Gender differentiated impacts from weather extremes: Insight from rural communities in South India

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Gender differentiated impacts from weather extremes: Insight from rural communities in South India ⁎

Stefanos Xenariosa,b, Krishna Reddy Kakumanuc, , Udaya Sekhar Nagothub, Gurava Reddy Kotapatid a

Mountain Societies Research Institute (MSRI), University of Central Asia, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Aas, Norway c International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Hyderabad Office, ICRISAT Campus, Patancheru, Telangana, India d Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University (ANGRAU), Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India b

AR TI CLE I NF O

AB S T R A CT

Keywords: Droughts Gender Climate variability Attribute agreement analysis, South India

Several studies focus on the effects of climate variability on female and male gender relations as perceived through various biophysical and socio-economic aspects. More emphasis is given on the impacts of extreme weather events on rural communities of less developed regions. The results are often interpreted in a qualitative manner through policy measures that may reduce gender inequalities. However, the interpretation of the qualitative results to more crisp and measurable outputs is often not attained while the validation of the findings is rarely ensured. The current study suggests a gender-differentiated impact framework based on qualitative and quantitative components for the assessment of climate variability effects on rural communities in South India. Fifteen villages mostly practicing rice farming in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states were selected as representative drought-prone case studies. The study results advocate that the qualitative outcomes were validated from the quantitative approach but for a few cases which could be attributed to methodological and case-specific differentiations. Policy recommendations are made on common gender trainings in water-resistant crops and livestock activities for the alleviation of drought impact and abatement of gender inequalities. Also, entrepreneurship workshops for women could enhance gender balance and diverse family income from the current sole dependence on farming revenues. Regional climate adaptation programs could be better implemented when the specific features and capacities of local communities are taken into consideration.

1. Introduction The effects of climate change on gender constitute a major component in the international agenda that mostly focuses on less developed regions of the world. Researchers’ attention to gender inequalities and climate change has been increased in recent years while the need for the inclusion of gender issues in the international policy discourse has been increasingly addressed (Djoudi et al., 2016; Jost et al., 2016). A multitude of global policy aspects pertaining to climate change and gender inequalities has been stressed by renowned global organizations. Indicatively, the World Health Organization (WHO, 2011) has reported the potential inequalities emerging from climate change to women’s health, while the International Labour Office (ILO, 2012; 2016) has investigated the deterioration of

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Corresponding author at: International Water Management Institute (IWMI),New Delhi, India. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Xenarios).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.05.002 Received 12 December 2016; Received in revised form 6 May 2017; Accepted 8 May 2017 2211-4645/ © 2017 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Please cite this article as: Xenarios, S., Environmental Development (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2017.05.002

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labour conditions. The insecure employment and low-income predictions as a result of climate change have been underlined (World Bank, 2015) while the Food Agricultural Organization has conducted a series of studies on climate change, gender nutrition and food access (FAO, 2010, 2013). The gender-differentiated impacts of climate change on women’s and men’s assets in developing countries and the policy measures to be taken have also been well reviewed (Goh, 2012; Tschakert and Machado, 2012; Farhana, 2014). There are numerous in-depth and country-specific analyses pertaining to the above field areas, often clustered in well-elaborated web platforms (Eldis, 2015; OECD, 2015; World Bank, 2015). Many global and regional studies suggest that the rural communities within less developed parts of South Asia offer some representative examples where climate change will aggravate existing gender inequalities. The well-being status of households, the social differences and the access to information, services and natural resources are acknowledged as potential domains of gender inequality in South Asia (Arora-Jonsson, 2011; Girarda, 2015; Gentle et al., 2014). Research findings indicate that men and women may be impacted differently by weather extremes in India, not only at the household, but also at the community, level (Ahmed and Fajber, 2009; Rao, 2010; Sugden et al., 2014; Palanisami et al., 2015). Indicatively, the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana in South India have faced consecutive severe droughts the last decade, which highly deviated from the mean climatic trends of the region. A climatic variability was already noticed in various regional models as a derivative of the wider climate change developments occurring within the last century (Rupa Kumar et al., 2006; Jeganathan and Andimuthu, 2013; IPCC, 2014). Future climate projections emphasize that extreme weather events will intensify in the region by exacerbating drought occurrences (Hijioka et al., 2014; Palanisami et al., 2014). The recent droughts in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have resulted in human losses, severe impacts on agricultural production and have unequally affected the livelihoods of male and female inhabitants in rural communities (GoAP, 2015a). The current studies on gender and climate variability are prevalently based on qualitative analysis by limiting the interpretation in measurable outputs. Further, the validation of the qualitative results is rarely verified through quantitative assessment. To this end, the present study initially introduces a qualitative analysis to evaluate the existent potential inequalities between genders and the potential aggravation of these inequalities induced by climate variability in South India. In turn, a quantitative assessment clarifies the consistency of the qualitative results though descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. The high difficulty to distinguish the effects derived from pre-existing social deprivations and drought induced impacts is addressed. Practical policy recommendations are given for the designing of policy measures at the local and regional level. The suggested approach was tested in fifteen (15) villages situated in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states as representative drought prone cases of South India. 2. Methodology 2.1. Gender-differentiated impact framework The suggested framework is designed through a step-wise approach by indicating the activities to be taken in each stage while the relevant tools and sources are exhibited. As shown in Fig. 1, the most significant areas that may host gender inequalities were traced by the relevant literature review, experts’ opinions and consultation with local administrative officers. In turn, a qualitative analysis was introduced through a Focus Groups technique to evaluate the existing potential inequalities between men and women and the potential aggravation of these inequalities as a result of drought events. Further, a quantitative assessment clarified the consistency of the qualitative results through the introduction of surveying and algebraic techniques. Also, descriptive and inferential statistics underpinned the clarity of the quantitative results. Policy recommendations are given for the designing of climate variability policy measures with respect to the gender inequalities met in the study areas and the profile of each village. A more detailed description of each activity is presented in the following sections. 2.2. Mapping gender inequalities A relevant literature review was conducted to identify the most significant areas that may host gender inequalities. Studies show

Fig. 1. Evaluation framework for gender differentiated impacts from weather extremes in South India. Note: AAA= Attribute Agreement Analysis.

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that the most significant variables that impact gender inequalities were land use and ownership, labour markets, financial services, decision making aspects, education and access to technology (Kabeera, 2005; IUCN, UNDP, & GGCA, 2009; FAO, 2013; Saha, 2013). In turn, a roundtable discussion with a group of gender and policy experts was organized at Hyderabad (South India) in November 2012 for further clarifications on the gender inequalities potentially incurred in the selected cases. Experts with social science backgrounds and deep knowledge on gender matters in the region have been invited from international and national research organizations (International Water Management Institute and M S Swaminathan Foundation) academia (Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University) and training institutes (WALAMTARI) of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states. The invited experts have recently participated in a research project aiming to identify climate adaptation practices and gender impacts in communities of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states highly resembling the sampling cases of the current study (ClimaAdapt, 2015). The discussion with the experts on the interpretation and relevance of the study findings with our pilot cases was valuable for the validation of the literature review outcome. The experts’ views coincided with the findings of the literature by adding that inequalities in the region could also be traced in the access to information services. The information services may encompass the access to professional associations, vocational training and community decision-making aspects. In addition, meetings were organized with representatives of local administration and agricultural extension officers in December of 2012. The meetings’ outcomes were compared with the literature and experts’ opinions. The participation of women who are engaged in Self-Help Groups (SHGs), was also added by the extension officers as a well-established institution for the better representation of women’s inequalities. The SHG is a village-based institutional scheme set up by national government in early 2006 which aims at generating knowledge and information, imparting capacities and providing peer support for women (Tesoriero, 2006). Results from literature review, experts’ views and the meetings depicted the following most vulnerable areas that influence gender inequalities as below:

• Land ownership • Income contribution • Decisions on household financial matters • Labour access • Decisions on crop preferences • Access to formal and informal village level institutions 2.3. Qualitative assessment A qualitative assessment was first conducted through Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) for the identification of existent gender inequalities and the exacerbation of these inequalities due to climate variability in the selected study sites. Measures to improve household welfare and mitigating gender inequalities were also suggested by the FGDs participants. FGD technique is a semi-structured qualitative research tool coordinated by a facilitator where a selected group of people (8–15) participate in a discussion focused on a particular issue or topic of common interest to the group (Morgan, 1988). The selection of FGD among other participation techniques (e.g. Participatory Rural Appraisal, Citizen Juries) was reasoned by the lower implementation costs and the familiarity of the research team with the approach. A pilot FGD was conducted in February 2013 in one of the study areas to test the level of participation and the appropriateness of the discussion issues. Necessary improvements were made based on the experience from the pilot FGD event. In turn, fifteen (15) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) were organized in total in the fifteen (15) selected villages of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states between 18th March and 12nd April 2013. Field coordinators with expertise in FGDs were suggested by IWMI and WALAMTARI institutes to facilitate the discussions. Participants were selected randomly in each village by the experts who facilitated the roundtable discussions. However, care was taken to ensure a balanced gender composition so as to avoid biased responses derived from male or female overrepresentation. The FGD topics focused on the existent gender inequalities, the aggravation of inequalities due to drought events and the suggestions for improving welfare and mitigating gender disparities induced by climatic variability in the region. The facilitators were attentive that the participants should focus only on the drought-driven factors worsening gender relations by differentiating from other existent constraints. The topics of the FGDs and the guideline provided to the facilitators are presented in Appendix A. Once all the FGDs were completed the facilitators codified the participants’ views in relevance to the topics queried. For instance, in the case of the decision on cultivating issues and climate variability the participants were initially focused on the decision making on crop selection. The facilitators converted their views in a simple coding format as a= Only men decide, b=Equal decision making, c=Male children decide. In turn, the facilitators identified the common trends of each village on the particular topic. In the same example, about 20% of the participants in all FGDs supported the exclusive male decision, nearly 50% supported equal decision-making while about 30% claimed the male children should select the crops. These common views were then converted to qualitative statements e.g. 1 out of 2 cases wife and husband together decide on what crops to be grown on the farm. 2.4. Quantitative assessment and validation analysis The quantitative assessment and validation of the FGDs results was supported through some algebraic and statistical techniques. A binary-response (Yes/No) questionnaire was developed where a respondent was asked to agree or object on the relevant statements. 3

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The same fifteen (15) individuals taking part in each FGD were surveyed through the questionnaire a few days after the completion of all the FGDs in the fifteen (15) villages. The selection of the same people was necessary for the identification of potential discrepancies between the Focus Groups and the questionnaire results. Once more, the individuals were requested to respond only on the exacerbation of gender inequalities emanating from recent droughts without the interference of other irrelevant factors. The technique of Attribute Agreement Analysis was introduced to assess the rates of agreement of each village. The Attribute Agreement Analysis is a measurement system analysis to assess the level of agreement of one or more individuals (appraisers) towards a common topic of interest. If there is a substantial agreement among the appraisers, then it is highly likely that the ratings for this topic of interest are reasonable. In case of low agreement, the ratings may be unsubstantiated. The agreement rate is estimated in percentage values while confidence intervals (CI) are introduced to provide the likely range of the sample proportion rate. The rate of agreement of each village as estimated is presented below:

Vi = 100 × (Xn /P × r)

(1)

where, Vi = The agreeable rate of response of all (15) individuals in each i village, Xn = The agreeable responses n of the male and female FGD participants in each village, P = Number of participants (15) in each FGD, r = The amount of statements in each questionnaire For example, we may assume that all the fifteen (15) male and female FGD participants of one village reply individually to eighteen (18) statements in the binary-wise questionnaire. The agreeable rate of response for this village is calculated as follows:

10 + 12 + 9 + 9 + 10 + 11 + 9 + 14 + 10 + 12 + 14 + 11 + 14 + 15 + 7 167 = 100 × 15 × 18 270 = 62% rate of agreement of one (1) village for all statements

FG = 100 ×

The agreement rate is further confirmed by the Fleiss’ kappa indicator used for categorical ratings which can take values within the range of 0 and 1. As a rule of thumb, values greater than 0.75 indicate good to excellent agreement between the appraisers while values less than 0.40 indicate that a low agreement has occurred by random responding behaviour (Minitab, 2014). In our case, the common topic of interest was represented by the affirmative statements inferred through the FGDs events. The appraisers were replaced by the aggregated agreeable responses of each FGD as presented in Eq. (1) for the identification of potential differences between each village. In turn, the agreeable response of each gender in each statement from all the FGDs was conducted as below:

Gim, if = 100 × (Rim, if / tm, f × E)

(2)

where, Gim, if = The agreeable rate of responses of the males/females m, f in all FGDs for each statement i , Rim, if = The agreeable responses of each male/female in one statement i , tm, f =The number of male/female respondents in all FGDs, E = Number of FGD events (15) in all villages In another example, let us assume that in each FGD, 8 out of the 15 individuals are women and agree to the following extent for the first statement of the binary-wise questionnaire as below:

6+7+8+4+6+7+5+6+7+5+6+8+8+7+6 96 = 100 × 8 × 15 120 = 80% rate of agreement of all females in the fifteen (15) villages for the first statement

Gf = 100 ×

Other approaches except for Attribute Agreement Analysis such as Panel Data or Content Analysis have been also applied in similar studies (Binelli, 2002; Rudy et al., 2010). For our case, however, the higher focus of Panel Data analysis on predictor variables was not deemed essential for this study. Also, the direct quantification of the FG discussions through Content Analysis would omit the chance to individually interview the respondents and detect potential inconsistencies of FGDs results. Further, some descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation analysis clarified the potential relationship between the sociodemographic features of FGD participants and the gender inequalities traced in the discussions. Namely, the age structure, the occupation status, the potential involvement in associations (e.g. farming, water use) and the position in these associations were assessed for both genders. 3. Study area The state of Andhra Pradesh has been divided into two new states in May 2014, distinguished as Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Agriculture and particularly rice comprise the backbone of the rural economy in the two states. Men and women are involved in the labour-intensive cultivation of rice and cotton crops in different stages of the production process. Both the states are rather vulnerable to extreme weather events, mainly droughts, which have recurrently appeared in the last decade. The frequency and intensity of droughts have accentuated Andhra Pradesh as the third most drought prone state in India. Indicatively, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana have faced four (4) severe droughts between 2000 and 2015 (2002, 2004, 2009, 2015). Thirteen (13) districts have been gravely affected including Nalgonda and Guntur, mainly in the agricultural sector (GoAP, 2015a). Although the mean precipitation in Nalgonda (M=712 mm, s=152) and Guntur (M=883 mm, s=210) was not excessively low during the 2000–2015 period, a high deviation rate was noticed along the drought years. For instance, the drought event in the year 2015 has decreased the mean precipitation rate to 43% in Nalgonda and 47% in Guntur respectively. In some of the study areas in 4

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Fig. 2. Selected study sites in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states. (Source: Greipsland, 2015)

Nalgonda district the decrease has exceeded 60% which entailed dramatic productivity losses in rice farming (Abeysingha et al., 2016). Regional climatic predictions anticipate an overall precipitation increase in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana for the next twentyfive (25) years. However, the precipitation will be expressed though intensive rainfalls and less rainy days per annum. A shifting also of the monsoonal period in late summer is predicted, widening the waterless periods and the likelihood of drought occurrences in the near future (Annamalai et al., 2013; Palanisami et al., 2014). Fifteen villages were chosen as representative examples of rural communities in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana occupied in the labour-intensive rice and cotton cultivation which were repeatedly exposed to droughts. In particular, nine villages from Guntur (located in Andhra Pradesh state) and six from Nalgonda district (located in Telangana state) were selected as presented in Fig. 2: The Nagarjuna Sagar Project (NSP) which is situated in the lower Krishna River Basin is the main irrigation source for Nalgonda and Guntur districts. The NSP is a masonry dam completed in 1967 with the purpose of regulating the flow of the Krishna river and providing irrigation, hydro-electric and flood control services (GoAP, 2015b). The project has benefitted many farmers in Nalgonda and Guntur districts through the construction of two main canals and other secondary and tertiary outlets. However, the currently low water reserves in NSP, especially in dry periods, have diverted many farmers to groundwater sources. In both districts, the semi-aquatic (paddy) rice is mostly preferred as a staple crop to sustain marginal and small farmers. The cotton crop has been introduced in Nalgonda (14%) and moreover in Guntur (36%) as a more profitable alternative. Although cotton demands almost an equal amount (700–1300 mm) of water to paddy when management practices apply (900–1400 mm) it is however a commercial crop with higher profits (FAO, 2009). Both the districts present a satisfactory access to electricity (90%) while the farmers mentioned that they have good access to various agricultural equipment. The good access to farming equipment and the relatively high percentage of medium-sized landholders seems to go hand in hand with the high literacy status in both districts. The features of the selected areas are summarized in Table 1. Since the FGDs participants have already agreed to further contribute to the binary-wise questionnaire there were no incomplete or no-response cases in the interviewing process. 4. Results 4.1. Qualitative assessment - Exploring existent inequalities The processing of the fifteen (15) FGD findings was initially focused on the qualitative assessment of gender inequalities in the most vulnerable areas. 5

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Table 1 Village features in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states. Districts State

Village

Vill. Code

Technical Features

Socio-Economic Features

FGDs/Part.

Nalgonda Telangana

Borraipalem Irkigudem Appalammagudem Kondrapole Kallepalli Damaracherla Irlapadu Nadendla Ganapavaram Appapuram Rajugaripalem Sathuluru Gollapadu Kanaparru Kavuru

C1I C1II C1II C1IV C1V C1VI C2I C2II C2III C2IV C2V C2VI C2VII C2VIII C2IX

SF:35%, GW:65% Rice:71%, Cotton:14% Other Crops:15%

90% Electricity Access 60% Farming Machinery 52% Literacy Status (Primary) 33% Literacy Status (Secondary)

6/ (15*6)=90

Guntur Andhra Pradesh

SF:66%, GW:34% Rice:48%, Cotton:36% Other Crops:16%

9/ (15*9)=135

Note: Vill. Code= Village Code; SF=Surface Water; GW=Groundwater, Part.= Participants.

4.1.1. Land ownership The women in most of the FGDs reported that they do not possess equal farm and household properties as men although in many cases the property was initially owned by the women’s family and brought into the family through a marriage alliance. As mentioned, this goes back to the early ‘90s when Andhra Pradesh state legalized the right of women to inherit land from their parents and to acquire equal property rights. Despite this, women are still rarely allowed to inherit and moreover manage their own housing property and agricultural land. Hence, they can rarely decide on the development of their land entitlements. 4.1.2. Income Contribution Both male and female participants from all FGDs noted that most women work on their own land or are employed as farm labourers in large landownerships. However, their wage rate is lower than that of men although their contribution was deemed to be of equal importance. In some other cases, women are involved in artisanal and micro-enterprising activities, offering significant earnings to the household. An argument was raised by female participants about the extra burden undertaken by them to maintain household duties (e.g. cooking, cleaning). As stated, the household’s duties are carried out only by women but they are not accounted as indirect savings from the annual household expenditures. Although the male participants did not share the same views, they however agreed that the women nowadays earn almost equal income as labourers in farming or by getting involved in micro-entrepreneurial activities. 4.1.3. Decisions on household’s income matters It was commonly accepted that decision-making about the income allocation within the household is prevalently taken by men. Also, both men and women agreed that in cases where the females participate in the decisions on financial matters, it is mostly young women who take this initiative (less than 30 years old). 4.1.4. Labour access Both male and female participants consented that contribution to different stages of the farming process is shared by men and women. Indicatively, the women are involved in weeding and harvesting of rice and cotton as well as in the rice transplantation process. Men are more involved in ploughing, irrigation, nutrient/fertilizer and pesticide application, bagging and transport. Male farmers who owned land complained about the recent labour shortages for agricultural work. They mentioned that the national “Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act” (MGNREGA) has seriously contributed to labour scarcity in farming sector and mainly to the shortage of female workers. Women defended MGNREGA by claiming that it has enabled them to become economically independent to a certain extent. The MGNREGA program aims at the enhancement of livelihood security of famers in rural areas through the provision of at least 100 days guaranteed wage employment (Das, 2013). The program ensures that at least one-third of beneficiaries should be women by providing wages almost equal to male workers. 4.1.5. Decisions on crop preferences The selection of the type of crop to be grown was commonly agreed by both genders. As however noted by some female respondents, there are instances where elder men requested their sons to take the responsibility as they are deemed to be more knowledgeable and updated on agricultural matters. 4.1.6. Access to formal and informal village level institutions Most of the female respondents mentioned that they were involved in the Self-Help Groups (SHGs) which have greatly helped 6

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Table 2 Statements of current gender inequalities. Code

Statements

1A 2A 3A

The house and farmland is owned by the female member in almost 1 out of 3 cases Even when the land is owned by women they still cannot have control of the property rights Women contribute up to about half of the cash income in the household earnings directly (e.g. labour in farm or other professional activities) and indirectly (e.g. housing works) Decisions on regular financial matters are mostly taken by men When the women also participate in financial decisions they are usually young women (< 30 years old) In 1 out of 2 cases wife and husband together decide on what crops to be grown on the farm In 1 out of 3 cases male children decide on what crops to be grown on the farm Almost 1 in every 2 women belong to a Self-Help Group or a relevant association in the area There is a low representation of women in the decisions taken at community level

4A 5A 6A 7A 8A 9A

them in revenue-raising activities and in obtaining substantial information related to various professional and social aspects. It was also unanimously agreed by both men and women that the membership in a SHG or an agricultural association has greatly helped the family to take better decisions on cropping pattern issues. Female participants expressed their dissatisfaction about their unequal representation in decision-making processes taken at the community level. They alleged that although being economically independent, their participation in community decisions is still rather limited and is given lesser importance. It was however underlined that the inequality has declined to some extent due to recently established national and regional programs aiming at the inclusion of women in local decision making fora (APOnline, 2017). The perceptions on the current gender inequalities from all FGDs are synopsized in Table 2: 4.2. Aggravation of gender inequalities as a result of climate variability The potential aggravation of the existent gender inequalities due to climate variability effects was further taken up in FGDs. The participants were queried about their awareness on climate change and variability concepts and the potential linkages with agriculture and their livelihoods. A serious lack of knowledge was noticed amongst the participants irrespective of gender. It was then explained in FGDs how the recent droughts were linked to climate variability. In turn, the concerns and initiatives taken by the participants to cope with weather extremes were inferred. 4.2.1. Climate variability concerns The concerns with relevance to weather extremes were mainly related to the insufficient and unreliable water supply in drought periods as mentioned by both genders. The canal dependent farmers underlined that the reasons for less water flows through canal irrigation within the last years was due to the repeated droughts and the consecutive decreased water level in Nagarjuna Sagar Project. However, the leakages and over abstractions of water in the upper streams all along the canal systems were also blamed as major causes of insufficient water supply to the tail ends. This is mainly due to the lack of proper water accounting under the canal system. The tubewell owners also claimed major problems emerging from the over-abstraction due to extensive demands along the drought periods. Moreover, the electric pump owners alleged additional hardships because of frequent power cuts which have dramatically obstructed groundwater pumping. Both the canal and tubewell dependent farmers indicated that the water scarcity of the last years has resulted in crop failure and severe economic losses. The male farmers and especially the small and marginal ones were mainly worried about the employment insecurity and the deterioration of the loan payback conditions for those who have borrowed capital. In the case of the female participants, food security for the family members was the major concern linked to extreme weather events. Further, some women in all FGDs underlined instances of increased domestic violence initiated by husbands as a result of crop and property damage due to extreme weather conditions. They particularly mentioned that men often become depressed because of the devastating economic losses and occasionally react violently in the household. Table 3 Statements on the gender concerns and initiatives. Code

Statements

1B 2B 3B 4B 5B 6B

Men are more concerned about labour security and pay back of the loans Women are more concerned about household food security There is an increased violence on women Most frequent initiative for men to confront adverse weather conditions is to get loans from official or unofficial sources Most frequent initiative for women to confront adverse weather conditions is the support from the extensive family In case of deficient rainfall years, the majority of farmers change cropping patterns to water resistant crops or shift to livestock activities

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4.2.2. Climate variability initiatives Various initiatives and reactions against weather extremes were indicated by each gender. In the case of male farmers, there was a high admittance that a new loan or loan waiver was the most likely solution for confronting adverse weather conditions. The support from the extensive family members was also deemed as handy for female participants. Both genders also noted that in case of extensive drought periods they often opt for drought resistant crops. Additionally, livestock farming was noted to be an alternative option which needs financial support but can ensure some income in the event of crop losses. Table 3 shows a summary of the concerns and initiatives of men and women as observed in all the FGDs: 4.3. Improve household welfare and mitigating gender inequalities The participants were queried about the options to mitigate potential gender inequalities that have been exacerbated by the economic repercussions to households from weather extremes. Both genders denoted that a convergence on gender relations occurs when various trainings are undertaken for the alleviation of drought impacts and improvement of their economic welfare. Indicatively, the training participation in “Alternate Wetting and Drying Irrigation-AWDI” approach was unanimously mentioned as a successful approach to increase rice production and mitigate gender inequalities emerging from the poor household conditions. The AWDI is a water-saving technology that lowland (paddy) rice farmers can apply to reduce water supply in the fields. The female farmers highly encouraged the launching of such initiatives which could provide them with higher profits and more economic independence. There was however a complaint from female participants that the training programs on AWDI are frequently limited to male farmers as the latter are considered more knowledgeable on agricultural matters. The training in livestock management was another suggestion for the income improvement and amelioration of gender inequalities supported by male and female participants. Both men and women expressed interest to own buffalos as dairy products can have a high market demand. Further, the training and economic support for self-employment initiatives was a suggestion mostly encouraged by the females by underlining the importance of SHGs to these initiatives. Based on the above results the following three statements commonly heard and established by all FGDs are presented in Table 4 as below: Overall, the existent inequalities reflected in all FGDs, the potential aggravation due to climate variability and the initiatives taken to mitigate inequalities are synopsized in Table 5. 4.4. Quantitative assessment results The socio-demographic factors of the participants as presented in Table 6 reveal that the relevantly young but experienced farmers (31–40yrs) is the prevalent age group for both genders. Most of the male farmers possess land while most of the female participants are farm labourers. The largest proportion of male participants did not belong to any association except for a small fraction related to Water User Associations (WUAs) and Farming groups. Reversely, the majority of women belonged to a Self Help Group (SGHs) and some have also joined the farming associations. Most of the men and women belonging to such associations were plain members without any leading activities. A cross-tabulation data analysis in Table 7 between the age structure and the occupation status revealed that it was mostly the younger male farmers who lack ownership of land. In the case of female participants however, the farming labour was very distinctive in all the age classes except for the senior participants. The male farm labourers seemed to be non-represented in associations as shown in Table 8. In contrast, most of the female labourers as well as a high share of female farm owners belonged to SHGs while the latter also had some access to farming associations. The results of the binary-wise (Y/N) questionnaire processed with Attribute Agreement Analysis initially revealed the rate of agreement in each village with the affirmative statements emerging from FGDs. All in all, eighteen (18) statements of existent inequalities (1A-9A), concerns and initiatives (1B-6B) and mitigation suggestions (1C-3C) were assessed. As presented in Fig. 3, the agreeable rate of response of Nalgonda (C1) and Guntur (C2) villages regarding all the statements is indicated. The six (6) villages in Nalgonda are marked with grey colour while the nine (9) villages in Guntur with black colour lines. The rate of agreement with the statements lies on the vertical axis while on the horizontal axis the agreement of each village towards the statements is depicted. The villages from Nalgonda (C1I-C1VI) present on an average a high rate of agreement (73%, CI1 [48.56, 89.56]) with the FGD statements while a higher convergence (78%, CI [53.68, 92.68]) is noticed in the case of Guntur villages (C2IC2IX). The potential differentiations standing on the responding attitude of each village were also assessed. As can be visually noticed in Fig. 3, there is a dotted point in each vertical line which represents the mean rate of agreement of each village towards all the eighteen (18) affirmative statements. Noteworthy deviations appear among all villages in both Nalgonda and Guntur districts. It is only in six (6) out of eighteen (18) statements in which the responses between villages match exactly. A low matching agreement rate within the villages was counted (31.58%, CI [12.58, 56.55]) which indicates that each village responded almost uniquely in the given statements. The low agreement rate is also verified by more statistical findings. The low performance of Fleiss’ Kappa indicator (k=0.393) enhances the assumption 1

The confidence intervals (CI) provide the likely range of a sample proportion or sample mean from the true proportion/mean found in the population.

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Table 4 Statements for economic improvement and mitigation of gender inequalities. Code

Statements

1C 2C 3C

Training on new cultivating approaches Training on livestock management Training on self-employment initiatives (only by women)

Table 5 Synopsis of the FGDs findings. Existent inequalities

Strongly in favour of Men

Land ownership Control of property rights Income contribution Financial decisions Labour access Crop related decisions Access to institutions Aggravation of inequalities No labour access No food security Increased violence Loaning Extended family support Change crops-livestock Economic Improvement Mitigating Inequalities New cultivations Livestock farming Self-employment

Moderately in favour of Men

Indifferent

X X X X X X X Female Concern/Initiative

Male Concern/ Initiative X

Common (gender) Initiative

X X X X Male Initiative

X Common (gender) Initiative

Female Initiative

X X X

Table 6 Descriptive statistics of socio-demographic factors. Gender

Age ≤30

Male Female Gender Male Female

Occupation 31–40

10% 34% 17% 36% Association No 83% 10%

41–50

51–60

60≥

20% 25%

18% 15%

18% 26% 7% 67% Position in Association Leading 25% 26%

Farming 5% 26%

WUA (men) SHGs(women) 12% 64%

Labourer

Own Farm 74% 33% Member 75% 74%

Note: WUA= Water User Association. Table 7 Age and cccupation. Age

Men

≤ 30 31–40 41–50 51–60 60 ≥

Occupation

Age

Labourer

Own Farm

31% 21% 12% 9% 3%

69% 79% 88% 91% 97%

Women

≤ 30 31–40 41–50 51–60 60 ≥

Occupation Labourer

Own Farm

85% 48% 60% 67% 33%

15% 52% 40% 33% 67%

that the degree of agreement may have been possibly accidental and less because of a common attitude between Guntur and Nalgonda villages. Further, the rate of agreement of each gender towards each statement is indicated in Fig. 4. It is noted that the affirmative statements are represented by the code number given in the Tables 2–4 respectively. The mean values are shown with a black dot for each statement. An overall high rate of agreement is noticed for each statement except for three specific cases. In the first case, the

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Table 8 Occupation and association status. Occupation

Men

Labourer Own Farm

Association

Occupation

No

Farming

WUA

100% 83%

0% 5%

0% 12%

Women

Labourer Own Farm

Association No

Farming

SHGs

9% 12%

17% 39%

74% 49%

Note: WUA= Water User Association.

Fig. 3. Agreement Rate of Villages with the FGD statements.

Fig. 4. Gender-based response on the FGD affirmative statements.

equal contribution of women to income seems to be acceptable by about half of the respondents (3AM, 3AF). The initial common feeling in FGDs of women having the same household earnings seems to fade out when both genders are asked on an individual level. In the second case, a lower rate of agreement is noticed for the children deciding on crop cultivations (7AM, 7AF). Third, a remarkably lower rate of agreement is presented for the assumption of household violence increase as a response to weather extremes (3BM, 3BF). A high convergence between the female and male views is generally shown except for some small deviations. In particular, the women portray a higher rate of agreement in the case of common decision-making for crop selections (6AF). Likewise, the women are also more agreeable in the adoption by both genders of water resistant crops or livestock activities in case of deficient rainfall years (6BF). Reversely, the men seem to be keener on attending training courses about new cultivating techniques (1CM). It is mentioned that for the training on self-employment statement (3CF) it was only women to be queried since a unilateral interest was noted along the FGDs events.

5. Discussion 5.1. Implications from the FGDs outcome The qualitative results suggest that existent inequalities were traced mainly in the areas of land ownership and relevant decision making matters, income allocation and representation at community level. In the case of land ownership, a recent survey has indicated that the female land ownership in Andhra Pradesh is much higher (34%) than other Indian states like Bihar (8%) and Madhya Pradesh (7%) (Sircar and Fletschner, 2014). The survey results come in full accordance with our findings where the percentage of the female landowners was about the same. The analysis signified the critical mass of young but experienced (31–40yrs) male and female farmers who are much more willing to improve their agricultural production. However, the restraining of women from the control of land property rights comprises a major hindrance for the improvement of gender inequalities as also mentioned in other sources (Kunze and Momsen, 2015). Even though women appear to be equally engaged in major decision related activities like the crop selection, yet the land property control 10

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places men in a superior position. The non-recognition of women as actual landowners often deprives them from gaining access to agricultural extension offices, Water User Associations, financial credit agencies and other schemes that may help improving the cultivations and hence economic welfare of the households. The limited influence of women in land and financial decisions also triggers the low participation in informal but also formal institutions on a community level as similarly indicated in other studies (Shoba, 2012; Palanisami et al., 2015). the men are customarily authorized to represent the economic entity of a household and interact with local administration units. lately however, the involvement of women in self-help groups and other institutions seem to have substantially improved gender relations in the areas of decision making, labour access and income contribution (APOnline, 2017). The qualitative results also signified the lack of awareness of both genders to the climate change and variability concepts. This poor information may have prevented households from taking common initiatives against weather extremes. Men and women were mentioned to react differently in adverse weather conditions which will probably deteriorate future gender relations. Men taking loans from informal money-lenders is a widespread practice in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states. It is mentioned that about 71% of households in Nalgonda and 45% of households in Guntur are already indebted to banks and informal money-lenders (ClimaAdapt, 2015). In most cases, the farmers fail to repay and money-lenders confiscate household and farm assets that are mortgaged. The noticeable amount of suicides in Andhra Pradesh due to their exposure to irrevocable debts is strong evidence of this situation as already pointed out in the relevant literature (Steena and Mayera, 2010; Merriot, 2016). The probable future intensity of weather extremes is bound to aggravate the current lending practices. The aggravation will inevitably impact gender relations by creating tensions and frustrating conditions within the households. On the other hand, the inclination of females to seek help from the extended family members (e.g. cousins, uncles) brings more people into the decision-making on financial matters. There are many cases where the extended family has provided generous economic support by improving household welfare. At the same time, however, they can exert more influence on household decisionmaking that can lead to high tensions between the family members. It is noted though that there is also a trend of both genders on the adoption of mutual climate adaptation and welfare improvement initiatives like the shift to water-resistant crop and livestock activities. Further, the common strong desire on taking trainings on agricultural management issues and the need of women for entrepreneurship actions signals the potential of reversing the negative effects from the individual actions. Care should however be given to gender balance the participation in such trainings and especially those focusing on agricultural management. Previous studies have stressed the sole representation of male farmers in new cultivation techniques, as being considered more knowledgeable in agricultural matters (Palanisami et al., 2015). 5.2. Some inferences from the quantitative assessment The descriptive and cross-tabulation statistical analysis signified the critical mass of young but experienced (31–40yrs) male and female farmers who are much willing to improve their agricultural production. However, the absence of land ownership mostly among female farmers impedes any potential plans for improvement since it inhibits their access to credit and institutional mechanisms. This occurs indicatively with the non-representation of labourers (landless) to Farming and Water User Associations as shown in the study findings. The qualitative assessment was validated from the quantitative analysis except for the sharing of income contribution, the crop decision and the household violence issues. These discrepancies could be sometimes explained by the slightly different objectives pursued by Focus Groups and individual surveys. The Focus Group aims at the inference of the collective views of the participants while a questionnaire targets the preferences of each single individual (Schönherr et al., 2010). A potential discordance may reveal how the individual’s behaviour could change when acting separately rather than when participating in a group. Nevertheless, the discordance appeared in the household income contribution should be further explored since other similar studies in the region have signified noticeable income differences between genders (Chaudhria and Jha, 2013; Saha, 2013). The quantitative analysis also accentuated the small but noteworthy differentiations in the responding attitude of each village. This unique stance should be contemplated when designing polices in rural communities for the minimization of gender inequalities and the mitigation of climate variability impacts. There are for instance numerous programs in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states aiming at the inclusion of women in public administration, improving gender inequalities in the educational sector and promoting new agricultural technologies (Centre for Good Governance, 2013; First Post, 2013; Chandrakanth, 2016). The aforementioned programs are implemented in a horizontal manner by giving higher attention to deprived households and backward rural areas. Notwithstanding the crucial attempts of national and regional authorities to reduce gender inequalities, our study results suggest that caution should be given on the horizontal application of different policy measures. The peculiarities among villages may entail poor performance of climate variability initiatives targeting gender inequalities although the policy framework may be well designed. It is thus suggested that policy actions should be customized to the local needs and implemented after a thorough consultation with regional and local communities which could better sense the peoples’ preferences. 5.3. Limitations and challenges of the suggested approach The current study has not considered the inequalities that may have emerged from caste and religious differences within the 11

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selected communities. It is acknowledged that the religious and moreover the caste differentiations could strongly affect the power balance between genders within households (Ramamurthya, 2008; White et al., 2012). However, the potential dependence of gender relations to caste and religion would require a more in-depth and detailed analysis, which was beyond the scope of this study. Also, insufficient data has been collected at an individual level to identify how the drought impacts may have been differentiated per the economic welfare (e.g. income status, land ownership) of each participant. It should be mentioned though that such an analysis would demand an extensive statistical research with log-linear, logistic regression or other similar tools which would have remarkably exceeded the length of the study. It is however acknowledged that further research should be conducted to this purpose. Further, the quantitative findings indicate that there is a strong degree of divergence between villages which could not be further investigated due to data limitations. A further effort should be made to explain the different social, ecological or political features within and across villages that might lead to such differentiations. Nevertheless, the study pointed out the individual stance adopted by each community and the high precaution to be given on the designing of climate variability measures on a regional level. Previous studies have shown that the dependence of rural households on formal and informal creditors is important for a better understanding of gender relations (Rudy et al., 2010). For instance, it was often noticed that the household’s female spouse was rendering labour or selling crops to informal creditors at reduced prices in exchange of debts. Such actions are likely to disturb gender relations within the household and more research should be conducted in this regard. The exact assessment of climatic and non-climatic drivers in the potential aggravation of gender inequalities could be hardly attained. For instance, it was rather difficult to precisely evaluate the impacts from droughts versus the canal leakages and illegal abstractions in agricultural water supply. Such an assessment would require a profound technical analysis which was beyond the scope of this paper. However, effort was made in FGDs and questionnaires to clarify the climate versus non-climate factors that may aggravate gender relations. The inextricable links and duality of climatic and non-climatic drivers should be further investigated for the better evaluation of weather extremes on gender inequalities. The integrity of the suggested framework has not been tested through a comparative evaluation with other similar approaches like for instance the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (Alkire et al., 2012). A side-by-side or results-based comparative analysis will be essential in future studies for the identification of the potential commons and differences that may arise with similar evaluation tools. It is however mentioned that the qualitative and quantitative techniques applied in each stage have been thoroughly checked for scientific consistency and rigor in various other research. 6. Conclusion This study suggested a gender-differentiated impact framework for the assessment of climate variability effects in fifteen (15) drought prone villages of South India. The testing of a large number of respondents exposed to drought events is believed to have offered a sufficient sampling for the validation of the approach. The study results suggest that the possession of, and decision-making in, land ownership, the economic aspects of household and the participation in community matters are sources of inequality between genders in the selected study areas. The discrepancy between the qualitative and quantitative findings mainly on the income contribution of women in the household should be further explored. The lack of awareness of climate change and variability could have affected men and women in undertaking unilateral than mutual initiatives against extreme weather conditions. Individual responses such as taking loans and help from extended family members may cause tensions within the family and trigger forthcoming inequalities. The findings are in full accordance with similar studies which also acknowledge the aggravation of inequalities when each gender takes different initiatives against weather extremes in India (Lambrou and Nelson, 2010; MacGregor, 2010; Taylor, 2013; Sugden et al., 2014). The interest of both genders in trainings related to new cultivating approaches and livestock management signify the potential to improve household welfare and mitigate gender divergences as unanimously recommended by all FGD meetings. Targeted policies should be designed by the local and regional administration for the inclusion of both genders in common training programs. The profile and demands of each village are significant parameters to be considered for the successful implementation of policy initiatives on gender and climate variability aspects. The findings present an experimental analysis in selected labour-intensive rural communities of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana suffering from consecutive droughts induced by climate variability. However, the suggested approach could be relevant to other rural communities in South Asia for the assessment of weather extremes on gender relations. Appendix A. Main topics and guideline for FGDs in Nalgonda and Guntur districts See Tables A1 and A2.

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Table A1 Topics induced by facilitator in the FGDs. 1. Have you got informed about the climate change/variability impacts in your area which may directly or indirectly affect your livelihood or property? 2. How do you react to this information (the climate variability impacts in your area)? 3. Could you describe the likely climate variability impacts on your land and your livelihoods as of now or as they will occur in the near future according to your beliefs? 4. Do you think that climate variability impacts affect differently the male and female gender in your area? 5. Do you think that the land and household ownership status could affect the selection process of the measures to be taken against climate variability? For instance, if men own the household and farming land will they adopt different measures than if women would own them instead? 6. Do you think that the decision on financial matters in a household could affect the selection process of the measures to be taken against climate variability? For instance, if men take the decision will they adopt different measures than if women would decide? 7. Do you think that the decision on cultivating issues in the farm could affect the selection process of the measures to be taken against climate variability? For instance, if men take the decision will they adopt different measures than if women would decide? 8. What kind of measures would you propose to improve female’s livelihood and to alleviate the impacts of climate variability in your area? Participants Lists for Gender Focus Groups Discussions Participant 1–15 Name: Age: Occupation: Organization and position:

Table A2 Question Guideline for the Facilitator (the following sources are just some hints for the facilitator; the facilitator was highly encouraged to extract more and different response views from the group). Question 1. Source of Information for Climate change/Variability – Information Source (e.g. T.V., Newspaper, village panchayath etc.) – What kind of Information do you get (e.g. awareness, instructions, etc.) – Frequency of information (e.g. daily, once a week, twice a month etc.) – Impacts of the information on your daily life Question 2. Reaction to the information – e.g. ignore, fear, decision change, transfer of anxiety to family, taking initiatives etc. Question 3. Impacts of climate variability to land and livelihoods in future – e.g. potential damage to land, crop, production, income, health and property because of extreme weather events (droughts, floods) Question 4. Gender and climate variability’ differentiation – Try to focus on the potential differentiations in the following topics: a. Land ownership e.g. because of climate variability men would desire to exclusively own land for security purposes or not b. Labour access, e.g. it will probably become harder for women to find job if drought events will frequently occur or not c. Financial services e.g. in case of extreme events, the support women receiving from Self-Help groups or other associations may get weakened or not d. Education e.g. climate variability may bring harder conditions in family’s wealth and demand the women to help more in agriculture and the homestead by abandoning education e. Technology e.g. climate variability may trigger the male gender to have exclusive access to technological devices (thresher, power tiller, etc.) and application of innovative practices (alternate wetting drying, direct sowing, etc.) for security reasons Question 5. Land ownership of farming and household towards climate variability measures – e.g. if women own the farming they may adopt different measures in farm than men (for instance, insurance schemes, water resistant crops, introducing technology and innovative agricultural methods etc.). Also, if women own the own the household they may like adopt other measures for climate variability than men e.g. women get trained in new professions-craft skills etc. Question 6. Decision on financial matters towards climate variability measures – e.g men would go for a loan while the women would not or vice versa; men would try to change job while the woman would try to get support from Self-Help groups, etc. Question 7. Decision on cultivating issues towards climate variability measures – e.g women would risk to adopt some innovative techniques as for instance direct sowing, alternate wetting drying while the men would not or vice versa, etc. Question 8. Suggestion of measures against climate variability – e.g. use better irrigation systems that women should be trained on them, have better access to funding schemes so women could make their own entrepreneurship, etc.

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