Nixtamalized Maize Flour By-product as a Source of Health-Promoting Ferulated Arabinoxylans (AX)

C H A P T E R

18 Nixtamalized Maize Flour By-product as a Source of Health-Promoting Ferulated Arabinoxylans (AX) Rita Paz-Samaniego*, Norberto Sotelo-Cruz†, Jorge Marquez-Escalante*, Agustı´n Rascon-Chu*, Alma C. Campa-Mada*, and Elizabeth Carvajal-Millan* *Research Center for Food and Development, CIAD, Sonora, Mexico † Department of Medicine, University of Sonora, Sonora, Mexico

O U T L I N E Introduction Ferulated Arabinoxylans (AX) Nejayote

225 226 226

Ferulated AX From Nejayote

228

Health Benefits Prebiotics Antioxidant

230 230 232

Anticancer Activity

232

Summary Points

233

Acknowledgments

233

References

234

Further Reading

235

Abbreviations AX ferulated arabinoxylans AXOS arabinoxylooligosaccharides FA ferulic acid

INTRODUCTION Cereal grains are currently among the most important components of the human diet. They are rich in complex carbohydrates and supply proteins, lipids, minerals, vitamins, and enzymes. Around the world, rice, wheat, and maize (and, to a lesser extent, barley, sorghum, millet, oats, and rye) are basic foods that millions of people rely on for their survival.1 Maize is the most important crop for human consumption in Mexico, with approximately 23,200 Mt, an amount that is expected to increase to 24,600 Mt by 2020.2 The major chemical components of maize grain are carbohydrates, followed by proteins and other micronutrients.3 In the past, Mesoamerican Indians incorporated wood ashes into the cooking of maize in order to facilitate the removal of the grain cover and improve the kneading of the dough made from it. Interestingly, this alkali cooking process favored the availability of bound niacin present in the maize grain, helping to prevent pellagra in this

Flour and Breads and their Fortification in Health and Disease Prevention https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814639-2.00018-6

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18. NIXTAMALIZED MAIZE FLOUR BY-PRODUCT AS A SOURCE OF HEALTH-PROMOTING FERULATED ARABINOXYLANS (AX)

population. In Mexico, this maize-preparation process is called nixtamalization, from the Nahuatl nixtli (ashes) and tamalli (dough), and allows the wide use of nixtamalized maize flour in a variety of products such as tortillas.4 Nixtamalized maize flour products provide an important amount of Mexicans’ caloric intake, especially in lowerincome groups. During nixtamalization, maize grains are cooked in a lime solution, soaked, and washed to remove the pericarp section. After that, the maize is milled, resulting in dough called masa or nixtamal. Nixtamalization allows the alkaline hydrolysis and solubilization of maize cell wall components such as arabinoxylans (AX), which can be recovered in the maize wastewater (known as nejayote) generated in this process. This maize wastewater is highly alkaline, with high chemical and biological oxygen demands, and is considered an environmental pollutant. In general, nixtamalization of 50 kg of maize grain requires about 75 L of water and generates almost the same amount of nejayote. Therefore, alternative uses for nejayote in Mexico are needed, and an option is to recover AX from nejayote.5 The interest in AX has increased since several studies have reported in recent years that this polysaccharide performs prebiotic, antioxidant, antitumoral, and immunomodulatory activities. In addition, AX can form covalent gels that could have potential application in macromolecule encapsulation.6 This chapter presents nejayote as a source of AX and describes the effect of this polysaccharide in promoting good health.

Ferulated Arabinoxylans (AX) Arabinoxylans (AX) are the main nonstarch components of cereals constituting the largest amount of polysaccharides in the cell wall and found mainly in the aleurone layer (60%–70%), the endosperm, and the husk of cereals.7, 8 AX have been found in the main cereals such as wheat, rye, barley, oats, rice, sorghum, and corn, as well as in some other plants.7, 9–11 Although the AX varieties in several cereals or plants have the same basic chemical structure, they differ in many characteristics, including molecular weight, the arabinose-xylose ratio (A/X), the amount of ferulic acid (FA) esterified to the arabinose residues, the distribution of arabinose and FA in the xylose backbone, and the presence of other substituents such as galactose and glucuronic acid. These structural differences vary depending on the AX source and extraction method used. For example, AX from wheat, rye, and barley are less branched than AX from rice, sorghum, and maize.7 AX from maize by-products can present a highly (A/X ¼ 0.85) to moderately (A7X ¼ 0.65) branched structure.5, 12 A particular characteristic of AX is the presence of FA (3-methoxy-4-hydroxycinnamic acid), covalently linked via ester to C(O)-5 of the arabinose residue, which is called ferulated AX (Izydorczyk and Biliaderis, 1995)7 (Fig. 1). It has been reported that FA can be covalently cross-linked by oxidative coupling, forming complex structures such as dimers and trimers of FA [diferulic acid (di-FA) and triferulic acid (tri-FA), respectively].5 In addition to covalent cross-links (i.e., di-FA, tri-FA), the involvement of physical interactions among AX chains in contributing to the arabinoxylan gelation and gel properties has been suggested.12, 13 AX gels present a number of interesting properties, such as neutral taste and odor, high water-absorption capacity (up to 100 g of water per gram of dry polymer), and lack of sensitivity to pH or electrolytes.14 Maize processing by-products such as bran and nejayote are an important source of AX. The variations in the structural characteristics of AX, which depend on the source and the extraction process, will determine their properties as texturizers, encapsulating agents, emulsifiers, prebiotics and antioxidants, as well as their health-promoting effects.

Nejayote As previously stated, nejayote is the by-product of the maize nixtamalization process, which consists of cooking maize grains in a lime solution, where, after soaking for 2–15 h, the supernatant (nejayote) is discarded. The remaining material is milled to obtain nixtamal (dough), which is used to prepare a variety of products, tortillas being the most consumed in Mexico.3 This effluent is considered as a pollutant because of its high pH12–15 and its high organic matter content (2540 mg/L).16 Due to its physicochemical characteristics and its high organic-matter content, nejayote is considered a pollutant, and only a few attempts have been made to use this by-product.16 A high volume of nejayote is dumped into rivers or lakes, in soils, or into the public sewer system.15 Nixtamalization degrades and solubilizes the components of the cell wall, facilitating the removal of the pericarp. In general, nejayote contains more than 60% nonstarch polysaccharides such as AX.5 AX from nejayote have been reported to have a branched structure, with A/X ratios varying between 0.65 and 0.85, and FA content that depends on the nixtamalization conditions, such as cooking and soaking time and maize/lime proportion (Table 1).5, 17

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FIG. 1 Chemical structure of ferulated AX. Source: Paz-Samaniego R, Carvajal-Millan E, López-Franco YL, Lizardi-Mendoza J, Rascón-Chu A, SoteloCruz N, Brown F, Pedroza-Montero M, Silva-Campa E. Electrospray-assisted fabrication of core-shell arabinoxylan gel particles for insulin and probiotics entrapment. J Appl Polym Sci 2018;135:26; doi: 10.1002/APP.46411. TABLE 1 Physicochemical Characteristics of Nejayote Characteristic

Parameter

Total solid content (g/L)

11.68

Total soluble solids (°Brix)

1.53

Total organic carbon (mg/L)

2984.10

Chemical oxygen demand (mg/L)

25,000–30,000

Total polyphenols (mg gallic acid/L)

1190

pH

12–14 3

Density (kg/m )

1003.54

Viscosity (Pa s)

0.002301

Free nitrogen (ppm)

200–300

Calcium (mg/L)

1526.21

Moisture (%)

97.72

Ash (%)

0.767

Crude protein (%)

7.42

Crude fat (%)

1.48

Crude fiber (%)

19.3

Carbohydrates (%)

0.862

Source: Adapted from Díaz-Montes E., Castro-Muñoz R, Yáñez-Fernández J. An overview of nejayote, a nixtamalization by product. INAGBI 2016;8:41–60.

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FERULATED AX FROM NEJAYOTE AX have been extracted from nejayote generated from tortilla-making industries. These AX are similar in appearance to AX extracted from other cereals that have been reported in the literature (fine white powder with some granulated parts). The yield of AX recovered from nejayote can range from 0.45% to 0.90% (dry weight of polysaccharide/ volume of wastewater). However, considering the total dispersed solids present in the nejayote, the yield of AX is around 46% (dry weight of polysaccharide/dry weight of solids).4, 5 Polysaccharide yield variation could be due to differences in the nixtamalization process, as it remains an artisan process in small tortilla-making factories. In general, longer alkaline exposure of maize could reduce AX yield because extensive hydrolysis of the cell wall components can generate larger amounts of low-molecular-weight AX, which may not precipitate in ethanol during the extraction procedure (Fig. 2). A representative chemical composition of AX extracted from nejayote is presented in Table 2, where the sum of arabinose and xylose content represents 66% dry basis (db). The A/X ratio is high (0.85), indicating a highly branched structure.4 Small amounts of glucose, galactose, protein, and minerals (ashes) are also present in these AX, similarly to previous reports on AX from other maize sources.18 In general, the FA content in AX from nejayote is low due to the extended alkaline exposure of maize grains during nixtamalization, as this condition can de-esterify FA from the arabinose residues along the polysaccharide chains.19 AX have been extracted from nejayote generated under different maize nixtamalization conditions.17 AX with different FA content and gelling capabilities were recovered from nejayote generated under various cooking and soaking conditions (1.5 and 24 h or 0.5 and 4 h, respectively). These AX presented similar molecular identity and molecularweight distribution, but those containing lower FA content (0.008 μg/mg AX) formed weaker gels (elastic modulus G0 of 32 Pa) and a more fragmented microstructure. These results indicate that the conditions of the maize nixtamalization process can modify the characteristics of the AX gels that form as a result.17 FIG. 2 Recovery of AX from nejayote. Source: Adapted from Paz-Samaniego R, Carvajal-Millan E, Sotelo-Cruz N, Brown F, Rascón-Chu A, López-Franco YL, Lizardi-Mendoza J. Maize processing waste water upcycling in Mexico: recovery of arabinoxylans for probiotic encapsulation. Sustainability 2016;8:1104; doi: 10.3390/su8111104. Maize nixtamalization

TABLE 2

Nejayote

Composition of AX From Nejayote

Component

Value

Arabinose

32.0  0.80

Xylose

49.0  1.90

Galactose

3.70  0.20

Glucose

5.10  0.40

Protein

4.50  0.20

Ash

5.10  0.21

FA

0.23  0.01

Di-FA

0.58  0.01

Tri-FA

0.30  0.01

Data are expressed in g/100 g AX dry matter. FA, di-FA and tri-FA are expressed in μg/mg of AX. Values are the mean  standard deviation. All results are obtained from duplicate measurements. Source: Adapted from Niño-Medina G, Carvajal-Millan E, Lizardi J, Rascon-Chu A, Marquez-Escalante JA, Gardea A, Martinez-Lopez AL, Guerrero V. Maize processing waste water arabinoxylans: gelling capability and cross-linking content. Food Chem 2009;115:1286–90.

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FERULATED AX FROM NEJAYOTE

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FIG. 3

SEM of AX extracted from nejayote generated after 1.5 h of cooking and 24 h of soaking (A, B) or 0.5 h of cooking and 4 h of soaking (C, D). (A) and (C) at 500 magnification; (B) and (D) at 2000 magnification. Source: Adapted from Paz-Samaniego R, Carvajal-Millan E, Brown-Bojorquez F, Rascón-Chu A, López-Franco YL, Sotelo-Cruz N, Lizardi-Mendoza J. Gelation of arabinoxylans from maize wastewater effect of alkaline hydrolysis conditions on the gel rheology. In: Samed M (Ed.), Waste water treatment engineering. Croatia: InTech; 2015. p. 101–14.

It has been reported that AX recovered from nejayote have antioxidant capacity, which has been related to the FA content in the polysaccharide. Laccase-induced cross-linking of these AX can decrease the antioxidant capacity of the molecule by 33% due to the formation of di-FA and tri-FA during the gelation process. These reports indicate that nejayote can be an interesting source of AX that exhibit antioxidant capacity before and after gelation, and that the gels formed could be used as a microencapsulation system with antioxidant capacity.20 Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of lyophilized gels based in AX recovered from nejayote generated under various maize nixtamalization conditions are shown in Fig. 3. These gels present an imperfect honeycomb microstructure, similar to those previously reported for lyophilized wheat and maize bran AX gels. Nevertheless, AX extracted from nejayote generated after 0.5 h of cooking and 4 h of soaking present a more fragmented morphology with a rougher and heterogeneous surface (Fig. 3C and D), which was attributed to low elasticity in the gel formed, originating from small FA content in the molecule. AX gels are covalent networks, which are not affected by changes in temperature, pH, and ionic strength; therefore, they resist passage through the upper gastrointestinal tract and reach the colon, where they can be biodegraded by the microbiota. These features enable AX gels as potential delivery systems targeted to the colon for bioactive molecules or cells. Gels based in AX from nejayote at 10% (w/v) are able to encapsulate Bifidobacterium 1  107 colony-forming units (CFU)/mL of probiotics in a gel that presents storage (G0 ) and loss (G00 ) moduli of 50 and 11 Pa, respectively.4 The 2. FLOURS AND BREADS

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FIG. 4 Gels based in AX from nejayote without (A, B) and with Bifidobacterium (1  107 CFU/mL) (C, D) before (A, C) and after (B, D) lyophilization. Source: Adapted from Paz-Samaniego R, Carvajal-Millan E, Sotelo-Cruz N, Brown F, Rascón-Chu A, López-Franco YL, Lizardi-Mendoza J. Maize processing waste water upcycling in Mexico: recovery of arabinoxylans for probiotic encapsulation. Sustainability 2016;8:1104; doi: 10.3390/su8111104.

capability of AX from nejayote to encapsulate probiotics may represent an opportunity in sustainable maize wastewater management through upcycling to value-added products (Fig. 4). The SEM image of a lyophilized gel based in AX from nejayote and containing Bifidobacterium, showing a meshlike network through which bacteria are distributed, is presented in Fig. 5. The micron-sized structures corresponding to Bifidobacteria are indicated. Paz-Samaniego et al.6 developed core-shell particles based on AX recovered from maize nixtamalization for colontargeted delivery of insulin and probiotics. The hypoglycemic effect of the particles was evaluated in vivo in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. They found that after 6 h of oral administration of the particles, 70% of the initial glucose was reduced, remaining so up to 24 h after delivery. The results indicate that core-shell particles based on maize AX with insulin and probiotics may become a delivery system of colon-targeted insulin, especially for persons with type I diabetes, dysbiosis, or both (Fig. 6).

HEALTH BENEFITS Prebiotics AX present several biological properties attributed to the structure of the polysaccharide and FA content. These polysaccharides are considered dietary fiber (DF) because they resist hydrolysis by the digestive enzymes, but are degraded by the intestinal microflora.11, 21, 22 They are also considered prebiotics because they are able to create selective changes in the composition of the microbiota, which has beneficial effects on the health of the host. That is, they favor the selective growth of certain bacteria known as probiotics.23 Probiotics can have health effects by directly stimulating the immune system and increasing host defenses.23–26 The end-products of prebiotic fermentation can be short-chain fatty acids such as acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, which supply energy to the colonocytes, maintain an acidic pH that limits the growth of pathogens, and provide a substrate for commensal bacteria.26 In addition, these acids can improve intestinal mucosal morphology by increasing mucin production.9 In recent studies, it has been found that AX from nixtamalized maize by-products allow the growth of probiotic bacteria of the 2. FLOURS AND BREADS

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FIG. 5 SEM of lyophilized MWAX gels (A, B) and MWAX gels containing Bifidobacteria (C, D). Images (A) and (C) at 1500; (B) and (D) at 3500. Source: Adapted from Paz-Samaniego R, Carvajal-Millan E, Sotelo-Cruz N, Brown F, Rascón-Chu A, López-Franco YL, Lizardi-Mendoza J. Maize processing waste water upcycling in Mexico: recovery of arabinoxylans for probiotic encapsulation. Sustainability 2016;8:1104; doi: 10.3390/su8111104.

FIG. 6 Photography of electrosprayed particles of MBAX/insulin-MWAX/Bifidobacterium. Source: Adapted from Paz-Samaniego R, Carvajal-Millan E, López-Franco YL, Lizardi-Mendoza J, Rascón-Chu A, Sotelo-Cruz N, Brown F, Pedroza-Montero M, Silva-Campa E. Electrospray-assisted fabrication of coreshell arabinoxylan gel particles for insulin and probiotics entrapment. J Appl Polym Sci 2018;135:26; doi: 10.1002/APP.46411.

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genus Bifidobacterium, which may indicate that these AX can be prebiotic.4, 27 However, more in vitro and in vivo studies are required to confirm these results. AX have been demonstrated to modulate the luminal and mucosal microbiota. Experiments using a dynamic in vitro model of the human digestive tract (SHIME) showed that supplementation of AX to the proximal colon compartments of the SHIME increased the Bifidobacterium population in both lumen and mucus compared with the control. The levels of propionate, as well as the activity of the enzymes β-xylanase, β-xylosidase, and α-arabinofuranosidase, were also increased in the lumen region. These findings suggest that AX could exert a potential prebiotic effect on the host, as the mucosa-associated microbiota has a direct impact on health by protecting against pathogen colonization and host immunity28.

Antioxidant AX are considered to have antioxidant properties due to the presence of FA in their molecular structure, which is responsible for their antioxidant capacity.29, 30 Due to its phenolic nucleus and extended side chain, FA readily forms a resonance-stabilized phenoxy radical, which explains the effect of trapping free radicals.29, 31 In FA, the presence of electron-donating groups on its benzene ring gives it the property of terminating the free radical chain reactions. In addition, its COOH– group can bind to the lipid bilayer, providing protection against the attack of free radicals and lipid peroxidation.32 This allows FA to protect the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and lipid oxidation from reactive oxygen species (ROS). In addition, FA may be beneficial for treating and/or preventing oxidative stress-related disorders such as Alzheimer’s, diabetes, cancer, hypertension, and arteriosclerosis.31 The antioxidant capacity has been poorly studied in AX gels. Recently, Martinez-Lopez et al.33 demonstrated that AX cross-linked microspheres with antioxidant capacity can be prepared. It has been reported that AX from nejayote present an antioxidant capacity of 6.093  0.146 TEAC/ABTS+ (μmol/g), which decreases to 4.803  0.264 TEAC/ABTS+ (μmol/g) in the gels formed.20 The antioxidant capacity of ferulated arabinoxylans oligosaccharides (AXOS) has been evaluated in vivo, and it was found that they have a greater antioxidant capacity than ascorbic acid (vitamin C) because they were more efficient at mitigating oxidative damage in diabetic rats.11, 23, 25, 26 Male Sprague-Dawley fed with a high fat (HF) diet supplemented with AX showed lower triglyceride concentration in serum than did the HF diet group without AX. The administration of HF-AX changed the lipid metabolism of the rats by improving the activity of fatty acid oxidation enzymes, which helped to reduce the triglyceride levels in liver. AX could help to maintain normal fat levels by activating lipid catabolism and oxidation rather than inhibiting lipid synthesis. Moreover, the activity of the antioxidant enzymes gluthatione peroxidase and total superoxide dismutase also improved via the ingestion of AX, resulting in a reduction of the oxidative stress in serum and tissues.34

Anticancer Activity In the last years, several studies have focused on elucidating the mechanisms by which AX exert their anticancer effects. In this area, research has demonstrated that one of these mechanisms could involve the immune-modulation properties of AX. It has been reported that AX from rice bran enzymatically modified with extracts of Hyphomycetes mycelia showed antitumor activity and immune system activation. Further, it has been reported that partially hydrolyzed AX maize husk can increase immune activity in mice.9 It also has been pointed out that AX can offer immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and anticarcinogenic effects, and also can reduce blood serum triglyceride and cholesterol levels.11 Cholujova et al.35 reported that AX can stimulate the production of interleukins such as IL-2 and IL-12, which are the main anticancer cytokines in humans. Treatment with AX leads to an increase in the secretion of IL-2 in the blood of S180 tumor-bearing mice. It is postulated that an increase of IL-2 may be a mechanism for AX to exert antitumor effects, as IL-2 can improve the proliferation of T cells, B cells, NK cells, and monocytes and increase the cytotoxicity of T cells and NK cells. In addition, the ingestion of Biobran increased the production of IL-12 in multiple myeloma patients 1 and 2 months postingestion.36 The anticancer property of these polysaccharides on various types of cancer, such as colon cancer, glandular stomach cancer, neuroblastoma, and liver cancer has been tested in vivo. According to the observations of the research done in the last 10 years, it is proposed that AX and AXOS may exert their anticancer effects through mechanisms involving antioxidant, prebiotic, and immunomodulatory properties (Table 3).

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TABLE 3

Anticancer Potential of AX and AXOS From Various Sources

Type of cancer/animal model

Carcinogenic agent/ cancer cells

Solid Erlich carcinoma/female albino mice

Experimental conditions

Findings

Erlich ascites carcinoma cells, intramuscular inoculation

MGN-3/Biobran (25 mg/ kg b.w.) i.p. Six times/week for 25 days at either day 4 or 11 postcancer cell inoculation

MGN-3 suppressed the growth of tumors, normalized lipid peroxidation, and increased glutathione content. Increased activity of endogenous antioxidant-scavenging enzymes (superoxide dismutase, gluthatione peroxidase, catalase, and gluthatione-S-transferase) in blood, liver and tumor tissue

Colon carcinogenesis/ male F344 rats

1,2,-Dimethylhydrazine, subcutaneous injection

High-fat diet plus AXOS (48 g/kg). 10 days before receiving carcinogen and continued for 13 weeks

Lower counts of preneoplastic lesion (mucin-depleted foci) in comparison to the control group. Fewer preneoplastic lesions (aberrant crypt foci) in the distal part of the colon

S180 tumor-bearing mice ICR male mice

Mouse sarcoma S180 cells, intramuscular inoculation

AX orally administered (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg b.w.)

Administration of AX significantly inhibited the growth of mouse-transplantable tumors and promoted thymus and spleen indexes, splenocyte proliferation, NK cells, macrophage phagocytosis activity, and IL-2 production. Increased peripheral leukocyte count and bone-marrow cellularity

Neuroblastoma NOD-scid IL-2Rgnull mice

Injection of NB-1691luc cells

NK cells activated with 100 μg/mL MGN-3/Biobran injected intravenously. 7 days after injection of tumor cells and performed twice a week for 4 weeks

Significant inhibition of neuroblastoma growth and improvement in survival in the group treated with Biobran. Increase of the activation-associated receptors CD69 and CD25 on NK cells

Glandular stomach carcinogenesis/male Wistar rats

Methylnitrosoguanidine (MNNG), via oral gavage

MNNG plus Biobran (40 mg/ kg b.w.) every other day via oral gavage 8 months

Biobran reduced the incidence of animals bearing gastric dysplasia and adenocarcinoma. Decrease in expression of tumor marker Ki-67, increase in level of apoptotic gastric cancer cells via cell-cycle arrest (sub-G1) and mitochondrial dependent pathway. Protection against lymphocytopenia

Hepatocarcinogenesis/ male albino rats

N-nitrosodiethylamine and carbon tetrachloride

MGN-3/Biobran (25 mg/kg b. w.), 5 times/week i.p. 2 weeks prior receiving carcinogen and continued for 20 weeks

Reduction in liver tumor incidence, decrease of preneoplastic foci in hepatic parenchyma and inhibition of development of hepatocellular carcinoma. Regulation of AST, ALT, ALP, and gamma GT levels. Increase in cell cycle sub-G0/G1 population. Downregulation of expression of NF-kBp65 and Bcl2, upregulated p53, Bax, and caspase-3, and increased Bax/Bcl-2 ratio

Source: Adapted from Mendez-Encinas MA, Carvajal-Millan E, Rascon-Chu E, Astiazaran-Garcia HF, Valencia-Rivera DE. Ferulated arabinoxylans and their gels: functional properties and potential application as antioxidant and anticancer agent. Oxid Med Cell Longevity [in press].

SUMMARY POINTS • Nejayote can be a source of ferulated AX, presenting different functional properties as a texturizer. • The gelling capability of AX from nejayote provides an alternative to their use as encapsulating agents in the food and pharmaceutical industries. • AX offer several benefits to health due to their biological properties as prebiotic, antioxidant, antitumoral, and immunomodulatory actors. • AX gels could be used as controlled release matrices targeting the colon. • Maize by-products such as nejayote can be interesting sources of this polysaccharide.

Acknowledgments “Fondo Institucional CONACyT—Problemas Nacionales 2015,” Mexico (Grant 2015-01-568 to E. Carvajal-Millan).

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31. Zhao Z, Moghadasian MH. Chemistry, natural sources, dietary intake and pharmacokinetic properties of ferulic acid: a review. Food Chem 2008;109:691–702. 32. Srinivasan M, Sudheer AR, Menon VP. Ferulic acid: therapeutic potential through its antioxidant property. J Clin Biochem Nutr 2007;40:92–100. 33. Martínez-López AL, Carvajal-Millan E, López-Franco YL, Lizardi-Mendoza J, Rascón-Chu A. Antioxidant activity of maize bran arabinoxylan microspheres. In: Haghi AK, Carvajal-Millan E, editors. Food composition and analysis. Methods and strategies. NJ: Apple Academic Press, Inc; 2014. p. 19–28. 34. Chen H, Fu Y, Jiang X, Li D, Qin W, Zhang Q, Lin D, Liu Y, Tan C, Huang Z, Liu Y, Chen D. Arabinoxylan activates lipid catabolism and alleviates liver damage in rats induced by high-fat diet. J Sci Food Agric 2018;98:253–60. 35. Cholujova D, Jakubikova J, Czako B, Martisova M, Hunakova L, Duraj J, Mistrik M, Sedlak J. MGN-3 arabinoxylan rice bran modulates innate immunity in multiple myeloma patients. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2013;62:437–45. 36. Mendez-Encinas MA, Carvajal-Millan E, Rascon-Chu E, Astiazaran-Garcia HF, Valencia-Rivera DE. Ferulated arabinoxylans and their gels: functional properties and potential application as antioxidant and anticancer agent. Oxid Med Cell Longevity 2018, Article ID: 2314759, 22 pages.

Further Reading 37. Díaz-Montes E, Castro-Muñoz R, Yáñez-Fernández J. An overview of nejayote, a nixtamalization by product. INAGBI 2016;8:41–60.

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