and maturation in Sanyuehong and Feizixiao litchi in Hainan, China (Gao et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2015), which might overcome the retarded fruit maturation linked with K overuse due to antagonism between K and Ca and Mg. Meanwhile, Mg application enhances anthocyanin synthesis in the pericarp via promoting the ratio of abscisic acid/gibberellin and then stimulating the activity of flavonoid transferase (Zhou et al., 2016). Foliar application of 3% CaCl2 + 1.5% borax (Na2B4O710H2O) not only increases single fruit weight but also enhances total sugars, reducing sugars and nonreducing sugars in fruits (cv. Gola) in Pakistan (Haq et al., 2013). However, it is demonstrated that 1% urea spray in early May, 4% KNO3 spray in mid-May, 2% KNO3 during flowering, 2% Ca(NO3)2 foliar spray at fruit set, and 2% KNO3 spray at fruitlet stage cannot increase fruit (cv. HLH Mauritius) yield in South Africa (Cronje and Mostert, 2009). Additionally, foliar spray of Ca or Ca/B is beneficial to avoid fruit abnormality caused by Ca and Ca/B deficiencies due to bad weather during fruit development. Spraying 0.1 mmol/L Ca(NO3)2 or 1 mmol/L gibberellin three times at flowering, fruitlet, and fruit bulking stages, effectively alleviates fruit crack in litchi (cv. Nuomici) (Peng et al., 2001). Fruit crack is reduced by spraying chelated calcium solution containing 180 mmol/L Ca in Nuomici litchi as well (Li et al., 1999). Spraying 0.2% or 0.5% CaCl2 after full blossom does not effectively enhance structural Ca in litchi pericarp, however, generally reduces fruit cracking rate in Nuomici litchi (Huang et al., 2008). Foliar spray of micronutrients, a common practice to prevent or alleviate micronutrient deficiencies in litchi production, is summarized in Table 45.10. Micronutrients are suggested as the concentrations of either elements or compounds in various countries. Spraying concentrations of Zn, B, Cu, Mn, and Fe are proposed in Australia (Menzel and Simpson, 1987), and those of Zn, B, Cu, and Mn are recommended in South Africa (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010). Boron deficiency is a worldwide nutrient constraint in crop production, and the suitable B concentrations in litchi differ with countries. For example, 0.11–0.45 g B/L and 1 g solubor/L are recommended in Australia and South Africa, respectively; however, it is reported that spraying solubor (Na2B4O710H2O)
677
7 Future research
TABLE 45.10
Supplement of micronutrients in litchi.
Country
Nutrient
Concentration
Reference
Australia
Zn
0.45–2.70 g Zn/L as ZnSO47H2O or ZnO
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
B
0.11–0.45 g/B/L as H3BO3 or Na2B4O7
Cu
0.51–3.05 g Cu/L as CuSO44H2O
Mn
0.59 g Mn/L as MnSO45H2O
Fe
0.48 g Fe/L as FeSO47H2O
Zn
2 g ZnO/L or 1.5 mL nitrozinc/L
B
1 g solubor/L
Cu
2 g copper oxychloride/L
Mn
2 g MnSO4/L
B
0.5 g Na2B4O710H2O/L
South Africa
China
de Villiers and Joubert (2010)
Yang et al. (2016)
at the rate of 0.5 g/L (equalling to 0.056 g B/L) prior to flowering, after flower drop and fruitlet stage, improves fruit set and increases the yield by 98.8% as compared with the control, whereas spraying solubor at 1 and 2 g/L significantly reduces fruit yield by 81.4% and 14.7% in southern China (Yang et al., 2016). Supplement of Fe and Mn is not reported in China due to abundant Fe and Mn in the acid soils of most litchi orchard in the main production area.
7 Future research Systematic nutrient management in litchi is under investigation, probably due to its huge biomass and longevity, in contrast to other perennial fruit crops such as apple and citrus. Some constraints, worthy to be focused on in the near future, are suggested as follows: New litchi cultivars or the immigrated varieties are increasingly planted worldwide (Chen et al., 2016; Froneman et al., 2016; Marboh et al., 2018). The nutritional demand and response to nutrients of the new/immigrated species are urgently needed to be illuminated. New fertilizers such as slow release fertilizer and controlled release fertilizer have been utilized in crops (Cheng et al., 2015; Ke et al., 2018; Saha et al., 2019), which are particularly suitable for litchi owing to its yearly growth period. Investigations are required to find how the new fertilizers enhance nutrient use efficiency and promote plant growth in litchi. Meanwhile, fertigation is commonly adopted in versatile crops. Fertilization schemes including right fertilizer combinations with right rates under fertigation in litchi are impending requirements as well. With regard to nutrient diagnosis, time efficiency of leaf analysis is the bottleneck for nutrient supplement in the key growth stage. Canopy reflectance spectra have been used to estimate leaf N contents for field crops in terms of timeliness (Hansen and Schjoerring, 2003; Li et al., 2014). For example, leaf N levels can be evaluated by the optimized reflectance models at autumn shoot maturation stage, flower spike stage, fruit maturation stage, and flowering stage (Li et al., 2016). Hence, instant nutrient diagnosis approach is likely to be developed to timely ameliorate nutritional imbalance in litchi. Additionally, most of the litchi is cultivated in Southeast Asia, where the soils are commonly acid. Overdose of N fertilizer (Guo et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2018), intensive tillage (Gui et al., 2018), and atmospheric deposition (Zhu et al., 2016) further acidify soils. Plant growth is inhibited by soil acidification per se (Thomas Raese, 1998; Zhao et al., 2009). Moreover, soil chemical and biological attributes are deteriorated by low soil pH (Goulding, 2016; Sato and Takahashi, 1996), which further suppresses plant growth. And, low soil pH enhances bioavailability of aluminum, leading to aluminum toxicity to litchi seedling (Chen et al., 2005). Though litchi originates from South China and adjusts itself to local soil condition, the suitable soil pH for litchi is still in vague up to date and needs to be revealed. Then, soil pH amelioration may be focused on in litchi orchard.
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45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
References Chen, X.D., Chen, J.S., Zhang, F.B., Yang, S.H., 1998. Effect of nitrogen and potassium fertilizers on litchi. Guangdong Agric. Sci. (2), 27–29 (in Chinese). Chen, Z.C., Chen, H.Z., Huang, H., Zhang, N., Zhu, S.Y., 2005. Effect of aluminum on seedling growth of semi-tropical fruit tree. J. Agro-Environ. Sci. 24 (S1), 34–37 (in Chinese). Chen, Z., Zhao, J.T., Qin, Y.H., Hu, G.B., 2016. Study on the graft compatibility between ’Jingganghongnuo’ and other litchi cultivars. Sci. Hortic. 199, 56–62. Cheng, D.D., Wang, Y., Zhao, G.Z., Liu, Y.Q., 2015. Effects of polymeric slow release fertilizer on Chinese cabbage growth and soil nutrients. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 61, 959–968. Cronje, R.B., Mostert, P.G., 2009. A management program to improve yield and fruit size of litchi, cv. HLH Mauritius—final report. In: South Africa Litchi Grower’s Association Yearbook, 21, pp. 46–55. Dai, L.Z. (Ed.), 1999. New Fertilization Technique in Litchi and Longan. China Agricultural Press, Beijing. Dai, L.Z., Lin, C.X., Liu, L.R., Su, M.L., 1998. Effect of applying fertilizer on yield and leaf mineral nutrient of Litchi chinensis. Fujian J. Agric. Sci. (1), 52–55 (in Chinese). de Villiers, E.A., Joubert, P.H. (Eds.), 2010. The Cultivation of Litchi, second ed. ARC-Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops. Diczbalis, Y., 2007. Final Report: Unlocking Litchi Research Australia. Queensland Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries. FR01033, 63. Farina, V., Gianguzzi, G., D’Asaro, A., Mazzaglia, A., Palazzolo, E., 2017. Fruit production and quality evaluation of four litchi cultivars (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) grown in Mediterranean climate. Fruits 72 (4), 203–211. Froneman, I.J., Nonyane, D., Severn-Ellis, A., Cronje, R.B., Sippel, A.D., 2016. Expanding genetic diversity of the south African litchi germplasm collection to promote plant improvement. In: Onus, N., Currie, A. (Eds.), Xxix International Horticultural Congress on Horticulture: Sustaining Lives, Livelihoods and Landscapes. Int Soc Horticultural Science, Leuven, pp. 365–372. Gao, D., Zhou, X.C., Su, Y., Zhou, K.B., 2015. Effect of spraying K and Ca and Mg foliar fertilizers on pericarp coloring of Litchi chinensis Sonn. cv Sanyuehong. J. South. Agric. 46 (10), 1849–1855 (in Chinese). Goldweber, S., 1959. Observations on lychees grown in pot culture. Proc. Fla State Hortic. Soc. 72, 353–356. Goncalves, V.D., Pires, M.C., Yamanishi, O.K., 2016. Foliar application of nitrogen at petal fall stage increases fruit set and size of ’Bengal’ lychee. In: Milatovic, D., Milivojevic, J., Nikolic, D. (Eds.), III Balkan Symposium on Fruit Growing. Int Soc Horticultural Science, Leuven, pp. 591–596. Goulding, K.W.T., 2016. Soil acidification and the importance of liming agricultural soils with particular reference to the United Kingdom. Soil Use Manag. 32, 390–399. Gui, R., Wu, W., Zhuang, S., Zhong, Z., 2018. Intensive management increases soil acidification and phytotoxic Al content in Phyllostachys praecox stands in Southeast China. J. Sustain. Forest. 37, 46–55. Guo, J.H., Liu, X.J., Zhang, Y., Shen, J.L., Han, W.X., Zhang, W.F., Christie, P., Goulding, K.W.T., Vitousek, P.M., Zhang, F.S., 2010. Significant acidification in major Chinese croplands. Science 327, 1008–1010. Hansen, P.M., Schjoerring, J.K., 2003. Reflectance measurement of canopy biomass and nitrogen status in wheat crops using normalized difference vegetation indices and partial least squares regression. Remote Sens. Environ. 86, 542–553. Haq, I., Rab, A., Sajid, M., 2013. Foliar application of calcium chloride and borax enhance the fruit quality of litchi cultivars. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 23, 1385–1390. He, Y.Q., Long, S.Z., Wei, C.B., Li, Z., Liang, R.M., 2003. Experiments of applying various ratio of N and K fertilizers to litchi. Guangxi Agric. Sci. (1), 32–33 (in Chinese). Huang, X.J., 2007. Global litchi production and trade: a review. World Tropic. Agric. Inf. (5), 1–4 (in Chinese). Huang, X.M., Wang, H.C., Zhong, W.L., Yuan, W.Q., Lu, J.M., Li, J.G., 2008. Spraying calcium is not an effective way to increase structural calcium in litchi pericarp. Sci. Hortic. 117, 39–44. Jongruaysup, S., Dell, B., Bell, R.W., 1994. Distribution and redistribution of molybdenum in black gram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) in relation to molybdenum supply. Ann. Bot. 73, 161–167. Ke, J., He, R.C., Hou, P.F., Ding, C., Ding, Y.F., Wang, S.H., Liu, Z.H., Tang, S., Ding, C.Q., Chen, L., Li, G.H., 2018. Combined controlled-released nitrogen fertilizers and deep placement effects of N leaching, rice yield and N recovery in machine-transplanted rice. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 265, 402–412. Li, J.G., Gao, F.F., Huang, H.B., Tan, Y.W., Luo, J.T., 1999. Preliminary studies on the relationship between calcium and fruit cracking in litchi fruit. J. South China Agric. Univ. 20 (3), 45–49 (in Chinese). Li, G.L., Yao, L.X., Yang, B.M., He, Z.H., Zhou, C.M., Huang, L.X., Guo, B., Tu, S.H., 2011. Effect of fertilizer applicaiton strategy on the growth, quality and yield of litchi. Chin. J. Trop. Crops 32, 15–20 (in Chinese). Li, F., Miao, Y., Feng, G., Yuan, F., Yue, S., Gao, X., Liu, Y., Liu, B., Ustin, S.L., Chen, X., 2014. Improving estimation of summer maize nitrogen status with red edge-based spectral vegetation indices. Field Crop Res. 157, 111–123. Li, D., Wang, C., Liu, W., Peng, Z., Huang, S., Huang, J., Chen, S., 2016. Estimation of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) leaf nitrogen content at different growth stages using canopy reflectance spectra. Eur. J. Agron. 80, 182–194. Liang, Z.J., Dai, L.Z., 1984. Nutrient diagnosis and fertilization in litchi. Fujian Fruit (Z1), 6–13 (in Chinese). Luo, D.L., Wang, W., Zhu, L.W., Bai, C.H., Li, H., Zhou, C.M., Zhou, Q.M., Yao, L.X., 2019. Establishment of foliar nutrient diagnosis norms for litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) in South China. J. Plant Nutr. Fertil. 25, 859–870 (in Chinese). Marboh, E.S., Gupta, A.K., Gyanesh, K., Singh, M., Singh, A., Nath, V., 2018. Genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance in litchi (Litchi chinensis). Indian J. Agric. Sci. 88, 1510–1514. Menzel, C.M., Simpson, D.R., 1987. Lychee nutrition: a review. Sci. Hortic. 31, 195–224. Menzel, C.M., Carseldine, M.L., Simpson, D.R., 1988a. Crop development and leaf nitrogen in lychee. Aust. J. Exp. Agric. 28, 793–800. Menzel, C.M., Carseldine, M.L., Simpson, D.R., 1988b. The effect of fruiting status on nutrient composition of litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) during the flowering and fruiting season. J. Hortic. Sci. 63, 547–556. Menzel, C.M., Carseldine, M.L., Haydon, G.F., Simpson, D.R., 1992. A review of existing and proposed new leaf nutrient standards for jychee. Sci. Hortic. 49, 33–53.
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45 Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi Lixian Yao*, Cuihua Bai, Donglin Luo College of Natural Resources and Environment, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China *Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
O U T L I N E 1 Introduction
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5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi
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2 Nutrient concentration in litchi plant
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6 Nutrient management in litchi
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3 Nutrient accumulation and distribution in litchi plant
7 Future research
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References
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4 Nutrient imbalance in litchi
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1 Introduction Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.), a tropical and subtropical woody perennial fruit tree with lifespans from decades to centuries, is cultivated in the region from 17 to 25°N in latitude and from 98 to 117°E in longitude (Qi et al., 2016). Commercial plantation of litchi is developed in Africa (e.g., South Africa, Mauritius, Madagascar, Gabon, and Congo), America (e.g., the United States, Brazil, Mexico, Panama, Cuba, Honduras, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and Tobago), Asia (China, India, Thailand, Vietnam, Bengal, and Nepal), Europe (e.g., Spain, France, and Italy) (Farina et al., 2017; Huang, 2007), and Oceania (Australia) (Diczbalis, 2007). Among them, litchi cultivation area and fruit yield in China account for 69.2% and 62.9% of the total litchi cultivation area and total fruit yield worldwide, respectively (Qi et al., 2016). However, low and unstable fruit yield confuses litchi growers and researchers. Lack of suitable nutrient management has been recognized as one of the major constraints for litchi production. Understanding the nutrient requirement, diagnosis, and management in litchi is indispensable to achieve profitable litchi production.
2 Nutrient concentration in litchi plant Foliar nutrient content reflects the nutritional status in a crop. Litchi grows perennially, and foliar nutrient concentration varies with the nutrient, the growth stage, and fruiting (Luo et al., 2019; Menzel et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2015). A recent study reports the tissue nutrient contents in litchi plants of 10 major litchi cultivars (cv. Feizixiao, Guiwei, Dadingxiang, Ziniangxi, Heiye, Lanzhu, Baitangying, Baila, Huaizhi, and Shuangjianyuhebao) with age of about 15 years from southern China when the fruits were harvested (Table 45.1), which yielded from 38.4 to 101.8 kg/tree (Yao et al., 2020). Generally, litchi leaves contain the highest N level and the lowest P value, whereas the trunks have the maximum Ca or N and the minimum S. N or K is detected with the upmost contents in the epicarp, endocarp, pulp,
A.K. Srivastava, Chengxiao Hu (eds.) Fruit Crops: Diagnosis and Management of Nutrient Constraints https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-818732-6.00045-9
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© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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TABLE 45.1
Nutrient concentrations in various parts of 10 major litchi cultivars at fruit harvest in South China (DW).
Item
N (g/kg)
P (g/kg)
K (gkg)
Ca (g/kg)
Mg (g/kg)
S (g/kg)
Si (g/kg)
Fe (mg/kg)
Mn (mg/kg)
Cu (mg/kg)
Zn (mg/kg)
B (mg/kg)
Mo (mg/kg)
Leaf
Range
15.5–19.0
0.8–1.8
5.7–36.6
5.9–14.2
1.3–4.1
0.8–2.2
1.4–7.0
100.0–222.1
44.7–482.7
4.4–10.4
18.9–43.8
11.5–24.9
NDa–2.98
Mean
17.4 (1.4)
1.0 (0.3)
11.5 (9.2)
9.5 (2.7)
2.5 (0.9)
1.5 (0.4)
4.0 (2.1)
160.3 (33.7)
187.8 (154.9)
7.4 (2.3)
29.9 (9.4)
17.5 (3.9)
0.66 (1.14)
Range
2.6–8.9
0.3–1.3
3.1–7.8
4.3–12.7
0.4–1.4
0.3–0.8
0.2–1.6
43.1–286.3
6.2–65.4
0.8–16.9
3.9–23.0
3.8–11.7
ND–0.50
Mean
5.7 (1.9)
0.7 (0.3)
4.3 (1.6)
7.7 (3.0)
0.8 (0.3)
0.5 (0.1)
0.7 (0.5)
102.5 (70.8)
26.5 (18.1)
6.8 (6.9)
10.3 (5.6)
7.8 (2.7)
0.09 (0.18)
Range
2.4–4.6
0.1–0.4
0.9–5.5
2.2–5.9
0.4–0.8
0.3–0.8
0.5–2.3
89.2–618.4
4.9–26.8
1.2–6.5
1.9–27.5
3.8–12.6
ND–1.06
Mean
3.7 (0.6)
0.3 (0.1)
1.9 (1.4)
3.9 (1.2)
0.5 (0.2)
0.5 (0.2)
1.1 (0.7)
217.0 (150.0)
14.5 (7.8)
2.9 (1.5)
6.8 (7.4)
7.6 (3.0)
0.22 (0.39)
Range
8.4–16.3
0.6–1.3
5.5–14.0
4.1–10.3
1.1–2.8
0.5–1.0
0.1–1.9
19.1–70.8
15.8–152.5
3.2–89.2
13.0–29.7
9.7–25.5
ND–0.36
Mean
11.5 (2.4)
0.9 (0.2)
9.3 (2.9)
6.2 (1.6)
2.0 (0.6)
0.7 (0.2)
0.8 (0.6)
41.3 (15.1)
70.6 (43.2)
19.3 (28.1)
20.2 (5.3)
15.9 (4.7)
0.11 (0.12)
Range
9.7–17.9
1.1–3.0
3.5–23.1
2.8–10.1
1.7–3.2
0.4–1.3
ND–2.8
26.2–86.9
14.8–176.0
3.2–28.3
16.7–34.0
17.4–26.7
ND–0.30
Mean
13.0 (2.6)
1.9 (0.6)
13.9 (5.7)
5.5 (2.3)
2.2 (0.5)
0.9 (0.3)
1.1 (1.0)
49.3 (19.0)
74.5 (48.9)
11.2 (7.5)
23.4 (5.4)
22.1 (3.6)
0.09 (0.10)
Range
7.9–13.1
1.2–1.7
6.6–15.6
0.0–3.1
0.7–1.1
0.4–1.0
ND–2.8
13.5–143.5
3.0–13.3
4.5–12.0
10.8–25.3
2.6–13.4
0.00–0.12
Mean
10.7 (2.0)
1.5 (0.2)
10.7 (2.9)
0.6 (0.9)
0.8 (0.1)
0.7 (0.2)
1.0 (1.0)
39.5 (38.2)
7.6 (3.6)
9.0 (2.8)
15.7 (4.5)
7.3 (3.1)
0.03 (0.04)
Range
9.3–13.5
1.1–1.7
3.9–12.6
0.2–3.3
0.9–1.7
0.5–1.4
ND–1.9
22.5–60.0
9.9–31.4
5.2–14.1
13.7–35.7
5.8–39.2
0.00–0.28
Mean
11.1 (1.2)
1.4 (0.2)
7.3 (2.7)
1.3 (1.0)
1.3 (0.3)
0.9 (0.3)
0.8 (0.8)
35.8 (14.1)
19.2 (7.8)
10.5 (2.9)
24.4 (7.1)
14.2 (9.4)
0.12 (0.09)
Trunk
Root
Epicarp
Endocarp
Pulp
Seed
a
ND refers to not detectable. Data in the parenthesis are standard deviation.
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Part
663
2 Nutrient concentration in litchi plant
and seed, but Ca or Si is present at the bottom level. Ca dominates in the roots, whereas P or S stays with the lowest value. Mo is commonly undetectable in various parts of litchi trees, which suggests that Mo might be an inhibiting nutrient for litchi production in China (Yao et al., 2020). Nutrient contents in litchi fruits (cv. Bengal and Tai So) are ranked in the order of K > N > P > Mg > Ca > Na > Fe > Zn > Cu > Mn > B in Australia (Menzel et al., 1988b). P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and B contents in the fruits of three litchi cultivars (cv. Bosworth, Groff, and Kaimana) from Hawaii are reported in terms of fruit nutrient for eating (Wall, 2006). The annual variances of leaf nutrients in 15-year-old fruit bearing plants (cv. Feizixiao) are illustrated in Fig. 45.1 (Yang et al., 2015). Foliar N slowly decreases during the emergence and maturation of the postharvest vegetative flush (from June to October) and significantly rises to the peak before floral initiation (December) and then gradually declines during the development of panicle, flower, and fruit, and further falls to the bottom level at fruit harvest (from February to May) (Fig. 45.1A). Foliar K reaches the lowest value at fruit harvest and then sharply rises during N
Leaf nutrient content (g/kg)
25 20
cd
bc
cd a
a
15
ab
a
ab
a
d
cd
d
a
d
e
d
c
d
b
b
5
a
f
2011-6
2011-9
c
cd
e
f
e
de
abcd
2011-10 2011-11 2011-12
Mg
b
c
(A)
cde
ab
abc
cde
2012-2
2012-3
2012-4
2012-5
Sampling time
2.5
Leaf nutrient content (g/kg)
ab
Ca
10
0
a
d 2.0 1.5
ab e bc
P
a bc
cd
bc
b cd
d
a
1.0
ef
bc
S
cd
Si
b
d
a
a
a bcd
cde
abc
2012-2
2012-3
2012-4
def
f
0.5
g
0.0 2011-6
2011-9
2011-10 2011-11 2011-12
2012-5
Sampling time
(B) Zn
60
Leaf nutrient content (mg/kg)
K
40
B
Mo
a
ab c
ab
b
c
ab
c d
a 20
de
e
a
ab
a
2011-6
2011-9
cd
bc
cd
b
bcd
b
bc
a
abc
a
c
c
2012-2
2012-3
2012-4
2012-5
0
(C)
2011-10 2011-11 2011-12
Sampling time
FIG. 45.1
Annual variations of foliar N, K, Ca, Mg (A), P, S, Si (B), Zn, B, and Mo (C) contents in litchi (cv. Feizixiao).
664
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
FIG. 45.2 Serious fruit crack in litchi (cv. Baitangying) trees overdosed with potassium fertilizer at one application (upper), as compared with those with routine fertilization (down). Photographed by Lixian Yao.
the development of vegetative flush, maintains at a relatively constant value during vegetative flush maturation and floral initiation (from September to December), and continuously falls to the bottom level during panicle, flower, and fruit development (from February to April) and significantly rises again prior to fruit harvest. Contrary to foliar K, foliar Ca stays at the highest level in June and varies with an opposite trend to foliar K, indicating antagonism between leaf K and Ca during the growth period. Balanced application of K and Ca should be cautiously considered due to the interaction between them in practice. For example, in contrast to the litchi (cv. Baitangying) trees with routine fertilization, serious fruit crack was observed in trees overdosed with potassium chlorite at one application in Maoming Guangdong, southern China, in 2011 (Fig. 45.2), which is ascribed to suppressed fruit Ca caused by excessive K. Foliar Mg changes with a similar seasonal pattern to foliar Ca during the growth period. Foliar P arrives at the bottom concentration after fruit harvest and gradually rises, then reduces during the emergence and maturation of the vegetative flush, significantly increases to the maximum value and stays at similar high level before floral initiation (from November to December), and then steadily declines during the emergence of panicle, fruit-set, and development (from December to April) and increases again prior to fruit harvest (Fig. 45.1B). Foliar S gradually varies with an alternative decrease and increase pattern during the emergence and development of vegetative flush and panicle (from June to February) and then continuously rises to the highest value and maintains constant till fruit harvest. Foliar Si significantly fluctuates during the emergence and development of vegetative flush and panicle, remains at a relatively constant level during fruit-set and development, and then sharply declines till fruit harvest. Foliar Zn reaches to the upmost level after fruit harvest and then steadily declines to the lowest value during the emergence and maturation of vegetative flush and then alternatively and moderately rises and declines till fruit harvest (Fig. 45.1C). Foliar B remains at low concentration during the emergence and development of vegetative flush, however, significantly rises while the flush is completely mature in October and markedly declines to the minimum value before floral initiation, then continuously increases to the maximum during the emergence and development of panicle and fruit set (from November to March), and slightly decreases during fruit development and then increases again till fruit harvest. Foliar Mo remains at trace level as compared with all the other nutrients, however, significantly differs with growth stage as well.
665
3 Nutrient accumulation and distribution in litchi plant
3 Nutrient accumulation and distribution in litchi plant Investigation on nutrient requirement in litchi is limited. Menzel and Simpson (1987) summarized the nutrient removal by a 100-kg plant (cv. Late Large Red, Bengal, and Tai so) was 90–250 g N, 35–50 g P, 240–320 g K, 20–60 g Ca, 2.0–2.5 g Cl, 1.0–1.4 g Na, 0.6–1.3 g Fe, 0.4–0.7 g Mn, 0.7–1.0 g Zn, 0.5–1.0 g Cu, and 0.3–0.7 g B, with unspecified tree age and yield level. In southern China, the nutrient requirement by litchi plants (Table 45.2) of 10 major cultivars (cv. Feizixiao, Guiwei, Dadingxiang, Ziniangxi, Heiye, Lanzhu, Baitangying, Baila, Huaizhi and Shuangjianyuhebao) is reported (Yao et al., 2020). To nourish a litchi plants capable of yielding 50 kg fruit, 811.9 298.3 g N, 86.4 34.5 g P, 586.0 259.2 g K, 792.5 421.3 g Ca, 112.8 54.7 g Mg, 66.0 14.7g S, 117.6 76.0g Si, 11.58 7.41g Fe, 4.79 3.18g Mn, 0.98 0.99g Cu, 1.44 0.44 g Zn, 1.02 0.42 g B, and 24.41 37.50 mg Mo are needed in the aboveground parts of the plants, with the ratios of N:P:K:Ca:Mg:S being 1:0.11:0.72:0.98:0.14:0.08. And a total of 114.5 12.8g N, 14.4 1.6 g P, 105.1 31.5 g K, 21.6 8.2 g Ca, 12.5 1.6 g Mg, 7.7 2.3 g S, 10.4 10.1g Si, 0.16 0.13g Cu, 0.27 0.24 g Zn, 0.55 0.50 g Fe, 0.33 0.29 g Mn, 0.14 0.08 g B, and 0.63 0.58 mg Mo is removed by harvesting 50kg fruit of the 10 major litchi cultivars, with the ratios of N:P:K:Ca:Mg:S being 1:0.13:0.92:0.19:0.11:0.07. At fruit harvest, 42.1%–78.7% of the total nutrient requirement for all nutrients except Mo is allocated in the trunk, while 15.8 5.3% of N, 18.9 11.0% of P, 20.2 7.7% of K, 3.4 1.7% of Ca, 12.6 6.3% of Mg, 11.1 5.0% of S, 10.3 12.5% of Si, 8.6 8.8% of Cu, 8.2 5.5% of Zn, 23.8 21.5% of Fe, 20.3 17.7% of Mn, 15.1 11.3% of B, and 23.8 24.5% of Mo are taken away by fruit harvest (Table 45.3) (Yao et al., 2020). The highly variable distribution of Mo in litchi plant supports the observation of Jongruaysup et al. (1994) who reported that Mo is readily remobilized in Mo-adequate plants, but not remobilized in Mo-deficient plants. Feizixiao is the most widely planted cultivar in China. Approximately 259.5 28.4 g of N, 28.3 2.6 g of P, 186.5 19.6 g of K, 41.6 9.2 g of Ca, 36.1 4.7 g of Mg, 12.4 36.1 g of S, 316.8 53.4 mg of Zn, 201.1 29.0 mg of B, and 1.4 0.3 mg of Mo are needed to produce 55.2 7.8 kg of fruit, 39.78 2.60 kg of matured vegetative flush, and 8.44 1.96 kg of panicle for 10-year-old Feizixiao plants in 1 year, with the nutrient ratios of N:P:K:Ca:Mg being 1:0.11:0.72:0.16:0.14 for the vegetative flush, 1:0.12:0.75:0.22:0.12 for the panicle, and 1:0.13:1.06:0.16:0.12 for the fruit (Yao et al., 2017b). Moreover, all of the N, P, K, Mg, S, Mo, 67.5% of Zn, and 20.2% of B accumulated in litchi panicle are transferred from the terminal vegetative flush (the last autumn flush). Litchi plant hardly absorbs nutrients after the maturation of the terminal shoot and before flowering, with the exception of Ca, Zn, and B absorption during this stage. Almost all of the N, K, Ca, Zn, and S required by fruit development are newly taken up by the plant during fruit swelling, and partial P, Mg, B, and Mo are translocated from the first and the second vegetative flushes (Yao et al., 2017b).
TABLE 45.2
Nutrient accumulated in the aboveground parts of 10 major litchi cultivars to yield 50 kg fruit in South China.
Part
Item
N (g)
P (g)
K (g)
Ca (g)
Mg (g)
S (g)
Si (g)
Fe (g)
Mn (g)
Cu (g)
Zn (g)
B (g)
Mo (mg)
Fruit
Range
95.4– 135.1
12.4– 17.2
68.4– 169.8
12.7– 42.0
9.3– 14.1
4.5– 11.3
0.5– 28.0
0.23– 1.76
0.08– 1.10
0.05– 0.48
0.13– 0.94
0.07– 0.37
0.0–1.61
Mean
114.5 (12.8)
14.4 (1.6)
105.1 (31.5)
21.6 (8.2)
12.5 (1.6)
7.7 (2.3)
10.4 (10.1)
0.55 (0.50)
0.33 (0.29)
0.16 (0.13)
0.27 (0.24)
0.14 (0.08)
0.63 (0.58)
Range
124.9– 428.3
6.1– 41.5
48.3– 829.8
54.3– 322.3
10.1– 79.1
9.9– 22.2
11.2– 158.6
0.84– 5.04
0.60– 5.76
0.06– 1.32
0.21– 0.89
0.12– 0.38
0.0– 35.55
Mean
237.2 (106.9)
14.6 (10.0)
176.2 (232.2)
135.1 (86.5)
35.7 (23.0)
18.7 (3.7)
61.4 (51.6)
2.33 (1.30)
2.22 (1.75)
0.34 (0.51)
0.40 (0.22)
0.23 (0.08)
8.36 (13.39)
Range
126.6– 825.1
14.6– 89.1
117.0– 619.3
170.0– 1124.4
24.3– 147.9
22.1– 57.5
4.9– 121.6
1.41– 29.25
0.47– 5.21
0.10– 1.76
0.19– 1.58
0.295– 0.15
0.0– 60.34
Mean
460.2 (225.0)
57.4 (27.4)
304.7 (146.2)
635.8 (354.8)
64.6 (37.1)
39.6 (11.4)
45.8 (32.7)
8.70 (7.75)
2.24 (1.84)
0.48 (0.54)
0.77 (0.37)
0.65 (0.41)
15.42 (25.14)
Range
403.0– 1156.4
38.5– 145.9
233.7– 1140.7
257.2– 1318.2
48.1– 218.8
37.2– 82.0
36.1– 281.4
3.08– 31.04
1.24– 10.51
0.26– 3.37
0.74– 2.27
0.54– 1.85
0.0– 81.96
Mean
811.9 (298.3)
86.4 (34.5)
586.0 (259.2)
792.5 (421.3)
112.8 (54.7)
66.0 (14.7)
117.6 (76.0)
11.58 (7.41)
4.79 (3.18)
0.98 (0.99)
1.44 (0.44)
1.02 (0.42)
24.41 (37.50)
Leaf
Trunk
Total
Data in the parenthesis are standard deviation.
666
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
TABLE 45.3
Nutrient distribution (%) in various parts of 10 major litchi cultivars in South China.
Part
Item
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
S
Si
Fe
Mn
Cu
Zn
B
Mo
Fruit
Range
10.1– 23.9
1.3– 39.7
8.1– 34.1
1.4– 5.8
1.1– 20.8
0.4– 17.0
0.6– 37.4
6.4– 75.7
9.1–69.9
0.9– 26.7
3.2– 20.8
5.5– 44.1
0– 64.5
Mean
15.8 (5.3)
18.9 (11.0)
20.2 (7.7)
3.4 (1.7)
12.6 (6.3)
11.1 (5.0)
10.3 (12.5)
23.8 (21.5)
20.3 (17.7)
8.6 (8.8)
8.2 (5.5)
15.1 (11.3)
23.8 (24.5)
Range
18.5– 44.7
10.7– 28.4
14.4– 72.7
8.9– 28.1
17.1– 51.4
22.4– 36.1
22.0– 94.4
6.2– 66.5
16.043.4
4.8– 46.7
13.9– 63.4
11.3– 36.8
0– 72.6
Mean
30.0 (9.0)
16.9 (6.3)
25.6 (17.4)
18.0 (6.9)
30.4 (10.3)
28.7 (4.0)
48.2 (21.3)
27.3 (16.8)
27.1 (8.8)
25.3 (14.8)
47.1 (16.0)
24.2 (8.5)
45.0 (24.2)
Range
31.4– 71.3
33.8– 74.1
19.1– 72.0
66.1– 88.3
40.6– 67.7
51.9– 70.1
5.1– 75.6
15.4– 85.8
14.1– 71.1
45.4– 94.2
15.9– 81.8
35.0– 83.2
0– 80.1
Mean
54.1 (11.7)
63.4 (13.2)
54.3 (15.8)
78.7 (7.4)
56.3 (10.1)
59.4 (5.6)
42.1 (20.6)
48.0 (19.4)
53.5 (16.5)
68.5 (17.5)
45.0 (17.9)
60.5 (15.4)
21.0 (31.6)
Leaf
Trunk
Data in the parenthesis are standard deviation.
As a heavily trimmed cultivar with high growth speed, the nutrient removal by harvesting 55.2 7.8 kg fruit and trimming 39.78 2.60 kg vegetative flush from Feizixiao plants is summed up to 320.6 49.8 g N, 33.7 5.3 g P, 273.2 39.3 g K, 143.5 28.6 g Ca, 38.5 8.4 g Mg, 16.1 2.5 g S, 544.2 91.3 mg Zn, 357.9 45.9 mg B, and 1.2 0.3 mg Mo, which is the minimum nutrient requirement for the growth and development of vegetative flush, panicle and fruit, and the maintenance of soil fertility during the next growth period (Yao et al., 2017b). This implies that fertilization soon after fruit harvest is the key for emergence and development of healthy vegetative flush in heavily trimmed litchi cultivars like Feizixiao.
4 Nutrient imbalance in litchi Foliar nutrient deficient symptoms in litchi are not easy to be clearly discriminated in field condition worldwide because the symptoms associated with insects, pathogens, pesticides, herbicides, growth regulators, climate, and so on might be mixed with those caused by nutrient deficiency. The functions of nutrients in litchi were reviewed by Menzel and Simpson (1987), and the deficiency symptoms of some nutrients including N, P, K, Fe, Cu, Zn, and B were described or illustrated in South Africa (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010). Visual symptoms of N, K, Mg, Fe, and Zn in litchi (cv. Brewster and Mauritius) grown in gravel culture and irrigated with modified Hoagland solution or nutrient solutions minus N, K, Mg, Mn, Zn, or Fe were recorded in Florida of the United States (Thomas et al., 1995). Digital pictures of typical foliar nutrient deficiency symptoms in litchi (cv. Huaizhi) nourished with optimum nutrient (complete nutrient) solution or nutrient-omitted solutions are recently recorded in China (Figs. 45.3–45.13). FIG. 45.3 Foliar N deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
FIG. 45.4
Foliar P deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan
Zhang.
FIG. 45.5 Foliar K deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
FIG. 45.6
Foliar Mg deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
FIG. 45.7 Foliar S deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Yongyuan Zhang.
668
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
FIG. 45.8 Foliar Fe deficiency in litchi tree cultivated in calcareous soil in Luzhou Sichuan, southwest China. Photographed by Lixian Yao.
FIG. 45.9 Foliar Fe deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu Sun.
FIG. 45.10 Foliar Mn deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu Sun.
FIG. 45.11 qiu Sun.
Foliar Cu deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Min-
4 Nutrient imbalance in litchi
669 FIG. 45.12 Foliar Zn deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu Sun.
FIG. 45.13
Foliar B deficiency symptom in litchi. Photographed by Minqiu
Sun.
N deficient litchi plant is severely stunted, and obvious symptoms first occur in the older leaves, characterized by even chlorosis and following marginal scorch. While N starvation is prolonged, the younger leaves fade green (gray in print version) and wither in the leaf apices as well (Fig. 45.3). The typical P deficient symptoms include smaller, narrower, and longer young leaves as compared with the old leaves, and all the leaves grow dark green (black in print version) as P starvation prolongs (Fig. 45.4). While a litchi plant is deficient in K, small rufous patches first appear in the apices of old leaves and spread to the margins and base and then merge into obvious patches, and the residue areas change to yellow (light gray in print version) from healthy green (dark gray in print version). The rufous patches also occur in the young leaves, and the whole leaf fades green (gray in print version) while in severe K deficiency (Fig. 45.5). Although symptoms of Ca deficiency in litchi were documented as small leaflets, leaf necrosis along margins, and severe leaf drop by Goldweber (1959), litchi seedlings grow healthy and do not show visual symptoms even after being subjected to Ca-omitted nutrient solutions for 4 months. Leaf drop was recorded for all litchi plants separately grown in gravel and nourished with complete nutrient solution, minus N, P, K, Ca, and Mg solutions over 6 months (Goldweber, 1959), which is likely contributed to the secondary salinity stress caused by nutrient solutions. Ca deficiency is seldom reported and rare in field condition worldwide.
670
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Large irregular necrotic patches first occur in the older leaves of Mg deficient litchi plants, with the remaining areas of the older leaves staying green. The patches progress along leaf apices and margins toward the base, followed by a burned appearance (Fig. 45.6). Symptoms of S deficiency include serious stunting growth, considerably smaller young leaflets with light green (light gray in print version) to yellow (gray in print version) color, and older leaves with green (dark gray in print version) color (Fig. 45.7). Fe is the micronutrient with the maximum requirement by litchi as shown in Table 45.2. However, symptoms of Fe deficiency are not common in acid soils of the main production region worldwide, with the exception in calcareous soils or heavily limed soils. Fe-deficient litchi tree is characterized by obvious interveinal chlorosis of young leaves, poor flowering and fruit-set and extremely low fruit yield in field condition, as found in calcareous soil with pH of 7.5 in Luzhou Sichuan, southwest China (Fig. 45.8). Litchi seedlings grown in minus Fe nutrient solution are significantly stunted, and serious interveinal chlorosis is also observed in the young leaflets. Some seedlings are subjected to dieback, whereas some of them sprout again, but the young leaflets appear pale, almost white in color (Fig. 45.9). Mn deficient symptoms begin as interveinal chlorosis of young leaves, followed by randomized occurred tiny rufous patches on the leaves. Leaf size is not affected by Mn deficiency, and the older leaves stay green (dark gray in print version) (Fig. 45.10). Symptoms of Cu deficiency are similar to those of Mn deficiency, with the exception figure of small young leaflets and bright orange-red (gray in print version) patches between the midribs and the margins (Fig. 45.11). Zn deficient litchi plants are characterized by long and narrow young leaves with curled margins and young leaflets emerging from the axillae of the older leaves, with a caespitose appearance. Brown (gray in print version) patches occur in apices of the young leaflets as the starvation continues, while the old leaves stay healthy (Fig. 45.12). Symptoms of B deficiency start as interveinal chlorosis in the young leaflets, followed by chlorosis of the veins, and brown (gray in print version) stains along the margins as the starvation prolongs (Fig. 45.13). Although foliar Ca deficiency symptoms are not found, fruit abnormality caused by Ca or Ca and B deficiencies associated with bad weather including continuous drought, wet, coldness, or torridity is recently concerned (Yao et al., 2017a). Litchi fruit is significantly stunted during the fruitlet stage and grows abnormally at harvest, and more seriously, the endocarp, superior to the epicarp, turns brown (gray in print version), or the pericarp is cracked and the seed becomes necrosis after being subjected to continuous wet and coldness during fruitlet stage (Fig. 45.14). And, fruit matures with small and abnormal size or cannot turn red (light gray in print version) prior to harvest under xerothermic climate. Comparably, investigation on nutrient toxicity in litchi is scarce up to date. Even fruit yield is significantly suppressed by overuse of boron, no visual symptoms are found in litchi plants in the field condition (Yang et al., 2016).
5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi Leaf analysis or foliar nutrient diagnosis has been recognized as an important tool to improve nutrient management in crop. As a perennial woody fruit tree, leaf age, phenological stage, fruit status, and yield level, vegetative flush control, promotion of floral initiation, fertilization, pest and disease control, and so on greatly affect the relationship between fruit yield and leaf nutrient concentration (Luo et al., 2019; Menzel et al., 1992; Roy et al., 1984). Therefore, a universal leaf nutrient standard might not be suitable for litchi production worldwide. Leaf nutrient standards are proposed in several countries/regions (Table 45.4), and Dai (1999) summarized the leaf nutrient norms for various litchi cultivars in China (Table 45.5). It is difficult to compare the practicability of various leaf nutrient norms due to discrepancies of soil type, cultivar, fruit level, diagnosis time, and even the approaches used to build the norms. For example, after comparing the reliability and diagnosis accuracy of four approaches including critical value approach, sufficiency range approach (also named as standard value approach), modified diagnosis and recommendation integrated system (M-DRIS), and compositional nutrient diagnosis, sufficiency range approach is selected to build the foliar nutrient norms for litchi (cv. Feizixiao) capable of yielding approximately 20 t/ha in southern China, based on leaf nutrient concentrations and fruit yields of 538 samples gathered from 22 orchards within 2 years (Luo et al., 2019). However, it is deemed that variable leaf nutrient standards for different growth stages are necessary because there are significant differences for leaf nutrient concentrations among phenological stages (Luo et al., 2019; Menzel et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2015).
5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi
671
FIG. 45.14 Fruit abnormality (cv. Caomeili and Xianjinfeng) caused by Ca deficiency due to bad weather in southern China. Photographed by Yaliang Gu and Lixian Yao.
Besides leaf analysis, soil analysis is deemed as a useful aid for proper fertilization in litchi as well. Menzel and Simpson (1987) suggested soil attribute standards from trees, nut, vine, and fruit crops for the evaluation of litchi soils in Australia, and litchi soil norms are proposed in Fujian, China, and South Africa as well (Table 45.6) (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010; Zhuang et al., 1994). The variable soil attribute norms for litchi indicate that soil properties differ greatly with regions and might considerably affect nutrient management in litchi grown in different soil types. However, soil nutrient status might not act as reliable indicators for leaf or tissue nutrients in litchi plants. No close relation is observed between tissue elements and soil nutrients in 10 major litchi cultivars from southern China, with the
672
TABLE 45.4
Litchi foliar diagnosis norms from different countries/regions.
Location
Cultivar
Diagnosis stage (sampling time)
Agrilink
N (g/kg)
P (g/kg)
K (g/kg)
Ca (g/kg)
Mg (g/kg)
S (g/kg)
Fe (mg/kg)
Mn Cu (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
Zn (mg/kg)
B (mg/kg)
15–18
1.4–2.2
7–11
6–10
3–5
50–100
100–250
10–25
15–30
40–60
Diczbalis (2007)
7.0–11.0
6.0–10.0 3.0–5.0 –
50–100
100–250
10–25
15–30
25–60
Menzel et al. (1992)
7.7–11.0 2.5–3.7 1.51–1.81 –
–
–
19.6–32.6 11.5–19.2 Luo et al. (2019)
Reference
Tai So, Haak Yip, Wai Chee
1–2 weeks after panicle emergence
15.0–18.0 1.4–2.2
China Mainland
Feizixiao
Fruit bulking (4–5 weeks before harvest)
16.7–19.2 1.06–1.25 5.1–6.7
Feizixiao
Terminal shoot maturation
19.7–22.0 1.69–1.95 10.8–12.7 3.0–4.1
2.5–2.9 1.38–1.57 –
–
–
15.0–18.9 10.8–16.8 Luo et al. (2019)
16–19
3–5
100–250
10–25
15–30
China Taiwan
Haak Yip
1.2–2.7
3.9–11.5
6–10
50–100
25–60
India
Diczbalis (2007)
Low yield population
13.9
1.8
7.8
High yield population
15.1
2.0
7.7
South Africa
Thailand
Diczbalis (2007)
Not specified
Mid-September to midNovember (6–8 month old leaves)
14.6–16.2 1.5–2.0
9.0–10.6
8.0–25.0 2.0–7.0 –
50–200
50–200
10–15
15–40
20–75
de Villiers and Joubert (2010)
19.5–20.3 1.8–1.9
10.0
2.9–3.5
29–30
49–62
12–14
15–16
14
Diczbalis (2007)
2.3–2.5
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Australia
673
5 Nutrient diagnosis in litchi
TABLE 45.5
TABLE 45.6
Foliar nutrient standards for litchi in China (Dai, 1999).
Cultivar
N
P
K
Ca
Mg
Lanzhu
1.5–2.2
0.12–0.18
0.7–1.4
0.3–0.8
0.18–0.38
Dazao
1.5–2.0
0.11–0.16
0.7–1.2
0.3–0.5
0.12–0.25
Heli
1.6–2.3
0.12–0.18
0.8–1.4
0.5–1.35
0.2–0.4
Nuomici
1.5–1.8
0.13–0.18
0.7–1.2
–
–
Huaizhi
1.4–1.6
0.11–0.15
0.6–1.0
–
–
Chenzi
1.4–1.8
0.12–0.17
0.8–1.2
–
–
Soil attribute norms for litchi. Norms for trees, nut, vine, and fruit crops (Menzel and Simpson, 1987) Low
No action required
High
Norms for litchi (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010)
Norms for litchi (Zhuang et al., 1994)
<5.0
5.0–5.5
>5.5
5.7–6.8
–
Low
Medium
High
–
–
Organic C (%)
<1.0
1–3
>3.0
–
–
NO-3-N
<20
20–40
>40
–
–
P (mg/kg)
<20
20–60
>60
5–10 (resin), 15–25 (bray 1)
–
K (mg/kg)
<78
78–195
>195
60–80 (sandy soil), 80–200 (clay soil)
–
Ca (mg/kg)
<1200
1200–2000
>2000
–
–
Mg (mg/kg)
<192
192–384
>384
–
–
2.5–5.0
–
No action required
–
–
Cl (mg/kg)
<250
–
–
Na (mg/kg)
<390
–
–
Electrical conductivity (ms/cm)
<0.4
–
–
Cu (mg/kg)
0.3–10.0
–
1.0–5.0
Zn (mg/kg)
2–15
–
1.5–5.0
Mn (mg/kg)
2–50
–
1.5–5.0
Fe (mg/kg)
2–50
–
B (mg/kg)
1.0–5.0
–
Al (mg/kg)
<540
0–30
Mo (mg/kg)
–
–
Soil attribute pH
(mg/kg)
Ca/Mg
0.4–1.0
0.15–0.32
exception that foliar K, Ca, and Mg significantly correlate with soil available K and exchangeable Ca and Mg (Table 45.7) (Yao et al., 2020). Moreover, no close relation is computed between fruit yield and soil attributes including soil pH, organic matter, alkaline hydrolyzable N, Oslen-P, and available K, Ca, Mg, S, Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, and Mo (Yao et al., 2020). Therefore, the utilization of soil nutrient standards might be limited due to the lack of linkage between soil properties versus tissue nutrients and fruit yield in litchi, as compared with the foliar nutrient norms in litchi.
674
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
TABLE 45.7 Soil nutrient
Pearson coefficients between soil nutrients and tissue nutrients in various parts of 10 major litchi cultivars in southern China (Yao et al., 2020). Leaf
Trunk
Root
Epicarp
Endocarp
Pulp
Seed
a
N
0.525
0.394
0.428
0.035
0.093
0.114
0.073
b
P
0.143
0.580
0.491
0.162
0.450
0.634*
0.602*
K
0.636*
0.071
0.162
0.086
0.308
0.106
0.046
Ca
0.627*
0.733*
0.380
0.206
0.224
0.329
0.246
Mg
0.669*
0.566
0.562
0.049
0.259
0.288
0.351
S
0.137
0.452
0.245
0.077
0.142
0.032
0.011
Si
0.416
0.129
0.328
0.067
0.003
0.033
0.223
Fe
0.111
0.250
0.368
0.605*
0.800**
0.126
0.732*
Mn
0.480
0.391
0.535
0.390
0.327
0.345
0.328
Cu
0.242
0.107
0.689*
0.064
0.017
0.634*
0.505
Zn
0.180
0.269
0.044
0.366
0.173
0.540
0.213
B
0.131
0.040
0.249
0.173
0.261
0.024
0.204
Mo
0.274
0.281
0.151
0.294
0.025
0.305
0.399
* and ** denote significant at 0.05 level. a Soil N refers to alkaline hydrolyzable N. b Soil P refers to Olsen-P.
6 Nutrient management in litchi Systematic nutrient management program in litchi is inadequately studied up to date. Fertilization practices to obtain greater tree size and bearing canopy for young tree in several countries were summarized in Australia, India, South Africa, and the United State (Table 45.8) (Menzel and Simpson, 1987; de Villiers and Joubert, 2010). The total amount of nutrients and timing differ greatly in different regions or even in different orchards in the same region. A tentative nutrition program, illustrating the fertilizer choices based on phenological stage of litchi, is also suggested in Australia (Menzel and Simpson, 1987). In China, the total amount of nutrient input per year in litchi is commonly determined by target fruit yield, rather than by tree age. It maybe be linked with the fact that besides the old trees have been cultivated for decades or even for hundreds of years, most of the commercial litchi trees were planted in the late 1980s and the early 1990s in China and now are at fruit bearing stage (Yao, 2009). Although the nutrient takeaway by litchi fruit and flush is documented, the suitable fertilizer doses cannot be precisely calculated solely by nutrient removal because use efficiencies of fertilizers are not available in litchi. However, the reasonable fertilizer rates might be estimated by field experiments involving in fruit yield response to fertilizers. Chen et al. (1998) suggested that 0.84 kg N, 0.5 kg P2O5, and 1.2 kg K2O (N:P2O5:K2O ¼ 1:0.6:1.43) are applied for litchi canopy capable of yielding 50-kg fruit (cv. Guiwei) by a 5-year field trial. Dai et al. (1998) proposed 0.8 kg N, 1.0 kg P2O5, and 1.5 kg K2O (N:P2O5:K2O ¼ 1:1.25:1.875) for producing 43.1 kg fruits (cv. Lanzhu) from a 5-year experiment. 0.25–0.5 kg N is recommended to generate 23.4–30.1 kg fruit (cv. Chenzi) through a 6-year experiment (Liang and Dai, 1984), with the ratios of N:P2O5:K2O being 1:2:6 or 1:1:3. Excessive N promotes the development of vegetative flushing and leads to poor flowering and fruit setting in litchi (Liang and Dai, 1984; Menzel et al., 1988a), whereas overdose of K postpones fruit development and harvest and increases titratable acid content in fruit, leading to lower ratio of soluble sugar over acid in the pulp (Su et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2015). As compared with the N:P:K ratio of nutrient accumulation and removal in litchi (Yao et al., 2017b, 2020), both P and K might be overused in the previous studies (Chen et al., 1998; Dai et al., 1998; Liang and Dai, 1984). He et al. (2003) examined the effect of application ratio of K over N fertilizer (K2O/N 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4, and 1.6, with the ratio of P2O5/ N ¼ 0.6) on litchi fruit (cv. Sanyuehong) yield in three orchards in Guangxi, southern China, over 3 years and suggested that when K and N fertilizers are applied at the ratio of K2O/N ¼ 1.2, litchi yield the maximum. After investigating the response of fruit yield, quality and harvest time to K over N fertilization ratio (K2O/N 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, and 1.4) in litchi
675
6 Nutrient management in litchi
TABLE 45.8
Fertilizer practices for litchi trees in Australia, India, South Africa, and the United States. Amount of nutrients (g/tree/year)
Country/region
Tree age
N
P
K
Timing of fertilization (northern hemisphere equivalent)
Australia
1
60
12
100
July, November, March
2
90
18
150
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
3
150
30
220
4
180
60
300
1
190
10
25
2
350
40
100
N monthly, P, K trimonthly, organic in March in Years 2 and 3
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
3
530
70
150
4
390
10
50
1–3
175–350
20–60
105–235
December, February, April
4–6
650–1200
75–125
300–470
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
1
28
13
25
2
84
21
50
3
196
26
75
4–5
280
26
100
6–7
420
53
150
8–9
560
53
200
10–11
700
79
250
12–13
840
79
375
14–15
980
105
500
15 and older
1120
105
500
1
10
15
15
2
14
20
20
3
28
40
40
Australia
India
South Africa
Florida, United States
Hawaii, United States
4
56
80
80
5
112
160
160
1
34
34
34
2
68
66
68
3
136
136
136
4
272–410
272–410
272–410
Reference
de Villiers and Joubert (2010)
Monthly February, May, August
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
Quarter-monthly
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
(cv. Feizixiao) within 4 years, Yang et al. (2015) recommended that use ratio of K2O/N ¼ 1.0–1.2 is suitable for typical red soils with low N and K and medium to abundant P in southern China, based on the supplement of proper P (P2O5/ N ¼ 0.3), Ca, Mg, B, and Mo nutrients. Further, fertilization programs in China are commonly recommended in terms of phenological stage (Table 45.9). The total amount of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg is divided into three to four splits after fruit harvest, before flowering, and/or after flower abscission and fruit bulking for fruit-bearing trees. Forty-five percent to 65% of N, 30%–45% P, 22.2%–30% of K, and 30%–40% Ca of the total nutrient dosage are used after fruit harvest; 15%–25% of N, 25%–35% of P, 35%–47.8% of K, and 40% of Ca and Mg are applied during fruit bulking stage, and the residue is added before flowering and/or after flower abscission.
676 TABLE 45.9
45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
Fertilization programs for litchi in China. Total amount of nutrients (g/tree)
Cultivar
N
P2O5
K2O
Ca
Guiwei (14 a, 62.7 kg/tree), Nuomici (16 a, 62.7 kg/tree)
709
284
887
Guiwei (21 a, 50 kg/tree)
840
500
1200
Feizixiao (5 a, 18.1 kg/tree)
450
130
540
80
Guiwei (10 a, 5.2 kg/tree)
350
120
300
150
Mg
Timing
Reference
71
After fruit harvest: N 55%, P 30%, K 30% Before flowering: N 20%, P 35%, K 35% Fruit bulking: N 25%, P 35%, K 35%
Zhou et al. (2001)
After fruit harvest: N 65%, P 33.3%, K 25% Before flowering: N 20%, P 33.3%, K 40% Fruit bulking: N 15%, P 33.3%, K 35%
Chen et al. (1998)
40
After fruit harvest: N 45%, P 45%, K 22.2%, Ca 30%, Mg 30% Before flowering: N 10%, P 10%, K 7.4%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% After flower abscission: N 10%, P 10%, K 7.4%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% Fruit bulking: N 25%, P 25%, K 42.6%, Ca 40%, Mg 40%
Li et al. (2011)
60
After fruit harvest: N 45%, P 45%, K 26.1%, Ca 30%, Mg 30% Before flowering: N 10%, P 10%, K 8.7%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% After flower abscission: N 10%, P 10%, K 8.7%, Ca 10%, Mg 10% Fruit bulking: N 25%, P 25%, K 47.8%, Ca 40%, Mg 40%
Besides land application, spraying macro- and secondary nutrient fertilizers is adopted to improve fruit set and quality as well. Foliar urea application at the rate of 120 g/plant after blossom in 6-year Bengal litchi significantly boosts fruit set and size in Brazil (Goncalves et al., 2016). Foliar spray of mixture of Ca and Mg (0.3% CaCl2 + 1.5% MgCl2, w/w) improves fruit pigmentation and maturation in Sanyuehong and Feizixiao litchi in Hainan, China (Gao et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2015), which might overcome the retarded fruit maturation linked with K overuse due to antagonism between K and Ca and Mg. Meanwhile, Mg application enhances anthocyanin synthesis in the pericarp via promoting the ratio of abscisic acid/gibberellin and then stimulating the activity of flavonoid transferase (Zhou et al., 2016). Foliar application of 3% CaCl2 + 1.5% borax (Na2B4O710H2O) not only increases single fruit weight but also enhances total sugars, reducing sugars and nonreducing sugars in fruits (cv. Gola) in Pakistan (Haq et al., 2013). However, it is demonstrated that 1% urea spray in early May, 4% KNO3 spray in mid-May, 2% KNO3 during flowering, 2% Ca(NO3)2 foliar spray at fruit set, and 2% KNO3 spray at fruitlet stage cannot increase fruit (cv. HLH Mauritius) yield in South Africa (Cronje and Mostert, 2009). Additionally, foliar spray of Ca or Ca/B is beneficial to avoid fruit abnormality caused by Ca and Ca/B deficiencies due to bad weather during fruit development. Spraying 0.1 mmol/L Ca(NO3)2 or 1 mmol/L gibberellin three times at flowering, fruitlet, and fruit bulking stages, effectively alleviates fruit crack in litchi (cv. Nuomici) (Peng et al., 2001). Fruit crack is reduced by spraying chelated calcium solution containing 180 mmol/L Ca in Nuomici litchi as well (Li et al., 1999). Spraying 0.2% or 0.5% CaCl2 after full blossom does not effectively enhance structural Ca in litchi pericarp, however, generally reduces fruit cracking rate in Nuomici litchi (Huang et al., 2008). Foliar spray of micronutrients, a common practice to prevent or alleviate micronutrient deficiencies in litchi production, is summarized in Table 45.10. Micronutrients are suggested as the concentrations of either elements or compounds in various countries. Spraying concentrations of Zn, B, Cu, Mn, and Fe are proposed in Australia (Menzel and Simpson, 1987), and those of Zn, B, Cu, and Mn are recommended in South Africa (de Villiers and Joubert, 2010). Boron deficiency is a worldwide nutrient constraint in crop production, and the suitable B concentrations in litchi differ with countries. For example, 0.11–0.45 g B/L and 1 g solubor/L are recommended in Australia and South Africa, respectively; however, it is reported that spraying solubor (Na2B4O710H2O)
677
7 Future research
TABLE 45.10
Supplement of micronutrients in litchi.
Country
Nutrient
Concentration
Reference
Australia
Zn
0.45–2.70 g Zn/L as ZnSO47H2O or ZnO
Menzel and Simpson (1987)
B
0.11–0.45 g/B/L as H3BO3 or Na2B4O7
Cu
0.51–3.05 g Cu/L as CuSO44H2O
Mn
0.59 g Mn/L as MnSO45H2O
Fe
0.48 g Fe/L as FeSO47H2O
Zn
2 g ZnO/L or 1.5 mL nitrozinc/L
B
1 g solubor/L
Cu
2 g copper oxychloride/L
Mn
2 g MnSO4/L
B
0.5 g Na2B4O710H2O/L
South Africa
China
de Villiers and Joubert (2010)
Yang et al. (2016)
at the rate of 0.5 g/L (equalling to 0.056 g B/L) prior to flowering, after flower drop and fruitlet stage, improves fruit set and increases the yield by 98.8% as compared with the control, whereas spraying solubor at 1 and 2 g/L significantly reduces fruit yield by 81.4% and 14.7% in southern China (Yang et al., 2016). Supplement of Fe and Mn is not reported in China due to abundant Fe and Mn in the acid soils of most litchi orchard in the main production area.
7 Future research Systematic nutrient management in litchi is under investigation, probably due to its huge biomass and longevity, in contrast to other perennial fruit crops such as apple and citrus. Some constraints, worthy to be focused on in the near future, are suggested as follows: New litchi cultivars or the immigrated varieties are increasingly planted worldwide (Chen et al., 2016; Froneman et al., 2016; Marboh et al., 2018). The nutritional demand and response to nutrients of the new/immigrated species are urgently needed to be illuminated. New fertilizers such as slow release fertilizer and controlled release fertilizer have been utilized in crops (Cheng et al., 2015; Ke et al., 2018; Saha et al., 2019), which are particularly suitable for litchi owing to its yearly growth period. Investigations are required to find how the new fertilizers enhance nutrient use efficiency and promote plant growth in litchi. Meanwhile, fertigation is commonly adopted in versatile crops. Fertilization schemes including right fertilizer combinations with right rates under fertigation in litchi are impending requirements as well. With regard to nutrient diagnosis, time efficiency of leaf analysis is the bottleneck for nutrient supplement in the key growth stage. Canopy reflectance spectra have been used to estimate leaf N contents for field crops in terms of timeliness (Hansen and Schjoerring, 2003; Li et al., 2014). For example, leaf N levels can be evaluated by the optimized reflectance models at autumn shoot maturation stage, flower spike stage, fruit maturation stage, and flowering stage (Li et al., 2016). Hence, instant nutrient diagnosis approach is likely to be developed to timely ameliorate nutritional imbalance in litchi. Additionally, most of the litchi is cultivated in Southeast Asia, where the soils are commonly acid. Overdose of N fertilizer (Guo et al., 2010; Yang et al., 2018), intensive tillage (Gui et al., 2018), and atmospheric deposition (Zhu et al., 2016) further acidify soils. Plant growth is inhibited by soil acidification per se (Thomas Raese, 1998; Zhao et al., 2009). Moreover, soil chemical and biological attributes are deteriorated by low soil pH (Goulding, 2016; Sato and Takahashi, 1996), which further suppresses plant growth. And, low soil pH enhances bioavailability of aluminum, leading to aluminum toxicity to litchi seedling (Chen et al., 2005). Though litchi originates from South China and adjusts itself to local soil condition, the suitable soil pH for litchi is still in vague up to date and needs to be revealed. Then, soil pH amelioration may be focused on in litchi orchard.
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45. Diagnosis and management of nutrient constraints in litchi
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