Early Minoan mortuary practices as evident by microarchaeological studies at Koumasa, Crete, applying new sampling procedures

Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 11 (2017) 507–522

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Early Minoan mortuary practices as evident by microarchaeological studies at Koumasa, Crete, applying new sampling procedures Doron Boness ⁎, Yuval Goren Department of Bible, Archaeology and Ancient Near East, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, PO Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 18 July 2016 Received in revised form 18 December 2016 Accepted 21 December 2016 Available online xxxx

a b s t r a c t Here we present the results of a micromorphological study conducted on the recently excavated layers in a tholos tomb - Tholos Beta - at the Minoan site at Koumasa, Crete, during the 2013–2014 excavation seasons. This was also a unique opportunity to conduct a detailed research on in situ unexcavated archaeological layers in a Minoan tholos tomb, applying new and innovative sampling methods in order to enable such research in remote locations. This is the first time a micromorphological study has ever been conducted at a Minoan tholos tomb. The micromorphological analysis of the archaeological layers demonstrates that a single and massive burning event of hundreds of disturbed burials took place throughout the structure. This was followed by sprinkling of burnt lime on top of the burnt bone layer. Later cycles of similar burning events are also implied. These results have significant implications on our understanding of Early Minoan mortuary practices and symbolic world. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Tholos tombs have long been considered as one of the hallmarks of the Early and Middle Minoan periods in southern Crete. The first wave of excavations took place in the earlier part of the twentieth century, followed by a second wave in the 1950s and 1960s (Branigan, 1993:8–12; Xanthoudides, 1924). Few have been excavated since (e.g. Goodison and Guarita, 2005; Papadatos and Sofianou, 2015; Vasilakis and Branigan, 2010). Preservation of the tombs is often poor, severely damaged by looting both in antiquity and in recent times. Periodic cleaning, fumigation and other disturbances of these tholoi in antiquity also hinder accurate reconstruction of their earlier uses (e.g. Branigan, 1993:8–11, 17–18, 31, 121–127, Branigan, 2010:256–258; Legarra Herrero, 2011:52; Panagiotopoulos, 2002). Outdated excavation methods and their partial reports result in incomplete, fragmentary and often contradictory data. Close to 90 tombs have been discovered thus far, mostly concentrated in the Asterousia Mountains and the Mesara Plain. The beginning of their construction and use is dated to the Early Minoan I (EM I; 3100– 2900/2800 BCE). The floors were either natural bedrock or rock slabs, or made of sand and gravel, beaten earth, and/or sediments brought to the site from the surrounding areas. Whether or not the tholoi were fully vaulted has been extensively debated in the literature. Rectangular antechambers were often constructed at the entrances of the tholoi to the east, followed by outer rooms and corridors, sometimes associated ⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] (D. Boness), [email protected] (Y. Goren).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2016.12.028 2352-409X/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

with paved surfaces. Much labor, time and energy were invested in these elaborate constructions, which were highly visible to the inhabitants of the neighboring settlements and endowed the dead with an enduring presence (Blackman and Branigan, 1982; Branigan, 1993:8–11, 42–63, 127–141, 1998; Caloi, 2015; Girella, 2012, 2013; Goodison and Guarita, 2005; Hitchcock, 2010:190–191; Legarra Herrero, 2009, 2011:52–53, 59, 65; Manning, 2010; McEnroe, 2010:26–27; Mee, 2010; Murphy, 1998:18; Relaki, 2004; Xanthoudides, 1924). Tholoi tombs seemingly accommodated collective burials, most of which were found unarticulated, manipulated in various ways and disturbed. Many of the bones found inside and outside the tholoi were clearly burnt, and periodic cleaning and clearance were associated with burnt sediments and floor construction. Burning of bones sometimes took place inside the tholoi as indicated by ‘black earth’ sediment and blackened bedrock floor and stones. This has often been interpreted as fumigation of the tholoi for purification purposes. These events were either occurring throughout the tholoi's areas or in more localized patterns (Alexiou and Warren, 2004:12–18, 189; Branigan, 1970:88–89, Branigan, 1993:64–67, 119–127, Branigan, 2010:53–258; Caloi, 2015; Driessen, 2010; Girella, 2012; Murphy, 2011:39; Panagiotopoulos, 2002; Triantaphyllou, 2016a, 2016b; Xanthoudides, 1924:6, 33, 56, 72, 76, 92, 135). Published reports on recently excavated tholos tombs at Moni Odigitria and Livari demonstrate that bones were burnt outside the tholoi and were then transferred inside, whereas at Kamilari they may have been burnt in situ inside the tholos tomb (Papadatos and Sofianou, 2015; Triantaphyllou, 2010, 2016a, 2016b; Vasilakis and Branigan, 2010). The Minoan site at Koumasa is located on the northern fringes of the Asterousia Mountains on a steep slope below the Korakíes hill,

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overlooking the Mesara Plain (Fig. 1). Spanning the entire Minoan sequence, it consists of three occupation areas. A settlement and a socalled ‘precinct’ are located on the Korakíes hill's twin summits at 420 m above sea level over an area of ca. 4000 square meters (Georgoulaki, 1990; Rutkowski, 1989). At its foothills there is the cemetery, dated to EM II-MM I/II. Overall, Koumasa was apparently a regional center for most of the Minoan sequence, keeping its political independence from the major centers in the MM IB-II periods, and one of the most flourishing settlements in Southern Crete, given to the abundance and variety of imported artifacts and materials (Watrous et al., 2004:260–261, 286–287; Xanthoudides, 1924:3–50). The site is situated on top of the Tripolitza Nappe, consisting of Mesozoic calcareous series, overlain by extensive Upper Eocene flysch. Its base consists of dolomites, meta-sandstones, phyllites, schists, volcanic rocks and clastic sediments, sometimes referred to as the Ravdoucha Beds. Local outcrops of the Pindos Nappe are accompanied by local occurrences of ophiolitic blocks. The Pindos Nappe consists of Upper Triassic to Upper Cretaceous limestone, siltstone, chert and flysch (Creutzburg, 1977; Fassoulas, 2001:19; Kilias et al., 1994; Papanikolaou and Vassilakis, 2010; Papavassiliou, 1985). The site was first excavated in 1904 and 1906 by Stephanos Xanthoudides (1924). In the cemetery, three tholoi - Alpha, Beta and Epsilon were excavated, measuring 4.1, 9.5 and 9.3 m in diameter, respectively (Fig. 2). Tomb Gamma is rectangular, and paved area Zeta is situated south east of tholos Epsilon. Three more areas, AB, AE and Delta contained archaeological layers. The natural bedrock served as floor in tholos Beta. The archaeological layers were later covered with 0.8–1.5 m thick sediment and rubble. Signs of burning were observed in tholoi Beta and Epsilon, in the form of ‘black earth’ and marks of a large hearth in the middle of tholos Beta, and blackened stones in and outside it. Burnt and discolored bones are also reported in tholos Beta. Bones were cleared, grouped and rearranged in all tombs. Looting of tholos Beta in antiquity and in modern times is reported. (Branigan,

1993:42–43; Legarra Herrero, 2011:57–58; Xanthoudides, 1924:3–7, 32–33). Based on ceramic typology and site layout, the tholoi are dated to EM IIA, tholoi Beta and Epsilon remaining in use into MM I (Legarra Herrero, 2011:60–62). A renewed excavation project has been undertaken at the site since 2012 on behalf of the Archaeological Society at Athens under the direction of Diamantis Panagiotopoulos (University of Heidelberg). Although the tombs at the cemetery have long been considered excavated to bedrock, several test trenches dug in various parts of the cemetery revealed in situ archaeological layers in the northwestern half of Tholos Beta. The trench (Trench 7; Fig. 3) exposed concentrations of human bones, embedded within white and pinkish-red sediments, as well as patches of dark grey ashy sediment. The clear layering of these sediments (Fig. 4) included a ~ 10 cm thick pinkish-red clayey layer (Layer 1), lying immediately on top of a 5–7 cm thick whitish grey one (Layer 2). Bones were found on top of the clayey layer and embedded in the whitish grey one, often accompanied by tiny yellowish nodules, resulting in hard brecciated sediments. Another powdery dark grey layer was situated below the whitish grey one (Layer 4). The lowermost layer, a compact and gravely reddish sediment 7–10 cm thick, lay immediately on the bedrock (Layer 5). Layer 3 – an ash layer - was only identified in the thin sections (see below). This suggests some cycles of bone accumulation, one scattered over the pinkish clayey layer (of which very little has been preserved), a main concentration in the whitish grey one, and possibly a lower grey layer which may have predated the tholos as it seems to continue underneath its wall (not examined here). The bones often looked burnt, they were often fragmented, and - apart from rare instances - lay unarticulated. The excavated area revealed traces of a stone-lined structure in its middle part, and a short course of stones lain in a straight line in its eastern part, close to the entrance. Pottery sherds were rarely found in these layers. Here we present the results of a micromorphological study conducted during the 2013–2014 seasons at Tholos Beta. Archaeological

Fig. 1. A general map of Crete showing the location of Koumasa and other sites mentioned in the text.

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Fig. 2. a An illustration of the Koumasa cemetery with the tholoi Alpha (A), Beta (B) and Epsilon (E), and rectangular burial structure Gamma (Γ). b An aerial photograph of the Koumasa cemetery.

micromorphology is a soil analysis technique that adds to understanding of site formation processes. It combines microscopic and macroscopic observations of physical properties of sediments, with the aim of evaluating the depositional origin and integrity of archaeological strata. Furthermore, micromorphology offers opportunities for contextual analysis of archaeological deposits since micro-artifacts, waste products, and microscopic faunal and plant remains are observed in their contexts. The study was aimed at understanding the nature of the sediments, their contents, context, stratigraphic relationship and postdepositional processes in context of the human activities that had taken place at the site. This was also a unique opportunity to conduct a detailed research on archaeological layers in a Minoan tholos tomb, applying modern micromorphological research methods. Few such studies have been conducted at Bonze Age Aegean sites in general, and Minoan ones in particular (e.g. Chlouveraki et al., 2008:546; French and Whitelaw, 1999; Goldberg, 1999, 2003, 2005; Karkanas et al., 2012; Nodarou et al., 2008; Wright et al., 2008). This is the first time a micromorphological study has ever been conducted at a Minoan tholos tomb.

The sampling strategy followed in general the methodology advocated by Courty et al. (1989), with changes resulting from the nature of work at this particular site. Normally, a block of an undisturbed sediment is carved with a pocket knife, covered in some glue to tighten the shape, then taken out. Blocks are then packed in toilette paper and masking-tape and carefully stored to prevent breakage. Once removed and wrapped, the sample is labeled with its orientation and coordinates, and shipped to a specially equipped lab for processing. At the lab, the samples are slowly dried, then placed in a vacuum chamber where capillary action infuses a synthetic resin into them. After the resin hardens, the samples are cut with a diamond saw into 5 mm thick slices. These slices are ground flat on one side, glued to microscope carrying glasses and then ground down on the other side into a thin section with the standard thickness of 30 μm and affixed with a covering glass. This method is involved and time-consuming; standard procedures require working in laboratory conditions. This requirement hampers the use of this method at archaeological sites in remote locations

Fig. 3. An aerial photograph of tholos Beta (Trench 7) with the locations of the samples analyzed in this study. In situ layers were found in the northwestern half of the tholos.

Fig. 4. A section where the main layering sequence at tholos Beta is observed (Photo by S. Traunmüller).

2. Method

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where expensive and well-equipped laboratories are inaccessible. Thus, the archaeological realities necessitate the development of new technical field procedures in micromorphology, involving locally available materials and transportable equipment. Moreover, the introduction of such techniques may assist local researchers in establishing low-cost but still effective laboratories where funds are limited. Because the impregnation of blocks usually demands consolidated deposits which are larger than the standard-sized slides, large amounts of resin are required. Because the transport (especially abroad) of such materials is practically impossible, this difficulty was remedied through on-site impregnation methods using locally-obtained polymers and improved impregnation methods. Each sediment block was delineated with a fine pocket knife in order to avoid disturbance. If needed, PVA diluted in water was used to consolidate a 1–2 cm shell impregnating the sample. In order to remove the samples, a locally commercial brand of epoxy, Mercola Epoxite Resin 95 Injection, was used. The epoxy, originally intended for building purposes, was first tested on small soil samples and thin sections were made using the methodology presented by Goren (2014) to ensure that it was colorless and isotropic when cured, having a reasonable refractive index and low viscosity to enable diffusion into the sediment. The samples were sometimes impregnated with the epoxy in situ before removing them from the sediment. For this matter, the outlined blocks were coated with aluminum foil and, in some cases, sprayed by polyurethane foam around the blocks to hold them in place and seal them in order to avoid spoiling the surrounding archaeological features. In other cases, when the sediment was sufficiently coated by PVA, the samples were gently removed with a knife, placed in improvised small ‘tubs’ of aluminum foil, air-dried and impregnated with the epoxy. When cured, the sample's spatial orientation was marked. This was accompanied by detailed documentation of the sample's upper/lower elevations and coordinates, visual and tactile features and the associated archaeological features. Thus, thin slices of sediment blocks were extracted. In the laboratory, large-sized (7.5 × 5 cm) 30 μm thick thin-sections were prepared from the blocks using the common procedures (Courty et al., 1989; Figs. 5, 6). The thin sections were examined under a polarizing microscope at magnifications ranging between 40× and 400 ×, using Plain Polarized Light (PPL) and Crossed Polarized Light (XPL). The various features at the tomb were first defined in coordination with the excavators. Sediment samples of selected features were taken, attempting to track variations in their nature and layering. Efforts were made to include at least two consecutive layers with their transitional part within each sample. Three samples were taken from the suspected foundation layers in the southwestern half of the tholos. Two were taken from two suspected calcareous rocks situated

immediately south of the tholos at its base, where a part of the wall was missing. However, their irregular texture and softness required further analyses. The samples were then sequentially numbered and their spatial coordinates were carefully recorded on the site's GIS map. Table 1 presents a list of the samples, their archaeological context, field descriptions and a summary of the micromorphological results, and Fig. 3 shows their spatial locations. 3. Results In what follows, the main observations are presented. For detailed descriptions of the micromorphological features see Appendix A. The general layer sequence observed in the field is confirmed in this micromorphological study. An additional ash layer - layer 3 – was identified in the thin sections. The relatively good preservation of the layers is due to the fact that the site was protected by the boulders of the first few remaining courses of the tholos' structure and perhaps by the rubble on top of it, so erosion of the sediment was unlikely a major factor. However, the archaeological remains were not buried under a thick cover of topsoil, particularly following the excavation at the beginning of the twentieth century. Evidence for post-depositional (and postXanthoudides' excavation) processes is abundant in all layers and consists of extensive bioturbation and chemical diagenesis. Only in a few samples has mixing between layers severely disturbed the layers' integrity. Evidence for the sediments' saturation in water is ubiquitous, and consists of mechanical disturbances in the argillaceous layers, vertical clay translocation, neo-formation of calcite, and iron oxide impregnation of the fabrics. The most prominent evidence for water saturation is observed in the dissolution of bone apatite and calcitic content. Bioturbation is responsible for much of the fabrics' structure. Fresh or calcified roots are common within channels and chambers (Durand et al., 2010: 165–168; FitzPatrick, 1993:163–167). Mesofauna activity is indicated by the presence of earthworm and mite excrements, and burrowing in the form of zones displaying a crumb structure (Courty et al., 1989:142–146; FitzPatrick, 1993:123–124, 137–142; Kooistra and Pulleman, 2010). 3.1. The whitish-grey-bottom red layer sequence (layers 2–5; Figs. 7–9) This sequence represents one burning event having taken place in situ throughout the excavated area. ‘Combustion structures’ (sensu Mentzer, 2014:617–618) in open areas are identified in thin sections by the layering of charred plant remains, ash and burnt material on top of a heated soil (Courty et al., 1989:110; Mallol et al., 2007; Mentzer, 2014; Shahack-Gross et al., 2004b). Such layering was observed in the field and is confirmed by the results of this study.

Fig. 5. Scan of sample 14–32 – top (a) and bottom (b).

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Fig. 6. a A scan of thin section of the sample 14–32a (5 × 7 cm); layer 1 - burnt calcareous clay; Layer 1 (bottom) - a thin layer of argillaceous sediment; layer 2 – burnt lime and bone splinters. b. A scan of thin section of the sample 14–32b (5 × 7 cm); a small pocket of layer 1 (bottom) argillaceous sediment; Layer 2 – burnt lime and bones; layer 3 - a layer of ash not visible in the field and defined in this study only; layer 4 - a burnt argillaceous substrate.

Human bones were burnt inside the tholos using a variety of combustion materials. Lime was spread on top of them. Burnt and dissolved bone splinters and large fragments are thoroughly mixed with calcareous content (Layer 2). The burnt lime is mostly dissolved and recrystallized, forming continuous miritic patches, but in certain cases the original fabric structure of the burnt lime is still intact (Goren and Goring-Morris, 2008). The crystalline structure and birefringence patterns (i.e. a crystallitic b-fabric) in all cases point to slaking of the burnt lime and to its subsequent complete reaction with atmospheric carbon dioxide (Karkanas, 2007) (Fig. 7a–f). The majority of the bone splinters in this layer are heavily burnt, often to the point of partial or complete calcination, indicating that firing temperatures averaged above 650 °C (Figs. 7d, 8, 9a–b). Previous work has demonstrated that highly calcined bone is brittle and breaks down into a powdery substance and unlikely to be preserved in the archaeological record (Stiner et al., 1995). In this study, many of these bones are quite large and difficult to break. Although they are frequently fragmented, they also display differential burning, a phenomenon previously noted in experimental studies (Rojo-Guerra et al., 2010:271; Fig. 8b–d). In addition, the burnt bones frequently display signs of recrystallization, a phenomenon recorded by Schiegl et al. (2003) because carbonate hydroxylapatite crystals grow larger and better ordered in highly burnt bone (Fig. 8d). Previous experiments have demonstrated that pH values of soil in lime remain alkaline more than a year following burials (Schotsmans et al., 2014a,b). Other experiments have also shown that in acidic conditions fresh bones are more soluble than fossil ones because the latter's crystalline structure is better ordered. Therefore, dissolution of the burnt bones did not likely take place immediately following their deposition with the highly alkaline burnt lime (Berna et al., 2004; Shipman et al., 1984; Stiner et al., 1995; Weiner, 2010). Frequent recrystallization of the calcareous content and impregnation of the fabrics with metal oxides point to repeated and prolonged cycles of inundation in water in acidic conditions (Figs. 7c–f, 8a, 10a). Extensive phosphatization occurs in most layers. Phosphatization appears in a variety of forms: localized etching and infilling of cracks to complete replacement of the calcareous content and marble fragments (Figs. 7e, f, 10c); phosphatized reaction rims around all types of coarse

calcareous inclusions; limited and irregularly patterned zones of birefringent fabric within phosphatic patches (Fig. 10b); decalcification and phosphatization of clay (Fig. 10e); and infillings of foraminifers in calcareous clay aggregates and calcareous rock fragments (Fig. 10c). Occasional crystallization of Ca-P phase is present in the form of acicular and platy crystals, sometimes as radially grown nodules (Fig. 10d). A range of phosphatic minerals - including Ca and Al phases - display similar crystal habits and growth patterns (Karkanas and Goldberg, 2010:522–523). Optical mineralogy alone is not sufficient to determine the exact phases of these potentially Ca-P compositions, particularly considering the minute size of these crystals. Previous work in cave sites has presented a cascade of Ca, Al and Fe phosphatic minerals formed in an order of increasing stability under particularly acidic conditions. Bone is not expected to be preserved in conditions where carbonate apatite (dahllite) – a Ca-P mineral – is not preserved; however, when carbonate apatite is preserved, calcite may dissolve (e.g. Karkanas et al., 1999, 2002; Schiegl et al., 1996; Weiner et al., 1993, 2002). Despite signs of dissolution, both calcareous content and bones are still present and largely intact, so the less stable phases of carbonate apatite probably dominate here. Thus, following initial inundation in water during which calcareous content recrystallized, more cycles followed, this(e) time(s) by acidic phosphorus-rich solutions. Three types of combustion material are identified in layer 2, and to a lesser extent in layer 3: wood, grasses and plants, and tentatively identified dung (Fig. 9a, b). When partly combusted, the first two materials become charred, retaining some organic content. When fully combusted only the inorganic residue is left. Wood ash contains rhomboid calcitic pseudomorphs after calcium-oxalate, carbonized tissues and silicate phytoliths. The latter are also the inorganic residue of burnt grasses (Braadbaart et al., 2012; Brochier and Thinon, 2003; Canti, 2003). Phosphatized wood ash rhombs are identified only in sample 14–32, but phytoliths are observed in most samples in varying frequencies (Fig. 9a, b). Calcitic spherulites originating in herbivore dung (e.g. Canti, 1998; Shahack-Gross, 2011) are rare and sporadically identified in the burnt argillaceous substrate (layer 4) and could have originated in herbivore dung used as combustion material. Coprolites are also rarely identified in the thin sections. High firing temperatures and

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Table 1 List of samples taken from each observed layer and their field descriptions. Layer No.

Sample numbers

Field observations

Summary of micromorphological results

1 (top red layer); Fig. 10a–e

13–30, 13–31, 13–32, 13–37, 14–16, 14-16c, 14–17, 14–21, 14–28, 14–32, 14–40

Pink sediment (5YR 6/6); hard, rich in small hard clay nodules; breaks into large and hard crumbs (up to a couple cm) when broken or into fine powder; rich in burnt bones; tiny yellow nodules are frequently observed at the bottom, bordering with the white underlying layer.

2 (whitish-grey layer); Fig. 7a–f

13–17, 13–20, 13–24, 13–30; 13–31, 13–32, 13–33, 13–37, 14–16, 14-16c, 14–28, 14–32, 14–33

Burnt bones embedded within greyish-white sediment (7.5YR 2/6-7- 4/5); extremely hard and breaks into large crumbs or fine powder; rich in calcareous grits.

3 (ash); Fig. 8a–d

13–24, 13–30, 14–16, 14-16c, 14–21, 14–28, 14–32

Not observed

Burnt and unburnt calcareous clay aggregates cemented by mostly amorphous phosphatic solution. Domains of recrystallization are observed in the form of clusters of randomly and radially grown acicular and platy crystals. Coarse inclusions consist of partially dissolved unburnt and burnt bone splinters and fragments of silicate rocks of local origin and burnt calcareous rocks. The calcareous content is often dissolved and phosphatized. The fabric is often impregnated with metal oxide nodules and coating/hypocoating of particles and pores. Charred specs are common. The bottom of this layer measures 1–3 cm when preserved and is argillaceous with variable amounts of calcareous content, and is partly phosphatized. The aggregates are laminar and crescent displaying platy structure with occasional rounded vesicles. Mostly burnt and unburnt bone splinters embedded within calcareous groundmass, representing dissolved and recrystallized burnt lime due to prolonged immersion in water. The original fabric of the burnt lime aggregates is occasionally still visible. Also observed are charred vegetal material and burnt calcareous rock fragments. The bones are dissolved, resulting in extensive phosphatization of the calcareous content. Iron and manganese oxide nodules, dendritic staining and coating of pores and coarse fraction particles are common. This layer is rather thin, a few mm thick. The layer is poorly preserved in most samples and often mixed with the overlying layer. In sample 14–32 it consists of dense clusters of articulated phytoliths, and few structurally intact wood fragments bearing phosphatized ash rhomb pseudomorphs. In other cases, phytoliths are few, and are accompanied by charred plants still retaining their original tissue morphology, and rare dung pellets. These are embedded in optically inactive groundmass of phosphatic micrite or poorly crystallized ad isotropic macroaggregated micrite. Inclusions are small, averaging 0.15–0.6 mm in length, and include mainly calcined bone splinters and siliceous vesicular bodies are frequent, as well as rounded rock fragments of local origin, dissolved calcareous inclusions, burnt clay pellets and aggregates of phosphatized and decalcified clay.

4 (dark layer); Fig. 9a–d

13–17, 13–24, 14–16, 14-16c, 14–28, 14–29, 14–30, 14–32, 14–34

5 (bottom dark red layer)

13–35, 13–36, 14–30, 14–33, 14–34

The groundmass is mostly isotropic, and consists of phosphatized micrite, amorphous yellow phosphatic solution and microaggregates of poorly crystallized micrite, appearing grey under PPL, and displaying strong isotropic properties under XPL. Manganese oxide nodules and irregular staining are common. Ashy layer; dark grey to black, relatively soft, loose, breaks This layer consists of burnt and phosphatized argillaceous into fine powder; sometimes the sediment is consolidated aggregates with variable amounts of calcareous content, but easily broken into fine powder; turns into hard, crumbly rounded silicate rock fragments of local origin and charred and of reddish colour sediment at the bottom. vegetal particles. The fabric is spongey to crumbly displaying a microaggregated structure. The groundmass displays low birefringence or opaque, with purely argillaceous domains displaying a striated b-fabric. Calcitic spherulites originating in herbivore dung are rare, and charred vegetal particles are also observed. Zones of amorphous phosphatic material rich in large charred or phosphatized plant particles are extensive. The coarse particles are dominated by unsorted rounded rocks of local lithology, ranging from fine sand grains to gravel. As opposed to the previous three layers, bone splinters of all sizes and conditions are particularly rare. Archaeologically sterile; reddish beige (7.5YR 4/4); the This layer consists of argillaceous aggregates and rock sediment is soft, crumbly, compact; highly gritty - rich in inclusions of local origins. The fabric is low in calcareous, medium-size angular rock fragments. In the south-western phosphatic and organic content. The fabric's structure is half of the tholos (previously excavated to bedrock) the irregular-blocky to spongey. The groundmass is birefringent, sediment becomes less compact and grittier with larger appearing in orange-brown under PPL and XPL, and gravels and boulders towards the bottom. The bottom layer displaying a striated b-fabric under XPL. Metal oxide is strewn with medium-size angular rock fragments nodules, irregular staining and hypocoating of pores and (20–50 cm b in length observed in the sample's vicinity. coarse particles are present, but are much less frequent than in the overlying layers. The coarse particles consist of poorly sorted sub-angular to rounded rock fragments of local origin. Comparisons with two samples taken from the tholos foundation sequence demonstrate that this is the same soil.

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Table 1 (continued) Layer No.

Sample numbers

Tholos foundation sequence

13–34, 13–35, 13–36

Piles of burnt lime

14–22, 14–23

Field observations

Summary of micromorphological results

13–35 and 13–36, same as layer 5. 13–34 - The sediment is compact and soft; easily broken into fine powdery clay; few calcareous nodules were observed; light greenish/yellowish grey (2.5YR 4/7); no large rock fragments and boulders; archaeologically sterile. Fragments of what looks to be burnt calcareous rocks, situated immediately south of the tholos where boulders of the tholos' wall are missing; large exposures are present a bit below the tholos, outside of its northern border; below tholos foundation sequence.

extensive diagenesis could be responsible for the absence of spherulites in the overlying ash layer. Charred fragments of intact plant tissues are observed in most samples. It is also possible that ‘fresh’ human bodies also functioned as combustion material (e.g. Triantaphyllou, 2016b). Vesicular bodies (Fig. 9a, b) are common in layers 2 and 3, and are closely associated with heavily burnt bones. A sample of this material was extracted from around one of the bones, ground with an agate mortar to powder, examined by a portable apparatus (Niton XL3t GOLDD, calibrated to the “Mining” matrix) and found to be siliceous in composition. Such bodies - measuring a few millimeters to one centimeter - may form in ash layers at high burning temperatures as a result of melting silica in a highly alkaline environment (Canti, 2003: Fig. 9). The ash layer also displays extensive diagenesis. Although phytoliths are sporadically present in most samples, dense concentrations of phytoliths are present only in a few of them. Wood ash residue and fresh burnt lime are highly alkaline, with wood ash pH values of 9–13 (Braadbaart et al., 2012; Mentzer, 2014:629) and slaked lime reaching pH values of 12–14 (Schotsmans et al., 2014a,b). Under such conditions phytoliths are poorly preserved and are, therefore, expected to degrade and disappear in wood ash remains (Karkanas et al., 2007; Shahack-Gross et al., 2014). This may be responsible for the poor preservation of phytoliths in most samples. Few and sporadic phosphatized wood ash pseudomorphs were observed only in sample 14–32. Pseudomorphs of carbonate apatite after wood ash rhombs have been studied at cave sites (e.g. Goldberg et al., 2009; Mallol et al., 2010; Schiegl et al., 1996), as well as complete dissolution of ash rhombs and their replacement by amorphous phosphatic minerals (Albert et al., 1999; Goldberg et al., 2009; Karkanas et al., 2002). The groundmass of the zones that are poor in phytoliths often consists of microaggregated to ‘fluffy’ (sensu Goldberg et al., 2009) groundmass of poorly crystallized and isotropic grey calcareous micrite and amorphous phosphatic solution. The same ash layer in samples 13–24, 14–34, 14–16, 14-16c, 14–33 and zones within 14–32 consists of phosphatized micrite, poor in phytoliths and with frequent charred particles. As calcite is an acid soluble mineral, it is possible that earlier cycles of dissolution and recrystallization of wood ash resulted in its complete disappearance and recrystallization into micritic patches. Later cycles would consist of percolation of phosphate-rich solution and the subsequent phosphatization of this calcareous content. The fabric of layer 4 is characteristic of heated substrates of combustion features, as evident by the darkening and the loss of optical properties of aggregates - possibly due to the presence of metal minerals in the

Coarsening of the fabric towards the bottom is observed, where the fabric consists almost exclusively of gravel particles coated with clay. See above

The fabrics are massive, sometimes accompanied by desiccation cracks. The groundmass is composed of micritic crumbs displaying smooth crystallitic birefringence patterns containing partly burnt foraminifers and microfossils. They are either welded to each other by micritic and microsparitic calcite crystals. They contain variable amounts of aeolian silt, indicating exposure to the atmosphere, and sparse fine to medium size sand grains of local lithology. Iron oxide impregnation in the form of nodules, coating of pores and irregular staining are common. This material represents recrystallized burnt lime. The stratigraphic relationship of these features to the others layers at the tholos is yet unclear, but they are interpreted as piles of burnt lime discarded either in antiquity or during the tholos' excavation at the beginning of the twentieth century.

argillaceous groundmass serving as flux (Mentzer, 2014:636–639; Fig. 9c, d). The charred organic components and spherulites probably migrated vertically to this layer. The transition between Layers 4 and 5 is gradual. Layer 4 is burnt and phosphatized turning increasingly calcareous towards the top. However, both layers 4 and 5 are argillaceous and the inclusions are similar, and seem to have the same origin. The underlying layer reflects the local bedrock. Coarsening of the fabric towards the bottom of layer 5 may indicate that a pebble substrate was first laid on the bedrock, followed by finer pebble, coarse sand and clay from the site's immediate environment. The tholos tomb at Koumasa was apparently affected by diagenetic processes resulting from the accumulated sediments and rubble of unknown thickness covering the archaeological layers over millennia. During the past century (since the first excavation) this accumulation has been relatively thin. Situated close to the surface, much phosphatic content must have been supplied by organic material on the surface, consisting of local flora and fauna, and dung of grazed herbivores which are abundant in the site's vicinity. However, the thin sections indicate that dissolution of bones is undoubtedly a major source of this phosphatic content. The original structure and constituents of the fabric are masked by extensive chemical and physical diageneses initiated by prolonged inundation in water – either in antiquity or post Xanthoudides excavation, and bioturbation, respectively. 3.2. Layer 1 - top red layer This layer, the uppermost excavated in the current excavation, consists of a mixture of burnt and unburnt calcareous clay aggregates having an extensively phosphatized fabric (Fig. 10a, b). Because the overlying layers were excavated almost a century ago, it is difficult to ascertain its origin. Bioturbation could have created this crumbly-aggregated fabric followed by water inundation, when clay migrated downwards and phosphatic solutions cemented the aggregates. Although unburnt dissolved yellow bone splinters are more common than in the underlying layers, heavily burnt bones - sometimes calcined - are equally common. While the presence of some of the calcareous components could originate in Layer 1 and migrated upwards through bioturbation, this layer is interpreted as the bottom of a later ‘cycle’ of bone burning – the equivalent to the above-described Layer 4. Sample 14–21 hints at this possibility with the abundant presence of charred plant remains embedded within an amorphous yellow phosphatic groundmass. The lower part of this layer is highly argillaceous with

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Fig. 7. a 14–32; micritic crumbs (M) with a burnt bone splinter (B; left); no histological structure preserved; the bone is heavily dissolved; another suspected bone splinter (B; right) having gone through extensive diagenesis (40×, PPL). b Same, in XPL (40×, XPL.) c 13–31; bones splinters (B) embedded within a recrystallized micritic groundmass; the top bone splinter is calcined; the yellow bone seems to be dissolved and recrystallized; histological structure in both bone splinters is hardly preserved (40×, PPL). d; same, in XPL; the white bone splinter displays low birefringence in grey and white (40×, XPL). e 13–17; continuous micritic fabric (M) with burnt bone splinters (B); the bones appear in umber or colorless with reticulate coloring in grey; on the left - a completely phosphatized calcareous chunk (C) (40×, PPL). f Same, in XPL; note the low birefringence of the bone splinters, the top one displays birefringence in grey and white (40×, XPL). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

laminar and crescent aggregates (Fig. 10e). This part probably represents clay sedimentation during repeated cycles of prolonged stillstanding water, as its fabric is typical of drain fillings (Pagliai and Stoops, 2010:430). 4. Discussion (Several points in this section result from our discussion with Diamantis Panagiotopoulos and Danae Lange [the trench supervisor] who are planning to provide publications of this tomb in the near future). Comparing the results of the present study to the available data on Minoan tholoi is difficult, as many of these sites were extensively disturbed by modern looting, excavated in outdated methods and their publications do not conform to modern-day standards. The nature of the reported sediments and their stratigraphy are often unclear. Except for one chemical analysis of white sediment at Platanos (Xanthoudides, 1924:89), scientific methods have not been applied, and a fuzzy

terminology such as ‘black earth’, ‘white clay floors’ or ‘pink earth’ has been commonly used. The available data suggest that burning of bones at the tholoi was mostly confined and localized. Tholos A at Platanos and perhaps Tholos A at Kamilari are exceptional in that intense fire and burning of bones seems to have taken place in extended areas within the tholoi and the stratigraphy seems to be similar to that of tholos Beta at Koumasa (Alexiou and Warren, 2004:12–18; Branigan, 1970:88–89, 1993:52–58, 124–126, 2010:256–258; Murphy, 2011:39; Triantaphyllou, 2016a, 2016b; Xanthoudides, 1924:6, 33, 56, 72, 76, 89, 92, 135). This study was conducted on unexcavated layers in the northwestern half of tholos Beta at Koumasa which were not disturbed by looting and represent the earliest phases of its life cycle. The results clarify the nature of the sediments and their stratigraphic relationship, which remain constant throughout the excavated area. Thus the bones were burnt in situ at temperatures averaging above 650 °C, using a variety of fuels, such as wood, grasses and probably herbivore dung. This was followed by spreading burnt lime on top and laying

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Fig. 8. a 13–17; a calcined bone splinter (B) embedded within a micritic groundmass (M) with abundant iron oxide (IO) nodules (40×, PPL). b; 14–28; burnt bone splinters displaying gradation in coloring from umber to grey; the histological structure is severely distorted; the bones are associated with amorphous phosphatic solution (Ph) (40×, PPL). c 14–28; a burnt bone splinter (B); the histological structure is severely distorted with irregular and mammilate boundaries; the bones are embedded within a micritic groundmass (40×, PPL). d Same, in XPL; note the extensive recrystallization of phosphatic crystals within the bone's fabric (arrows) and the severe distortion of the histological structure (40×, XPL).

another clay floor. Although the archaeological layers are relatively well preserved, they have gone through some bioturbation and were mainly affected by chemical diagenesis caused by water inundation. We are not

able to determine whether this happened immediately after deposition or later. The presence of the burnt clay layer at the top of this sequence indicates that another cycle of burning possibly followed.

Fig. 9. a 14–32, Layer 3; phytoliths (P), bone splinters (B) and siliceous vesicular bodies (VB) (40×, PPL). b 14–32; articulated fragments of charred wood (WA) with phosphatized rhomboid wood ash pseudomorphs (R); irregularly-shaped grey and colorless bone splinters with reticulate coloring (B), siliceous vesicular body (VB) (40×, PPL). c 14–32; the groundmass appears dark and opaque due to burning (40×, PPL). d 13–24; the fabric is spongey, composed of welded argillaceous microaggregates; charred material (Ch) and burnt bone splinters (B) (40×, PPL).

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Fig. 10. a 13–30a; burnt calcareous clay aggregates (BC) with heavy iron oxide mottling (IO) and an unburnt bone splinter (B) (40×, PPL). b 14–21; the phosphatic groundmass displays a wavy fabric and is rich in charred material (Ch); ghosts of foraminifers (Fm) are visible within the calcareous clay crumbs (100×, PPL). c 14–29; a chunk of decalcified and phosphatized clay on the left; the foraminifers are dissolved and replaced by amorphous phosphatic material and manganese oxide; the calcareous chunk on the right is completely dissolved and phosphatized; the foraminifers are replaced by amorphous phosphatic material; at the center the phosphatic material is recrystallized into a phosphatic acicular crystals (40×, PPL). d 14–16a; radially grown platy phosphatic crystals appearing in light yellow in PPL (100×, PPL).e 14-16c; clay (Cl) and calcareous clay (CC) sediments; the fabric is platy, with laminar and crescent aggregates, containing rounded vesicles; much of the clay is phosphatized (PC) (40×, PPL). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

The archaeological layers stop abruptly, forming a straight line and dividing the tholos' area into two halves (Fig. 3). Although Xanthoudides (1924:6) did observe traces of numerous localized burning activities inside the tomb, the stratigraphy is not clear in his report. He also reported that the excavation reached bedrock, which is clearly not the case as far as the northwestern half of the tholos is concerned. However, if we assume that the already excavated half of the tholos displayed the same features as those discussed in this paper, then it is possible that a single massive burning event took place throughout the tholos. Burning activities in the tholoi are commonly interpreted as fumigation (e.g. Alexiou and Warren, 2004:12; Branigan, 1993:126–127; Murphy, 1998:35). This is corroborated by ethnographic accounts, including mortuary practices (e.g. Bloch, 1971: 145; Tringham, 2005:105 with references therein). Branigan (1993:126), in particular, has suggested that they served as ‘major ritualized and symbolic purifications of the tombs’. We would like to elaborate on this symbolic aspect and offer an alternative interpretation in the particular case

presented here. Various lines of evidence suggest that this event was charged with symbolic and social meanings. First, it is evident that if a major fire event took place throughout the tholos, then much energy and labor must have been invested in burning the bones; the collection of large amounts of fuel to burn them at such high temperatures could have required coordination of labor among the entire social unit which the tholos served, depending on the type of wood used as fuel (e.g. Rojo-Guerra et al., 2010:271–272). Fire is often perceived as a highly sensual transformative and destructive force, ambivalent and liminal, a symbol for birth and renewal, purification and healing (Brück, 2006:304–305; Chapman, 1999:114–115; Jones, 2007:112–118; Stevanović, 1997:388; Tringham, 2005:98–101; Verhoeven, 2010:30– 34, 39–40). Ritualistic destructions of communal burial structures by fire are documented at Neolithic tombs and mortuary structures in western Europe, including megalithic limestone tholoi in the Iberia (e.g. Guillot et al., 1996; Le Goff et al., 2002; Masset, 2002, 2010; Masset and Van Vliet, 1974; Noble, 2006:46–51, 55–58; Rojo-Guerra

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et al., 2003, 2010; Rojo-Guerra and Garrido-Pena, 2012: Fig. 3; Thomas, 2000). There, fires were set to the tholoi reaching sufficiently high temperatures to partially transform the structures' calcareous structural components into quicklime, resulting in burnt lime covering the burnt skeletons. Destruction of domestic houses by fire during the Neolithic in Europe, Anatolia and the Levant is sometimes interpreted as a heightened perceptual drama, giving rise to personal memories and emotions in its former inhabitants as well as in the entire community (Akkermans et al., 2012; Brück, 1999; Burdo et al., 2013; Campbell, 2000; Chapman, 1999:114; Harrison, 2008; Mellart, 1964; Noble, 2006:57–58; Özdoğan and Özdoğan, 1998; Russell, 2002; Sheridan, 2013; Smyth, 2006; Stevanović, 1997, 2002:59–60; Tringham, 2000, 2005, 2013; Twiss et al., 2008; Verhoeven, 2010). Periodic closure rituals of domestic and mortuary structures sometimes followed by rebuilding were played out in order to ensure the creation and continuity of place, the construction of social memory and group identity (Borić, 2008:123–124, 129– 130; Bradley, 1998:51–80; Gerritsen, 1999, 2008; Jones, 2007:108– 121; Rojo-Guerra et al., 2010; Stevanović, 1997:385, 387–388, 2002:58–59; Thomas, 2000; Tringham, 2000, 2013:102–103, 106– 108) and the transformation of the dead into ancestors and maintaining relationships with them (Chapman, 1999). Various examples suggest that similar to fire, lime is also perceived as a transformative material, regenerating social memory and identity, and endowed with ambivalent qualities. At the Iron Age site of S′Illot des Porros Necropolis in the Balearic Islands lime burials are understood as equivalent to or coexisting with cremation practices and interpreted as quickening the pace of the corpses' decomposition and purifying them (Piga et al., 2010; Van Strydonck et al., 2013; Waldren and Van Strydonck, 1995). Lime has often been understood as a sanitizing, disinfectant agent and a bad odor neutralizer in individual burials or mass graves of victims of large scale disasters and atrocities (e.g. Bianucci et al., 2009; Blanchard et al., 2007; Brouskari, 1980; Dickie, 2006; Gittings, 2007; Rudovica et al., 2011; Schotsmans, 2015; Warner, 2011; Wilson et al., 2011). Murder victims are occasionally buried in lime in order to prevent their forensic identification (e.g. Congram, 2008; D'Errico et al., 2011; Solla, 2007). On the other hand, lime is sometimes considered as a preserving material, used for embalming (e.g. Aufderheide, 2003:55–56, 200; Brettell et al., 2014, 2015), or serving as memorial for atrocities (e.g. Amuno and Amuno, 2014). Hamilakis (1998) argues that forgetting and remembering the deceased's particular social personalities were constructed through embodied experiences of rituals within the tholoi, such as feasting, drinking, ritualistic killing of their belongings, as well as covering up their bones with soil. He emphasizes ritualistic killing of the memory of particular deceased and their transformation through embodied sensual experiences into an abstract shared memory, resulting in community-wide cohesion and identity. Indeed, various writers have suggested that mortuary and non-mortuary rituals associated with ancestors' cult, agricultural cycles and fertility, were performed in annexed chambers, paved areas and enclosures in the cemetery complexes, in the form of dancing, drinking, libation rites and feasting (Branigan, 1993:127–141, 1998:19–23, 2010:259–261; Caloi, 2015; Goodison, 2001:78–81; Hamilakis, 1998:120–121; La Rosa, 2001; Murphy, 1998:36–39; Soles, 2001:233–234). Branigan (1993:119–123), Murphy (1998) and Hamilakis (1998) discuss mortuary rites performed after the death of individual deceased persons, forgetting them as social persons and transforming them into ancestors. It is unclear how such localized mortuary rites conducted upon the death of individual persons fit on the same temporal scale with the large-scale communal event suggested here. Assuming that not all the dead represented by the massive bone piles at tholos Beta died simultaneously, a ritualistic burning at the tholos could have referred to both communities – the ancestors and living – in their entirety. If correct, this event likely involved the entire community and constructed communal identity through this highly sensual, perhaps drama-felt experience, shared in the

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community's collective memory. The symbolic world associated with this event alludes to the possibility that the burning of the bone layer at the tholos marked an end of a phase in its life cycle and the beginning of a new one, marking a significant transition in the community's history. Acknowledgements This research was funded by the Negev Scholarship provided by the Kreitman School of Advanced Graduate Studies at Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel – for which we are grateful. We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Diamantis Panagiotopoulos, University of Heidelberg, for giving us the opportunity to conduct this research and for his insightful comments on this paper, as well as for supplying us with the valuable materials used in this publication. We would also like to thank Danae Lange, the area supervisor and an MA candidate at the University of Heidelberg for her cooperation, insights and help, Dr. Sebastian Traunmüller for measuring the samples' spatial location, as well as Dr. Nadine Becker and Petra Nemethova, a PhD candidate at the University of Heidelberg for their help in the field, and the rest of the team members. Lastly, we would like to thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive and helpful comments. Appendix A. Detailed descriptions of the micromorphological thin sections 1. Layer 1 – ‘top red layer’ The fabric is highly heterogeneous and crumbly, consisting of loose crumbs, non-accordant irregular aggregates of various sizes and coarse particles, with abundant void space of small to large irregular shaped vughs (Fig. 10a). The c/f related distribution is porphyric to enaulic. Much of the void space is filled with an amorphous phosphatic solution cementing the aggregates and inclusions, appearing in various shades of light to bright yellow under XPL, displaying a concentric and wavy fabric (Karkanas and Goldberg, 2010:531; Fig. 10b). Domains of recrystallization are also observed in the form of clusters of randomly and radially grown acicular and platy crystals, exhibiting low birefringence in grey and white colors (Fig. 10d). The phosphatic material is associated with bones and dissolved and phosphatized calcareous components. The fabric is often impregnated with metal oxide nodules and coating/ hypocoating of particles and pores. Charred specs and particles are also common throughout the fabric (Fig. 10b). The fabric consists of a mixture of unburnt and burnt calcareous clay aggregates displaying a crystallitic b-fabric or strong isotropic properties, and fragments of local silicate rocks and burnt calcareous rocks. Some aggregates are partly or completely decalcified and phosphatized (Karkanas and Goldberg, 2010:527; Fig. 10c). Relicts of dissolved foraminifers occasionally observed within the latter, filled with amorphous phosphatic material, clay displaying clear preferred optical orientation, or metal oxide nodules. The calcareous content – rock fragments, micritic patches and marble fragments are partly or completely dissolved and replaced by phosphatic material. Recrystallized sparitic calcite is present within them. Reddish iron oxide nodules are frequently observed in them. Embedded within and in-between the sediment aggregates are rock fragments of local origin and burnt and unburnt dissolved bone splinters. At the bottom of this layer, a highly-disturbed layer of argillaceous sediment with fine calcareous content is present. This layer is 1–3 cm thick and only in a few samples is it relatively well preserved. The c/f related distribution is porphyric to enaulic. The fabric consists of large bone splinters - mostly oriented horizontally and fragmented in situ and a few large chunks of burnt clay. They are embedded within a groundmass of a homogeneous sediment, having gone through repeated swelling and shrinking cycles. The aggregates are sometimes laminar and crescent, occasionally displaying a platy structure with spherical vesicles (Fig. 10e). The presence of vesicles in these aggregates point

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to air bubbles formed in water-saturated conditions (Courty et al., 1989:124–125; Pagliai and Stoops, 2010:427–431). The clay is occasionally phosphatized, with limited zones of striated b-fabric, particularly in the bone coatings and the intact aggregates. Chunks of burnt clay are interspersed in-between them and above and below this layer. Light yellow amorphous phosphatic material is present in the form of continuous irregular patches and coating on top on the clay coating of the bones. 2. Layer 2 – ‘white layer’ This layer displays a massive to spongey structure, sometimes turning crumby. It consists of burnt lime, partly burnt calcareous rock fragments, highly burnt and partly dissolved bone splinters, charred plant particles and a minor contribution of components originating in the overlying layer. They are all embedded within a micritic groundmass with extensive patches of an amorphous phosphatic solution. In some thin sections the fabric consists of densely clustered birefringent calcined and carbonized lime lumps (Goren and GoringMorris, 2008; Fig. 7a,b), accompanied by burnt calcareous rock fragments, displaying reticulate fracture patterns and darker coloring (Karkanas, 2007). Some are fully calcined, slaked and reacted with atmospheric carbon as in lime plaster fabrics, while others are surrounded by reaction rims (Gourdin and Kingery, 1975:137–138; Karkanas, 2007). Foraminifers and other microfossils are embedded within them and are either partly burnt, or mostly dissolved with only their contours still visible. The calcareous rock fragments – burnt and unburnt - are poorly sorted and occasionally reach a few cm in length in the thin sections, although larger gravels were observed in the field. Evidence for prolonged inundation in water and dissolution of the calcareous content is abundant. The calcareous content is dissolved and recrystallized, creating large spongy to massive zones within the fabric (Fig. 7c–f), sometimes accompanied by desiccation cracks, locally breaking the fabric into smaller aggregates. The coarse calcareous inclusions are frequently recrystallized - containing calcite spars and sparse fine sand and silt grains. In addition, dissolution of the calcareous content is often accompanied by extensive phosphatization of both the calcareous inclusions and the groundmass, possibly creating Ca-P mineral phases (Karkanas et al., 2000, 2002; Mallol et al., 2010; Schiegl et al., 1996; Shahack-Gross et al., 2004a; Weiner et al., 1993; Fig. 7e, f). Local domains of crystallization of this amorphous phosphatic material are also observed. Manganese and iron oxide nodules and irregular and dendritic staining frequently impregnate the groundmass, and present in the form of hypocoating of pores and coarse inclusions. Other components in the groundmass consist of occasional wellrounded spherical calcareous clay aggregates which migrated from the overlying layer 1 and burnt or decalcified and phosphatized clay pellets (Karkanas and Goldberg, 2010:527), displaying isotropic properties or a speckled b-fabric, respectively. The coarse fraction is poorly sorted and dominated by calcined and partly dissolved bone splinters. They are often associated with the amorphous phosphatic zones. Heavily dissolved smaller unburnt yellow splinters are also observed. Other inclusions are less frequent and consist of silicate rock fragments of local origin. Heavy coating of metal oxides is frequently observed on the coarse inclusions. Clay coatings on coarse inclusions are also sometimes observed, indicating clay translocation from the overlying sediment layers. Lastly, charred specs and plant particles are occasionally observed, increasing in frequency towards the bottom of the layer. 3. Layer 3 – ash layer This layer is observed in some of the samples, and is mostly poorly preserved. Because of different post-depositional processes and diagenesis, variation between the samples in structure and content is great. This layer may reach a few mm in thickness. Although the layer has

distinct characteristics, its upper boundaries are sometimes indistinguishable from the overlying layer 2, and the two are sometimes mixed. Isolated phytoliths are present in this layer. In a few cases, they are abundant, densely clustered and randomly oriented (Fig. 9a), with limited domains of horizontal and sub-horizontal laminae. A few structurally intact horizontally oriented wood fragments bearing phosphatized ash rhomb pseudomorphs are also observed. Isolated phosphatized wood ash rhomb pseudomorphs are occasionally present throughout this layer (Fig. 9b). They appear in grey, amber to dark red and turn isotropic under XPL (Braadbaart et al., 2012; Brochier and Thinon, 2003; Canti, 2003; Goldberg et al., 2009; Mallol et al., 2010; Schiegl et al., 1996). Where phytoliths are few, the groundmass is sometimes spongey to microaggregated to ‘fluffy’ (Goldberg et al., 2009) and consists of isotropic poorly crystallized grey micrite and phosphatic solution. In other zones, it consists of phosphatized birefringent micrite. Manganese oxide nodules and irregular staining are common. Residue of charred plants, sometimes retaining their tissue morphology, is common in these zones. Dung pellets appearing as dark brown organic masses rich in organic content are rarely identified. The inclusions are rather small, averaging 0.15–0.6 mm in length and rarely exceeding this range, and consist of mostly calcined bones and fragments of vesicular bodies (Fig. 9a, b). Unburnt bone splinters are extremely rare. Other inclusions are rounded rock fragments of local origin, dissolved calcareous inclusions, burnt clay pellets and aggregates of phosphatized and decalcified clay. 4. Layer 4 – ‘dark layer’ This layer consists of burnt and phosphatized argillaceous aggregates with variable amounts of calcareous content, rounded silicate rock fragments of local origin and charred vegetal particles. Although a clear break with the underlying layer was observed in the field, a more gradual change between the layers is observed in the thin sections. Bioturbation is quite extensive, sometimes mixing this layer with the overlying layer. The fabric is spongey to crumbly displaying a microaggregated structure, and a porphyric c/f related distribution. The groundmass displays low birefringence or opaque (Fig. 9c, d), with local purely argillaceous domains displaying a striated b-fabric. Contribution of calcareous content increases towards the top, displaying a crystallitic a b-fabric under XPL. Some ash, charred plant particles and calcareous material infiltrate this layer from the overlying ash layer (Fig. 9d). Zones of amorphous phosphatic material rich in large charred or phosphatized plant particles are extensive. The latter are common throughout the layer, particularly at the top, occasionally reaching a few mm in length and still retaining their original tissue morphology. Individual calcitic spherulites originating in herbivore dung (Canti, 1998; Shahack-Gross, 2011) are rare. Micritic hypocoating of pores and coarse particles are also common. In some thin sections, fillings of pores and coatings of coarse particles with illuviated dusty clay displaying a wavy extinction pattern are observed. The coarse particles are dominated by unsorted rounded rocks of local lithology, ranging from fine sand grains to gravel. As opposed to the previous three layers, bone splinters of all sizes and conditions are particularly rare. 5. Layer 5 - bottom ‘dark red layer’ and tholos foundation sequence This layer is situated immediately below the layer 4 and consists of argillaceous aggregates and rock inclusions of local origins. The fabric is low in calcareous, phosphatic and organic content. The fabric's structure is irregular-blocky to spongey, the c/f related distribution is open porphyric at the top to gefuric at the bottom. The groundmass is birefringent, appearing in orange-brown under PPL and XPL, and displaying a striated b-fabric under XPL. Amorphous phosphatic material is rare and present as dissolved calcareous rock fragments and phosphatized clay aggregates. Metal oxide nodules, mottling and hypocoating of

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pores and coarse particles are present, but are much less frequent than in the overlying layers. The coarse particles consist of poorly sorted subangular to rounded rock fragments of local origin. Comparisons with two samples taken from the previously excavated half of the tholos demonstrate that this is the same soil. Coarsening of the fabric towards the bottom is observed, where the fabric consists almost exclusively of gravel particles coated with clay.

They appear either as independent bodies, welded to these bones, or as an integral part of them. They measure 0.5–5 mm in length with clear to diffuse boundaries with the surrounding groundmass. They appear in grey under PPL, turning isotropic under XPL. Layers 2–3 are dominated by heavily burnt bone splinters, but they are also frequent in layer 1. Layer 3 is dominated by tiny calcined bone splinters and these vesicular bodies.

6. Bones

7. Piles of recrystallized burnt lime

Unsorted bone fragments and splinters comprise the most dominant components of the coarse fraction particles. In the thin sections, they range from tiny splinters measuring 0.1 mm to a few cm in length. They have gone through extensive diagenesis, mainly by dissolution. In situ fragmentation of the bones is also frequently observed. The diagenic processes often mask their original histological structure, mineralogical structure and shapes. Unburnt bone splinters comprise a small fraction of the splinters. They are extensively dissolved, appearing as yellow masses under PPL, and in irregular rounded to sub-angular shapes with mammilate boundaries, with no observable histological structure (Figs. 7e, f, 9a, 10a). They display low birefringence in white and yellow colors and are sometimes isotropic. Recrystallization is occasionally observed in them in the form of dispersed crystals displaying low birefringence in yellow, and a ‘pixelated’ appearance under XPL (Fig. 7c, d). They are often associated with patches of amorphous phosphatic material. They are common in the layer 1 - and to a lesser extent – in layer 2, and are mostly small, averaging 0.2–0.5 mm in length and rarely reach a few cm. In some cases, white or colorless bone splinters do retain their histological structure, displaying a ‘ropy structure’ with their osteons still preserved, and chaotic birefringence patterns in yellows and whites, appearing to be partly dissolved. Rarely do zones of darker umber colors within the yellow bone splinters indicate that some of these splinters were burnt in relatively low temperatures. Burnt bones - bone characteristics indicative of burning are ubiquitous and comprise the majority of the bone splinters (Courty et al., 1989:109–110; Hanson and Cain, 2007; Karkanas and Goldberg, 2010:525; Schiegl et al., 2003). Clearly burnt bone splinters appearing in various shades of umber, orange, red and when carbonized – in opaque black – are occasionally present. They are rounded to sub-angular, cracked and of irregular shapes. Histological structure is never observed in them. They are occasionally present in the layers 1–3 and rarely measure 0.5–1 cm in length and sometimes fragmented in situ. The majority of the bone splinters comprise colorless to grey bones displaying no histological structure, and low birefringence in white and grey or turn completely isotropic under XPL (Figs. 7c, d, 8a, 9a). Cracking and in situ fragmentation are common. These features point to burning temperatures exceeding 650 °C, to the point of complete or partial calcination (Hanson and Cain, 2007; Karkanas and Goldberg, 2010:525; Karkanas et al., 2007; Mentzer, 2014:631, 648; Simmons et al., 2015; Squires et al., 2011). Extensive signs of recrystallization are frequently observed in the form of dark amorphous grey, sometimes in a reticulate pattern (Fig. 9a, b). Other forms of recrystallization consist of fabrics displaying a speckled b-fabric with dispersed phosphatic crystals, or less frequently – larger phosphatic crystals, identified upon insertion of a gypsum plate at a 45° angle and their low birefringence in yellow (Fig. 8c, d). Crystallization of microsparitic calcite is also occasionally observed inside the Haversian canals and the voids of spongy bones. Frequently these bones display gradation from grey to umber coloring in various patterns. Some splinters display signs of dissolution. They are embedded within an amorphous phosphatic groundmass, or at times coated with a thin film of this material. They are of irregular shapes with mammilate and diffuse boundaries. In all cases, histological structure is hardly observed. Rounded vesicular bodies of irregular shapes are frequently present in the white and ashy layers (Fig. 9a, b).

The fabrics are massive, sometimes accompanied by desiccation cracks, displaying porphyric c/f related distribution. The groundmass is composed of micritic crumbs displaying smooth crystallitic birefringence patterns containing partly burnt foraminifers and microfossils. They are either welded to each other by micritic and microsparitic calcite crystals, or extensively dissolved and recrystallized. They contain variable amounts of aeolian silt, indicating exposure to the atmosphere, and sparse fine to medium size sand grains of local lithology. Iron oxide impregnation in the form of nodules, coating of pores and irregular mottling are common. This material represents recrystallized burnt lime. The stratigraphic relationship of these features to the others layers at the tholos is yet unclear, but they are interpreted as piles of burnt lime discarded either in antiquity or during the tholos' excavation at the beginning of the twentieth century. 8. Coarse rock fragments All samples contain unsorted sub-angular to rounded silicate rock fragments, ranging from fine sand size grains to gravels. They are dominated by sandstone, siltstone (sometimes slightly metamorphosed), quartzite/meta sandstone, marble, large metamorphic quartz sand grains and gravel mostly with undulose extinction patterns and inclusions, and schist (rarely turning into gneiss). Highly weathered volcanic rocks, (sometimes lightly altered) and chert (sometimes radiolarian) are also present, but less frequently. Most of these fragments are present in the local flysch outcrops of the Tripolitza formation. These rocks are fresh to moderately rolled, originating in the slopes of the Asterousia Mountains. Marble, altered volcanic rocks and schist and gneiss are present in the upper Asterousia and ophiolitic nappes, local occurrences of which are reported (Creutzburg; Fassoulas, 2001, 19; Papavassiliou, 1985; Kilias et al., 1994; Papanikolaou and Vassilakis, 2010). Marble outcrops were observed in the site's vicinity. The coarse particles are often impregnated with metal oxide nodules and heavily coated, particularly on pores and individual grains within them. These fragments are occasionally cemented to each other by these metal oxide coatings. Impregnation of the coarse particles with calcite micrite and microspars is also observed. References Akkermans, P.M.M.G., Brüning, M., Hammers, N., Huigens, H., Kruijer, L., Meens, A., Nieuwenhuyse, O., Raat, A., Rogmans, E.F., Slappendel, C., Taipale, S., Tews, S., Visser, E., 2012. Burning down the house: the burnt building V6 at late Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria. In: Bakels, C., Kamermans, H. (Eds.), The End of Our Fifth Decade. Analecta Praehistorica Leidensia 43/44, Leiden University, Leiden, pp. 307–324. Albert, R.M., Lavi, O., Estroff, L., Weiner, S., Tsatskin, A., Ronen, A., Lev-Yadun, S., 1999. Mode of occupation of Tabun Cave, Mt. Carmel, Israel during the Mousterian period: a study of the sediments and phytoliths. J. Archaeol. Sci. 26 (10), 1249–1260. Alexiou, S., Warren, P., 2004. The early Minoan tombs of Lebena, Southern Crete. Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 30. Paul Åstöm's Förlag, Sävedalen. Amuno, S.A., Amuno, M.M., 2014. Geochemical assessment of two excavated mass graves in Rwanda: a pilot study. Soil Sediment Contam. 23 (2), 144–165. Aufderheide, A.C., 2003. The Scientific Study of Mummies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Berna, F., Matthews, A., Weiner, S., 2004. Solubilities of bone mineral from archaeological sites: the recrystallization window. J. Archaeol. Sci. 31 (7), 867–882. Bianucci, R., Rahalison, L., Peluso, A., Massa, E.R., Ferroglio, E., Signoli, M., Langlois, J.-Y., Gallien, V., 2009. Plague immunodetection in remains of religious exhumed from burial sites in Central France. J. Archaeol. Sci. 36 (3), 616–621.

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