Petrological, palynological and geochemical characteristics of Eureka Sound Group coals (Stenkul Fiord, southern Ellesmere Island, Arctic Canada)

International Journal of

ELSEVIER

International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

Petrological, palynological and geochemical characteristics of Eureka Sound Group coals (Stenkul Fiord, southern Ellesmere Island, Arctic Canada) 1 W.D. Kalkreuth a,*, C.L. Riediger b, D.J. McIntyre a,2 R.J.H. Richardson c, M.G. Fowler a, D. Marchioni o' a Geological Survey of Canada-Calgary, 3303 33rd Street NW, Calgary, AB T21 2A7, Canada Department of Geology and Geophysics, The University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive N. W., Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada c Alberta Geological Survey, Alberta Research Council, Box 8330, Edmonton. AB T6H 5X2, Canada d Petrologic Services, 234 IOA Street NW, Calgary, AB, Canada

Accepted 22 February 1996

Abstract Late Paleocene/Early Eocene coal-bearing strata are widespread across the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Laterally continuous seams of substantial thickness are present in the Iceberg Bay Formation, Eureka Sound Group, at Stenkul Fiord, Ellesmere Island. Sixty-four coal seams with a cumulative thickness of 53 m of coal occur in a 450 m sequence. The investigation of the composite section is based on examination of 19 samples from seams thicker than 1 m and 7 samples from marker seams used for correlation purposes. The coals consist predominantly of wood-derived huminite macerals (79-98 vol%). Structured huminite macerals are dominant in the top part of the section whereas detrital components are abundant in the lower part. The liptinite fraction is dominated by sporinite and cutinite ( 1 - 9 vol%). Inertinite content is very low except at the base of the section (0-14 vol%). Reflectances determined on eu-ulminite (0.36-0.43% Ro), geochemical parameters, and Thermal Alteration Indices indicate that the coals are of lignite to subbituminous rank. The dominance of diterpanes and the abundance of Taxodiaceae and Pinaceae pollen suggest that most of the organic matter is of gymnospermous origin. Pinaceae pollen is abundant in the

* Corresponding author. Present address: Instituto de Geoci~ncias, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Benito Gon~alves, 9500, 91501-970 Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. Geological Survey of Canada Contribution No. 57994. 2 Present address: 3503 Underhill Drive N.W., Calgary, AB T2N 4E9, Canada. 0166-5162/96/$15.00 © 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved PH S01 66-5 162(96)00005-5

152

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

lower part of the section and Taxodiaceae is abundant in the upper part. The abundance of angiosperm pollen in most of the section suggests, however, that angiospermous plants were significant members of the flora. The depositional environment tor the Iceberg Bay Formation coals at Stenkul Fiord is that of forested swamps on an alluvial plain. Pollen assemblages indicate a Late Paleocene/Early Eocene age for the section, and a temperate moist climate,

1. Introduction Thick layers of coal, with many fossilized trunks of trees, were discovered on the west coast of Ellesmere Island in 1901 by members of Otto Sverdrup's Second Norwegian Polar Expedition (Sverdrup, 1904) in an area subsequently named Stenkul Fiord (Coal Fiord) (Fig. 1). The coal-bearing strata are comprised of interbedded sandstones, siltstones, mudstones and coal seams with individual coal zones up to 8 m thick. These sediments are assigned to the Iceberg Bay Formation of the Eureka Sound Group, and are Late Paleocene to Early Eocene in age. Up to sixty-four coal seams with a cumulative thickness of 53 m occur in the 450 m of section present in this area. In this study,

G R E E N L A N D ELLESMERE

BACHE

A R C T I C O C E A N

[

BAFFIM

BAY

ELLEF RINGNES

BAFFIN

ISLAND

\

< \

Fig. 1. Distribution of coal-bearing strata of the Eureka Sound Group (black shading) in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago and location of study area.

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / lnternational Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

153

nineteen coals sampled from seams thicker than 1 m were examined, and seven laterally continuous seams representing "marker" horizons were used to correlate the measured sections. This study complements previous stratigraphical, sedimentological and coal petrological studies of Eureka Sound strata on southern and central Ellesmere Island (Bustin, 1977, 1980; Riediger, 1985; Riediger and Bustin, 1987; Kalkreuth et al., 1993a, b). The aim of the present study is to characterize the coal seams at Stenkul Fiord by coal petrological, palynological and geochemical methods and thus contribute to the general level of understanding of the depositional, paleoenvironmental and thermal histories of Tertiary deposits in the Canadian Arctic Islands. 1.1. Previous work

The Eureka Sound "group" was originally named for Upper Cretaceous to Tertiary nonmarine, coal-bearing strata on Ellesmere Island by Troelsen (1950) who suggested that Eureka Sound strata post-dated the last orogeny in the eastern Arctic. Thorsteinsson and Tozer (1957), however, demonstrated that these strata were included in the deformation. Regional investigations of the Eureka Sound "group" during Operation Franklin resulted in its redefinition as a formation by E.T. Tozer (in Fortier et al., 1963, p.92), who suggested that outcrops on Fosheim Peninsula were typical. The Eureka Sound Formation was subsequently described from numerous outcrop areas throughout the Canadian Arctic Archipelago [see Miall (1986) for references]. The Eureka Sound Formation was redefined as a group independently in 1986 by two authors. Ricketts (1986) named four formations in the Eureka Sound Group, based on regional studies on Axel Heiberg and central Ellesmere Islands (Fig. 2). Miall (1986) described Eureka Sound strata from various localities throughout the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, and named nine formations within the Eureka Sound Group. Eureka Sound

STENKUL FIORD

STRATHCONA FIORD Undifferentiated

QUATERNARY

Undifferentiated

/11

>I.-nuJ I.E UJ

BACHE PENINSULA

•

EOCENE

=

I Iceberg Bay Fm. uJ

PALEOCENE

PRE-TERTIARY

Sb'and Bay Fro. I

I

-~

Okse Bay Gp. (Devonian)

Expedition Fro. ~ ? mbr._,,,~,._~,.~,~ ~ (upper Lower Paleozoic

Expedition Frn. Eleanor River Fro.

(Ordov~an)

Fig. 2. Stratigraphic correlation chart for Eureka Sound Group strata at Stenkul Fiord, Strathcona Fiord and Bache Peninsula (Kalkreuth et al., 1993a; this study).

154

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

strata at Stenkul Fiord are referred to the Iceberg Bay Formation of Ricketts (1986) and to the Mount Moore and Margaret formations of Miall (1986). In this study we use the stratigraphic scheme of Ricketts (1986). On southern Ellesmere Island, coal-bearing Tertiary strata at Stenkul Fiord were first described by Schei (1903, 1904) and Sverdrup (1904) and were later discussed by Nathorst (1915). Several others (McGill, 1974; Miall, 1981, 1984; Okulitch, 1982)noted the occurrence of Eureka Sound strata on southern Ellesmere Island. Recent coal petrological and palynological studies on coal-bearing strata of the Eureka Sound Group at Strathcona Fiord (Kalkreuth et al., 1993a) established a Late Paleocene-Early Eocene age. The predominance of wood-derived macerals and the associated pollen and spore assemblages suggest peat formation in a forested swamp under temperate climate and moderate precipitation conditions. Detailed description of the lithostratigraphy and sedimentology of the Eureka Sound beds in the vicinity of Stenkul, Vendom, Baumann and S~r fiords was provided by Riediger (1985) and Riediger and Bustin (1987).

2. Geological setting On southern Ellesmere Island the Iceberg Bay Formation occurs as scattered outliers along the shores of Stenkul, Vendom, Baumann and Stir fiords (Figs. 1 and 2). In each of these areas, the Iceberg Bay Formation comprises an interbedded succession of predominantly nonmarine sandstones, mudstones, minor siltstones and coal, with local occurrences of brackish water and shallow marine deposits. The basal Iceberg Bay Formation is unconformable with, or is faulted against, underlying Devonian strata. Youngest Eureka Sound strata form the present erosional surface, or are covered by a veneer of Quaternary till on upland surfaces. 2.1. Sedimentology and stratigraphy, Stenkul Fiord

Eureka Sound strata at Stenkul Fiord have a total thickness of 450 m. The strata in this area (Fig. 3) were divided into four informal members by Riediger (1985) and Riediger and Bustin (1987). Thickest coal seams occur in Members 2 and 4, and most samples for the study were obtained from these two intervals. A brief description and interpretation of the depositional setting of each member follows. 2.1.1. Member 1

The basal contact of Member 1 with the underlying Devonian Okse Bay Group is not exposed, and may be either a fault or an unconformity. Both types of contacts are observed elsewhere on southern Ellesmere Island. The upper contact is gradational with the lower beds of Member 2 over an interval of 15 m. Member 1 comprises 90 m of light-coloured, variably calcareous fine-grained clastics, and thin, discontinuous coal seams. Calcareous mudstones that locally contain macerated carbonaceous plant fragments are the most common lithology in this member.

W.D. Kalkreuth et al./ International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

155

Well-indurated, calcareous siltstone and sandstone beds (generally < 2 m) are common, and exhibit fine, planar parallel lamination, ripple cross-lamination, root marks and fragments of Metasequoia leaves. Unconsolidated to friable, very fine-grained sandstones and siltstones are argillaceous, carbonaceous and locally glauconitic, and commonly show planar parallel lamination and ripple cross-lamination. Near the base of Member 1 coarsening-upward sandstone beds (up to 5 m thick) are present. Coal seams are common throughout the succession, and are generally < 1 m thick and of limited lateral extent. Member 1 is interpreted as a brackish water, low-energy deposit of an estuary or large lagoon. A marine influence is indicated by the presence of glauconite in some sandstones. Peat accumulations along the shores of the estuary were likely precursors of the thin, laterally discontinuous coal seams. 2.1.2. M e m b e r 2

Member 2 comprises an interbedded succession of fining-upward sandstones, mudstones and coal seams, with minor siltstones. The variable thickness of Member 2 from about 70 to 120 m is attributed to differential compaction and present depths of erosion. Two lithofacies, which interdigitate throughout the sequence, are recognised. They are a fining-upward sandstone lithofacies with subordinate siltstone and mudstone, and a coal-mudstone lithofacies assemblage. The fining-upward sandstone units weather light grey to buff, are very fine-grained to granular and carbonaceous, and generally occur as 1-25 m thick, en 6chelon multi-storied sequences of considerable lateral extent (0.5-1 km). Lag deposits up to 40 cm thick occur in cut- and-fill structures at the base of these sequences, and consist of very coarse-grained sand, pebbles and cobbles of quartzite, gneiss and granite and rare coalspar. Characteristic sedimentary structures within the sandstones include planar tabular, planar tangential and trough cross-bedding, ripple cross-lamination and convolute lamination. The sandstones commonly grade upward into thin-bedded or planar parallel laminated, carbonaceous siltstone and mudstone. The coal-mudstone lithofacies contains mudstone beds that are variably carbonaceous with thin coal bands, and are up to 10 m thick. Interbedded coal seams are up to 8 m thick, and commonly can be traced laterally for a kilometre or more. The coal is locally argillaceous and contains some ironstone concretions, petrified tree stumps and logs, and partings of carbonaceous mudstone, siltstone and sandstone. Minor occurrences of siltstone and sandstone beds (up to 5 m thick) occur interbedded with, or as splits within, coal seams and mudstone beds. Reddish-brown, carbonaceous ironstone nodules are present in all lithologies of Member 2, and locally contain plant fragments, trace fossils and freshwater molluscs. The interbedded fining-upward sandstone and coal-mudstone lithofacies assemblages that characterize Member 2 represent alluvial plain deposits. The fining-upward sandstone sequences capped by finer-grained, carbonaceous clastics, and the vertical arrangement of sedimentary structures observed within the sandstones are typical of meandering channel deposits. En 6chelon stacking of fining-upward sandstone lithofacies assemblages resulted from lateral shifting of stream channels into adjacent low-lying backswamp areas.

156

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

The coal-mudstone lithofacies assemblages were deposited in low-energy backswamps or flood-basins adjacent to the active channels. Periodic flooding of the backswamp areas resulted in accumulation of mud, whereas thick peat accumulation that produced the coals was possible during periods of minimal clastic influx. The occurrence of petrified tree stumps, logs and freshwater pelecypods indicate that the alluvial plain supported an abundant freshwater flora and fauna. Berner (1971) suggested that decaying organic matter can produce local zones of reducing a n d / o r higher pH conditions favourable to the formation of sideritic ironstone concretions; this mechanism is suggested to account for the ubiquitous occurrence of ironstone in Tertiary strata at Stenkul Fiord. 2.1.3. Member 3

White to light-grey sandstones with minor interbedded light-grey, slightly calcareous mudstones characterize Member 3. The basal contact with an underlying coal seam of Member 2 is sharp and erosional, and Member 3 is in turn overlain abruptly by Member 4 strata. Member 3 was observed along the southwest shore of Stenkul Fiord, where it forms a distinctive, wedge-shaped unit, up to 10 m thick, that extends across the exposed face for a distance of about 1.5 km. The sandstones consist of medium-grained, quartz arenites containing rare carbonaceous debris and thin coal seams, and mainly exhibit massive bedding with rare, unidirectional planar tabular cross-beds. The white, slightly calcareous mudstones are composed of the clay minerals kaolinite, illite and chlorite (Riediger, 1985), and contain plant fragments and ironstone concretions. Member 3 strata are interpreted as deposits of a local marine transgression (Riediger and Bustin, 1987). 2.1.4. Member 4

The lithologies and sedimentary structures within Member 4 are comparable to those described for Member 2 and are not repeated. Similarly, Member 4 is interpreted as an alluvial plain sequence (Riediger and Bustin, 1987).

3. Sampling and analytical methods The coal samples were collected as channel samples from outcrop sections based on detailed lithological sections described by Riediger and Bustin (1987). A total of sixty-four coal seams were sampled from five sections (CR-83-19, CR-83-20, CR-83-14, CR-83-10, CR-83-07; Figs. 3 and 4) to cover the entire coal-bearing succession at Stenkul Fiord. From these, nineteen seams > 1.0 m in thickness were selected for analysis (Table 1). In addition to the thicker seams, seven additional samples were analyzed from "marker seams" (Table 1), which were used to correlate the sections, and some thinner seams in the middle of the exposed section (Fig. 4). The coal petrographic analysis included the determination of huminite (eu-ulminite B) reflectance according to standardized procedures (Bustin et al., 1989) and the determination of petrographic (maceral and mineral) composition using a slightly

'

,••

|

A

Cross section. . . . . . . . . . . . A" ~

CR - 8 3 - 1 0

Orclovician - Siluriao

Devonian, undiffeee~fiated

Measuredsection ......... I

-~

Eureka SOundGroup

/ - - _ _

1

Normalfault: defined, approximate. . . . ~ Geological bounOery: defined, approximate . . . . . . . . . . .

.

_ -

\ CR-83-1g

Kilometr

83 ° 15' 85" 00'

,77030,

-Z

~

Fig. 3. Simplified geological map showing outcrop distribution of Eureka Sound Group strata in the Stenkul Fiord area and locations of sections investigated in this stud~, modified from Riediger and Bustin (1987). A A', B B' and C - C ' denote correlation diagrams shown in Fig. 4 A, B and C. respectively.

85 ° 00'

77 ° 15'

77o30

m

C5

LEGEND:

CR-834)7

CR 83-10

CR-83-14

CR-83-20

CR-83q9

Section

Pellet

No.

(m)

62.0 3.60 715#93

72.5 •6.5

118.0 0.75 716/94

4

6 7

10

4 2 1 . 0 210

4 2 8 . 5 1.00 729/93 4 4 5 . 5 1.40 730/93

26

27 32

1 24 0 20

2 2

Attr- A~in~e

Eu~uI= ELPulminite

18

18

0

0

0 0

0

2

2

2 0

0

0 0

0 0

0

0 0

0

0

2

0 1

0 0

0 t

0

0

0 0 0

2

0 0 0

3 4

8

5

8 8

8 9 7

7

4 6

7

8 8

5

6

5

7

10 8

6

5

10

9

2

17 10 10 6

11 15

23

15

13 13

17 16 22

38

0 2

14

0

0 15 0 14

3

17 19

28

13

21

0

40

25

1

1 29

0

6

5

2

B

A

B

Texto

A

Textin

CorpoA= in-sit~ Corpohuminite

Texto= Texto-ulminite Phlub= PhiObaphinite

Textin= Tex0nite

728/93

273.0 0.70 721/94 274.0 1.05 725/93

3 0 9 . 5 1.00 726/93 3 4 9 . 0 1.00 727/93

3 4 6 . 5 1.30 723/93 3 5 5 . 0 1.00 724/93

10 21

1 2

2 7 3 . 0 0.95 719/94 3 2 0 . 0 1.40 721/93 321.5 1.40 722/93

10 13

244.0 0.80 720/94

2 4 4 . 0 0.40 717/94 COMPOSITE

13

1

242.0 0.50 718/94

12

7 12 13

172.0 225 719/93 2 2 5 . 0 1.60 720/93

135.0 1.30 718/93

13

3 11

118.0 0.70 715/94

10

2.95 716/93 1.50 717433

6.0 1.05 712/93 45,0 1.90 713/93

5&O 3.55 714793

1 2

3

(m)

S e a m Depth Thick

STENKUL FIORD

8

•

2

1

0

1

0

~3 i t 0 :0 I

93 93 94

6

0

0 0

0 0 0

0

0

0

0

0 0

1

0

2 5 0

0

1 0

0 0

1

0

0

1 1

:l

3

;

0

t

0

0 l

0

1

0

0

1,o,,o

0

1

1

0

2 0 , O O

2

1

1

5 2

1

1 1

1 0

1

1

1

1 1

1

1

0 0

0

1

1

1

2

0 2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 0

0 0

0

0

0

0 0

0

0

0 0

1

0

0 0 1 o

0

1

1

0 1

2 0 4 0 1 1

1

1 1

T 2

2

2

5

1 3

3

3

100 100 100 100

9 5 6 6

1 1

0 1

tO0

I I~e 100

6 E

4

11111

7

6 7

9 6

4

5

8

1 1

0

100 I 3001

100

1

2

10

12

4

0 7

14

2 36 3 23 9

4

2 6

8

tE

9

20

12

7 43

7 15

2

69

Q(z= Quartz

1

100

0 0 t

100 100

1

2

0 0 0 1

0

0 0

i 100

I

t00

I 100

100 100 4 1 8

; 99 I 100

5 12

I 100

8

It

o Iloo

1

11oo

7

0

0

1 1

0 0

i 100 t00

8 9

] t00

5

Hum=, Huminde

DHurr~ D ~ h u m i n i t e

Dens= DensinJte Podgel= Porigelinite

L~rme Oth= Other

L~

1

0

0

9 0

0

0

0 0

0

0

0

0 0

0

0

0 0

0

1

0

0

0

0 0

0 1

N= Number of MeaSurements

S D = Standard DevlaSon

Clay= Clay n~nerals Carl>=- Carbonate Pyr= Pyrite

4

0 t

2 1

0 1

'

0

2

0 4

0 0

1

0 1 0

3tll 121 ,01200

1

0 0 2

0

1 0 1

I !

0 5

0 0

2

I I

0 2

0

0

0

1 1

0

0

0 0

X= Arithrne~c Me.an

79

90

0 0

8~ £2 94 0 0

0 0

94 94

0

0

0

1

0

1 1

0 0

0 =1

98

0 0 0

0

0 0

0 0

0

0 0 1

89 91

1

0 3

0 0 0

1

0 1

0 1

t

0

0

I !

3

2

1

1

1

4

3 1

0 1

0

3 1

1

0 0 t

94 88 94

89 1

0 1

0

1

94 84

0

0

i0

91 87

0 0

1

1

91

l

1 !

0 2

0 0

1

o 1

I 1

0

I t 2

0 0

0

o

i0 0

0

9410 94 94

89

Res~ Resin~e Sub= Suberinite

0

6 2

0 7

2

0

4 8

15 0 7

1

2 1

0

2 4

4

11

8

7

4 3

2

0

9

Ldet= Liptodeinnite

1

0 2

1 2

2

1

2 1

0 1 1

1

1 I

1

1 1

1

f

1

0

0 1

1

2

0

Mic= Micnmte Inert= Iner6nite

0

1 1

1 0

1

0

0 1

0 1 0

4

1 t

1

2 0

0

t

1

0

1 1

0

1

1

Idet- Inertodetrinite

0

0 0

1 0

2

0

1 1

0 1 1

0

0 0

0

0 1

0

0

0

1

2 1

1

0

MINERALS

0

0.38 0.36

12

0.42

0.36

0.43

20 3 1

0

0 0

0

i 0.43 0.43

0.41 i 0.41 0.42

5 13 0

0.02 0.03

0.03

0.03 0.02

0,02

0.02

0.03 I 0.39

0.03 0.03 0.44

0.03

0.03

O.03

0.03

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.03 0.03

0.02

0.03 0.02 0.6"2 0.03

0.03

0.03

SD

I 0.40 I 0.42

0

24 11 15

0.39

3

0.40 I 0.42

i

0.36

I 0.38

i

I 0,40

i

i 0.41 0.38

36

2

4

7

2

9

18

21 9

I 0.37 I 0.38 0.36 0.36

6 7 18 7 44

70

X

30 30

30

30 30

30

20

30

30 30

30

10

10

20

20

30

3O

10 30

30

30 30 30 30

30

30

N

Rrandom(%)

REFLECTANCE

8

0 0

0

0 0 0 0 0

0

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0 1

3

Mins

Qtz Clay Carb Pyr Total

Gel= Get,Be

36

24 26

25 23

10

14

26 23

2 22 4

2

15 19

21

18 10

10

7

8

2

8 17

22

26

TotaILil~I TO~

CorpoB= dermal Corpohuminite

0

0 0

0 1

0

3

0 4

1 1 0

2

2 2

2

1 t

2

3

5

0

1 2

1

1

0

Res Res

LIPTINITE Sp CUt Detfi Situ Sub Ldet Oth

Inert

Total

4ur

i INERTINITE "ok ISF FL*S Jdet Mic

CLIt= Cubnita

3

7 6

6 6

6

7

6 4

4 6 7

2

5 6

7

5 5

E

4

7

3

3 4

2

7

5

B

Sp= Sporinite

20

21 21

27 26

28

37

19 15

32 26 31

26

28 29

29

18 29

25

32

25

30

24 20

13

13

21

gel

Attr Dens For/- Gel Corp~ DHun

Fus= Fusinite

6

6 11

8 8

10

7

8 10

4 9 8

8

4 5

5

17 8

7

8

6

11

13 8

13

B

Eu-ut

HUMINITE A

SF= Semifusinite

2

2 8

5 1

5

2

2 3

3 2 10

0

7 5

3

4 7

3

2

2

6

3 5

6

2

3

A

Phlob Corpo

Table l Summary table showing seam thicknesses, petrographic composition and huminite (eu-ulminite B) reflectances for Eureka Sound Group coals at Stenkul Fiord

b~

r~

o*

c.

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

A

CR-83-19

159

A"

r

r

Fig. 4. A. Stratigraphy of upper coal-bearing Eureka Sound Group strata at Stenkul Fiord (Member 4) and sampled intervals. For location of transect see Fig. 3. Modified from Riediger and Bustin (1987). B. Stratigraphy of middle coal-bearing Eureka Sound Group strata at Stenkul Fiord (Members 4, 3 and 2) and sampled intervals. For location of transect see Fig. 3. Modified from Riediger and Bustin (1987). C. Stratigraphy of for lower coal-bearing Eureka Sound Group strata at Stenkul Fiord (Members 2 and 1) and sampled intervals. For location of transect see Fig. 3. Modified from Riediger and Bustin (1987).

160

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

modified ICCP classification scheme for brown coals (Stach et al., 1982). Maceral data are expressed as vol% on a mineral matter free basis. Standard processing methods (Schulze solution to oxidize the organic matter and ammonium hydroxide to remove humic acids) were used to make palynological preparations from the coal samples. The pollen and spore types in each sample were identified and their abundances recorded and the amounts of various organic matter types (cuticular, vascular, coaly) were estimated. Rock-Eval/TOC analysis of Eureka Sound Group coal samples was achieved using similar procedures to those outlined previously for lignite samples (Fowler et al., 1991). Briefly, 10 and 30 mg aliquots of pulverized coal (about 100 mesh) were analyzed using a Delsi Rock-Eval II pyrolysis unit equipped with a total organic carbon (TOC) analysis module. The parameters given in Table 2, with the exception of Tmax, are from the 10 mg sample size analyses which were run at least in duplicate. The Tmax values are from the 30 mg analyses. Powdered coal samples were Soxhlet extracted using azeotropic chloroform-methanol (87:13) for 24 h. The extracts were treated with approximately 40 volumes of n-pentane to precipitate the asphaltenes. The deasphalted extracts were fractionated using open-column chromatography ( 3 / 4 activated alumina and 1 / 4 activated silica gel with an adsorbent/sample mass ratio of 100:1). Saturates were recovered by eluting with 3.5 ml of pentane/g of adsorbent. Aromatics were recovered by eluting with 4 ml of 50:50 pentane-dichloromethane/g of adsorbent and the resins were recovered with 4 m l / g of methanol. Gas cbromatograms of the C 15+ saturate fractions were acquired on a Varian 3700 FID gas chromatograph (GC) using a 30 m DB-1 column with a temperature program of 60-300°C at 6°C/min. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) data were acquired using a Fisons MD800 quadrupole under the control of a MassLab data system. The gas chromatograph was fitted with a 30 m DB-5 column and temperature programmed from 60 ° to 300°C at 6°C/min. A VG 70SQ hybrid MS-MS was used in full scan mode (70 eV ionization voltage) to check peak identifications.

4. Results and discussion 4.1. Coal seam distribution

Coal seams of the Iceberg Bay Formation are well exposed along the southern and eastern side of Stenkul Fiord (Figs. 3 and 4), and form distinctive and highly visible dark layers within the generally softer and brighter associated clastic sandstones, mudstones and siltstones (Fig. 5A and B). In the present study five sections were examined (Figs. 3 and 4). These form a composite section of the entire coal-bearing succession at Stenkul Fiord (Fig. 6). 4.1.1. Section CR-83-19

This section represents the uppermost succession of Member 4 (Riediger and Bustin, 1987). The strata examined comprise 118 m of interbedded sandstones, mudstones and

Depth (m)

6.0 45.0 58.0 62.0 72.5 76.5

135.0

172.0 225.0

320.0 321.5 346.5 355.0 274.0 309.5

349.0 421.0 428.5 445.5

Section

CR-83-19

CR-83-20

CR-83-14

CR-83-10

CR-83-07

727 728 729 730

721 722 723 724 725 726

719 720

718

712 713 714 715 716 717

Sample

68.35 48.75 66.45 71.01

70.68 54.84 63.51 59.67 62.65 70.6

63.39 63.57

65.92

57.11 70.81 64.73 64.9 69.75 35.78

TOC

3.22 1.35 1.42 2.33

1.48 0.77 3.31 1.75 2.5 2.52

1.57 1.53

2.48

3.76 2.2 2.61 1,91 3.63 1.75

S1

64.44 39.7 49.3 63.69

60.52 32.31 62.1 44.79 62.4 63.08

49.43 41.05

55.75

63.21 63.38 57.54 56,27 68.66 38.2

$2

Table 2 Rock-Eval/TOC data for Eureka Sound Group coals from Stenkul Fiord, Ellesmere Island

44.58 25.33 46.4 41.65

35.49 28.08 36.01 40.38 26.53 44.44

36.06 45.26

48.42

45.86 53.34 51.86 44.22 52.07 18.48

$3

0.05 0.03 0.03 0.04

0.02 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04

0.03 0,04

0.04

0.06 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.04

Pl

94 81 74 90

86 59 98 75 100 89

78 65

85

111 90 89 87 98 107

HI

65 52 70 59

50 51 57 68 42 63

57 71

73

80 75 80 68 75 52

OI

413 416 413 416

399 402 411 415 396 402

407 406

399

362 394 395 384 399 399

Tmax (°C)

,~

~

~.

~, ~"

.~

162

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

(B )

i! ill I.........

Fig. 5. A. Upper part of the coal-bearing succession on the south side of Stenkul Fiord. B. Lower part of the coal-bearing succession on the north side of Stenkul Fiord.

coals (Fig. 6). The section contains ten coal seams with a cumulative coal thickness of 15.8 m. Six coal seams have a thickness > 1 m. M a x i m u m seam thickness is 3.55 m. The seams are characterized by frequent occurrences of amber and in places by abundant logs and in-situ tree stumps (Fig. 7).

4.1.2. Section CR-83-20 This section consists of 20 m of mudstone, sandstone and coal, including the " d a t u m " seam (Fig. 6). The interval is part of M e m b e r 4 and underlies the strata of section CR-83-19 (Fig. 6). The five coal seams present have a total thickness of 3.65 m. M a x i m u m seam thickness is 1.3 m. Amber-rich pockets were observed throughout the seams.

C U

' 0",

~

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I

I Member I - - ~

I (

PALEOCENE~ I

Member 2

I EOCENE I

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o~

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~9 [

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~ff I - I # I (966I) 0c.$Ag°loaD IvoD f o ]vu~tno f ]VUOllVUJalul / "1v za ~#na.l~llV)l "(71"~

164

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

Fig. 7. A. In-situ petrified tree stump (Member 2), Section CR-83-10. B. Pieces of petrified log (Member 2), Section CR-83-10. 4.1.3. Section CR-83-14

This section consists of 85 m of mudstone, sandstone and coal. The thirteen seams have a total thickness of 11.25 m. The m a x i m u m seam thickness is 2.25 m. Tree stumps were observed within and above the seams (Fig. 6). Strata of M e m b e r 4 are underlain by locally developed whitish sandstones of M e m b e r 3 (Fig. 4 B) which is in turn underlain by a thin coal zone representing the top part of M e m b e r 2 (Fig. 4 B). 4.1.4. Section CR-83-10

This section contains 115 m of M e m b e r 2 (Fig. 4C). The succession is characterized by interbedded mudstone, sandstone and thin coal seams at the top underlain by a thick channel sandstone (Fig. 4C) and two thick coal zones in the lower part of the section. The number of coal seams is twenty-one with a total thickness of 14.1 m. Four seams

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

165

are > 1 m and maximum seam thickness is 1.4 m. The coal seams at this location are characterized by abundant in-situ preserved tree stumps in the original upright position and resin-rich layers (Fig. 6). Petrified trees are also common in the associated clastic strata with some having well-preserved growth tings and root systems (Fig. 7). 4.1.5. CR-83-07

This section consists of 178 m of interbedded mudstones, sandstones and coal. The upper part, which has three major coal zones, forms part of Member 2 (Fig. 4C). The lower part of the section consists predominantly of mudstones and thin coal seams of Member 1 (Fig. 4C). The thirty-one coal seams in Member 1 have a total thickness of 20.6 m. Six of the seams are > 1 m and the maximum thickness is 2.1 m. Fossilized trees and amber-rich horizons are associated with some of the lower coal seams (Fig. 6). Thin lenses of fusain were observed in the lowermost seam of Member 1 (Fig. 6). 4.2. Coal petrography 4.2.1. Huminite reflectances and coal rank

The range of huminite (eu-ulminite B) reflectances for the coals at Stenkul Fiord ranges from 0.36% to 0.43% Rrandom(Fig. 6), with slightly higher values occurring in the lower part of the section. Based on the correlations between huminite reflectance and fixed carbon, as established by Cameron (1991), coals in the upper part of the section are of lignitic rank ( < 0.42% Rra,dom), whereas the lower coals are subbituminous ( > 0.42% Rrandom). The reflectances are in a similar range to those recorded for Eureka Sound Group coals to the north at Strathcona Fiord and at Bache Peninsula on eastern Ellesmere Island (Kalkreuth et al., 1993a), suggesting a relatively shallow and uniform burial of the strata. 4.2.2. Petrographic composition

The overall petrographic composition of coal seams thicker than 1 m at Stenkul Fiord is shown in the ternary diagram (Fig. 8). The organic matter is dominated by macerals of the huminite group ranging from 79 to 98 vol%. Liptinite group maceral content ranges from 1 to 9 vol% and inertinite group macerals range from 0 to 14 vol% (Fig. 8). Results of detailed maceral analyses are shown in Table 1. Major components in the huminite group (Table 1) are humotelinite macerals such as texto-ulminite and euulminite B (Plate 1, A, C and D) and densinite of the humodetrinite subgroup (Plate 1, E). Textinite is rare (Plate 1, B). Within the liptinite group sporinite is the major component ( 1 - 4 vol%). Cutinite, resinite, suberinite and liptodetrinite macerals contribute only very little to the overall composition of the seams (Table 1). The inertinite group, comprised of semifusinite, fusinite, inertodetrinite and micrinite, is negligibly low in all but one sample at the base of the section (Table 1; Plate 1, F). Mineral matter content varies widely from 70 vol% at the top of the section to low amounts (1-3 vol%) in two samples from the base of the section (Table 1). The main components are clay minerals, with only minor amounts of quartz, carbonate and pyrite.

166

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal o f Coal Geology 30 (1996) 1 5 1 - 1 8 2

7

. i 5

,

I

,

10

i 15

,

i

i

20

INERTINITE

17 = CR-83-19, CK-83-20 -I- = CR-83-14

~ = CR-83-10 X = CR-83-07

Fig. 8. Ternary diagram showing maceral group composition (mineral matter free) for Eureka Sound Group coals at Stenkul Fiord.

Maceral group distribution with respect to stratigraphic position of the seams (Fig. 6) shows very little variation throughout the succession except at the base, where inertinite content increases to 14 vol% at the expense of huminite content (79 vol%). The increase in inertinite content is related to the macroscopically observed thin fusain lenses in this lowermost seam. Subtle differences in the petrographic nature of the seams become apparent when the amount of textinite and texto-ulminite is considered with respect to the amount of eu-ulminite. The upper part of the section shows the predominance of textinite and texto-ulminite over eu-ulminite as indicated by a ratio of > 1 (Fig. 6), whereas the lower part shows an increase of eu-ulminite by a ratio < 1 for most of the samples. The observed trend reflects the slightly higher rank of the seams in the lower part of the section, in which a higher proportion of textinite and texto-ulminite has been gelified to form eu-ulminite. It appears that relatively little mechanical degradation has taken place since accumulation of the organic matter. Evidence of this are the well-preserved in-situ tree stumps and the general woody texture of the seams, in which the original organic precursor

w.D. Kalkreuthet al./ InternationalJournalof Coal Geology30 (1996) 15l- 182

167

materials (logs, roots, bark) can often be recognized. Microscopically the high level of tissue preservation is indicated by the predominance of structured huminite macerals over detrital huminite macerals (Fig. 6).

4.3. Palynology 4.3.1. Pollen and spore assemblages of the Stenkul Fiord section Pollen of Taxodiaceae is the dominant type in the palynological assemblages of most of the Stenkul Fiord coals. However, the abundance of Taxodiaceae, and the other pollen groups, varies widely and in some samples no one type is completely dominant. The percentage of Taxodiaceae ranges from 26% to 87% except in the basal sample where it is only 7% (Fig. 6). Much of the Taxodiaceae pollen is probably of Metasequoia, and some may be Taxodium, but larger grains of Sequoia type, referrable to Sequoiapollenites paleocenicus Stanley, are common. The lower part of the section has variable amounts of Taxodiaceae which are often below 40%. Pinaceae pollen (Picea and Pinus types) comprises < 20% of the assemblages in the upper half of the section but is often between 25% and 35% in the lower part (Fig. 6). The percentage of pteridophyte spores (mainly LaeL~igatosporites and Osmunda) is < 10% in most samples but is much higher in intervals near the base and the middle part of the section (Fig. 6). Angiosperm pollen varies widely in abundance from sample to sample and is usually between 14% and 41%. In the basal sample it reaches a high of 60% and in the middle of the section it has low values between 2% and 10% in the interval where pteridophyte spores are abundant. Pollen referrable to the angiosperm genera Alnus, Betula, Ca~'a, Cercidiphyllum, Dieruilla, Liquidambar, Pachysandra, Platanus, Pterocarya, Tilia and Uhnus (Plate 2) are present throughout the section but are not abundant. Ericaceae pollen is abundant in a few samples. Most samples contain many unidentified tricolpate and tricolporate angiosperm pollen types. The angiosperm form genera Momipites and Carvapollenites (both assigned to the family Juglandaceae) are consistently present as also are the species Paraalnipollenites alterniporus (Simpson) Srivastava and Triporopollenites mullensis (Simpson) Rouse & Srivastava. Aquilapollenites tumanganicus Bolotnikova and Pistillipollenites mcgregori Rouse occur only in a few samples and the latter is occasionally common. Although the pollen and spore assemblages are essentially similar throughout the section there are significant quantitative differences in abundances of the different types. This suggests that dominances and proportions of species in the vegetation from which the pollen and spores were derived was changing considerably during peat accumulation. The palynological preparations from the Stenkul Fiord coals consist predominantly of cuticular fragments which originate from leaf tissue. This material constitutes up to 80% of the total organic residue after palynological preparation. Most of the remaining material is pollen and spore exines (exinite). Vascular plant tissue originating from woody tissue is rare. Coaly fragments (fusinite) occur rarely in some samples and more commonly in the lowermost seam. The Thermal Alteration Index (TAI) of pollen and spores in the Stenkul Fiord coals is low, approximately 2 + , and grains are yellow-brown in colour indicating a low maturity for the coal-bearing strata.

168

W.D, Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

4.3.2. Age o f the Stenkul Fiord coals

A Late Paleocene to Early Eocene age for the Iceberg Bay Formation at Stenkul Fiord is indicated by the presence of Aquilapollenites tumanganicus (Plate 2, 38 and 39)

A

C

E

F

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

169

and Pistillipollenites mcgregori (Plate 2, 41) which occur in a few samples throughout the section. Both species first appear in the Arctic in the Late Paleocene. The former species has its last occurrence in the Early Eocene and the latter species may continue until the Middle Eocene (McIntyre, 1991). Nudopollis sp. (Plate 2, 33), which occurs in a few samples, has a Late Paleocene to Middle Eocene range. The Paleocene species Caryapollenites wodehousei Nichols & Ott (Plate 2, 19), C. imparalis Nichols and Ott (Plate 2, 20), C. inelegans Nichols & Ott (Plate 2, 21) are present in low percentages throughout the section. Momipites wyomingensis Nichols & Ott (Plate 2, 22) and M. anellus Nichols & Ott (Plate 2, 23) are rare in the lower part. Paraalnipollenites alterniporus (Plate 2, 13) and Triporopollenites mullensis (Plate 2, 14 and 15), which may be abundant in the Paleocene but are rare in the Eocene (McIntyre, 1991), are common in many samples in the lower part of the section. The occurrence of Paleocene species suggests a Late Paleocene age for the section but in the upper part Tilia (Plate 2, 40) and Carya pollen (Plate 2, 17 and 18), of the type which is morphologically similar to present day species, are common. The presence of these pollen types suggests that the upper part of the section is of Early Eocene age as neither is common until the Early Eocene (McIntyre, 1991; Kalkreuth et al., 1993a). The presence of a few specimens of Tsuga and Tricolporopollenites kruschii (Potonie) Thomson & Pflug (Plate 2, 37), which first appear in the Eocene in the Arctic, is also consistent with an Eocene age for the upper part. Thus, the pollen assemblages suggest that the lower part of the Stenkul Fiord section is Late Paleocene and the upper part, from approximately 170 m depth (CR-83-14, Member 4), is probably Early Eocene. The palynological assemblages provide no indication that any part of the section is younger than Early Eocene. Similar pollen assemblages from the lower part of the Coal Member of the Iceberg Bay Formation at Strand Fiord, Axel Heiberg Island, were determined to be of Late Paleocene to Early Eocene age (McIntyre, 1991). Palynological age determinations, therefore, suggest that the coal measures at Stenkul Fiord are correlative with the lower part of the Coal Member of the Iceberg Bay Formation at Strand Fiord and also with the coal measures described from Strathcona Fiord by Kalkreuth et al. (1993a). A Paleocene to Eocene age range for the Stenkul Fiord section was determined also by G.E. Rouse (pers. commun., 1984). The Late Paleocene age for Member 2 is supported by the rather common occurrence of Paleocene freshwater, unionid pelecypods, identified as Plesielliptio priscus (Meek & Hayden), L.S. Russell (pers. commun., 1984). Basal strata of Member 4 yielded a fossil lower left canine tooth of a hippopota-

Plate 1. Photomicrographs of coal macerals from Stenkul Fiord (incident white light, oil immersion, hmg dimension of each photograph is approximately 200 /zm). (A) Texto-ulminite A grading to eu-ulminite A (dark variety). (B) Textinite B (light variety) showing wide open cell-lumina and rare corpohuminite. (C) Yexto-ulminite. (D) Dark eu-ulminite A interhanded with light phlobaphinite. (E) Densinite (fight), typical of majority of section, with rare inertinite. Light phlobaphinite with very dark suberinite cell walls (extreme left). (F) Enrichment of inertodetrinite (white), typical of basal part of section.

170

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

-111

l

50 tli

i

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / International Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

171

mus-like animal, Coryphodon (L.S. Russell, pers. commun., 1984), that is suggestive of an Early Eocene age (based on similar vertebrate occurrences elsewhere, see West et al., 1981). But the palynology suggests, however, a Late Paleocene age for the basal strata of Member 4.

Plate 2. Pollen and spores from Stenkul Fiord section. (1) Osmunda sp. C-239023, P3980-3b, GSC 109588. (2) Pinus sp. C-238897, P3889-13b, GSC 109589. (3) Picea sp. C-239022, P3980-2a, GSC 109590. (4) Metasequoia sp. C-238895, P3889-6a, GSC 109591. (5) Taxodiaceae C-238895, P3889-6a, GSC 109592. (6) Sequoiapollenites paleocenicus C-238895, P3889-5b, GSC 109593. (7) LaeL,igatosporites sp. C-239023, P3980-3b, GSC 109594. (8) Monocolpopollenites sp. C-239023, P3980-3b, GSC 109595. (9) Liliacidites sp. C-238895, P3889-3a, GSC 109596. (10) Potamogeton sp. C-238898, P3889-14a, GSC 109597. (11) Betula sp. C-238898, P3889-17a, GSC 109598. (12) Alnus sp. C-238896, P3889-8a, GSC 109599. (13) Paraalnipollenites alterniporus C-238895, P3889-6a, GSC 109600. (14) Triporopollenites mullensis C-238898, P3889-19b, GSC 109601. (15) Triporopollenites mullensis C-238898, P3889-14a, GSC 109602. (16) Triporopollenites bituitus C-238898, P3889-19a, GSC 109603. (17) Carya sp. C-239023, P3980-3b, GSC 109604. (18) Carya sp. C-238896, P3889-8b, GSC 109605. (19) Caryapollenites wodehousei C-238895, P3889-5b, GSC 109606. (20) Caryapollenites imparalis C-238895, P3889-3b, GSC 109607. (21) Caryapollenites inelegans C-238896, P3389-8a, GSC 109608. (22) Momipites wyomingensis C238898, P3889-16a, GSC 109609. (23) Momipites anellus C0238898, P3889-16a, GSC 109610. (24) Myricipites sp. C-238897, P3889-13b, GSC 10961 I. (25) Ulmipollenites undulosus C-238895, P3889-2b, GSC 109612. (26) Ulmipollenites undulosus C0238897, P3889-12a, GSC 109613. (27) Pterocarya sp. C-238895, P3889-3b, GSC 109614. (28) Ericaceae C-239023, P3980-3b, GSC 109615. (29) Acer sp. C-238896, P3889-8b, GSC 109616. (30) Platanus sp. C-238895, P3889-1a, GSC 109617. (31) Platanus sp. C-238895, P3889-3a, GSC 109618. (32) Liquidambar sp. C-239022, P3980-2a, GSC 109619. (33) Nudopollis sp. C-239024, P39g0-4a, GSC 109620. (34) Acer sp. C-238897, P3889-12a, GSC 109621. (35) Cercidiphyllum sp. C-238898, P3889-17a, GSC 109622. (36) Pachysandra sp. C-238896, P3889-8b, GSC 109623. (37) Tricolporopollenites kruschii C-238895, P3889-1a, GSC 109624. (38) Aquilapollenites tumanganicus C-239022, P3980-2b, GSC 109625. (39) Aquilapollenites tumanganicus C-238896, P3889-8b, GSC 109626. (40) Tilia sp (Tilia ~,escipites) C-238895, P3889-6a, GSC 109627. (41) Pistillipollenites mcgregori C-238898, P3889-14a, GSC 109628. (42) DierL~illa sp. C-238896, P3889-8b, GSC 109629. Slides containing the figured pollen and spore specimens are curated in the type collection of the Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario. They are currently available at the Institute of Sedimentary and Petroleum Geology, Calgary, Alberta. For each specimen the GSC Locality number (C), palynology slide (P) and GSC type number (GSC) are recorded. Stage coordinates and England Finder readings are on file with the specimens. All figures × 500.

C

t5

20 Tim

C

B

(rain)

3540

45

50

KN 155

# 719

60

0

t

9 ~ Time (mini

B,D

I/

,

c

"I f

5

K

# 722

K

# 730

15' ~' ~' 3o, 35'~ .o' ..' 5o' 15;' .ol

25

Fig. 9. Saturate fraction gas chromatograms of six Eureka Sound Group coal samples from Stenkul Fiord, Ellesmere Island: (a) sample 712; (b) sample 716; (c) sample 719; (d) sample 722; (e) sample 726; and (f) sample 730. Peaks A - N identified in Table 4. 25 is the C25 n-alkane.

t0

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.o~..

AF

B

I Jl !,a

"°'I1 0

~'

J

tao

g~

e, 2.

"x.

Lab No.

8288 8289 8290 8291 8292 8293

Sample No.

712/93 716/93 719/93 722/93 726/93 730/93

57.11 69.75 63.39 54.84 70.60 71.01

TOC

37.8 46.2 30. ! 21.0 29.7 47.4

Ext Yld. 2.8 2.4 2.4 1.0 2.5 4.2

HC Yld. 7.3 5.1 8.0 4.8 8.4 8.9

% HC 92.0 94.0 91.0 93.4 90.1 84.2

% R+ A

Table 3 Extract data for six Eureka Sound Group coals from Stenkul Fiord, Ellesmere Island

1,15 0,50 0.48 0.55 0.63 0.27

SAT/AROM

diterps, diterps, diterps, diterps, diterps, diterps,

dora., v. low C~5 terps. dom., minor n-alkanes, C 15, C 3~ terps, dom., minor n-alkanes, C 15, C30 terps. and n-alkanes dom., lower C15, C30 terps. dom., minor n-alkanes, C 15, C30 terps. dom, minor n-alkanes, C 15, C30 terps.

Comments

m

t-a

g~

g~

174

W.D. Kalkreuth et al. / lnternational Journal of Coal Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

4.4. Organic geochemistry Results from Rock-Eval/TOC analysis of coal samples from Stenkul Fiord are presented in Table 2. All the coals have low HI values (up to 111 mg hydrocarbons/g TOC) and plot into the Type III area of an OI versus HI diagram (not shown). Hence they have no potential to generate liquid hydrocarbons, unlike some Tertiary coals in other parts of the world (e.g., Shanmugam, 1985; Thompson et al., 1985; Horsfield et al., 1988; Fowler et al., 1991). Tmax values are all low and are in agreement with the low maturity of these samples as indicated by other geochemical, petrographical and palynological maturity parameters. As indicated in Fig. 6 there is a generally good correlation of slightly higher Tmax values with increased age and vitrinite reflectance related to depth of burial of the Eureka Sound Group coals at Stenkul Fiord. The correlation is not perfect, probably because of some variation in the precursor constituents of the coal. This is most apparent for the uppermost sample (#712) which has a very low Tmax value of 362°C. Previous work has indicated that low TmaX values in this range can normally be attributed to coals containing diterpenoid resinite (vonder Dick et al., 1989; Fowler et al., 1991). Although no resinite was observed in this particular coal, the extracted hydrocarbons are dominated by diterpenoid components (compounds A-F, Fig. 9), indicating that this material may be dispersed throughout the coal matrix rather than as discrete bodies of resinite. However, diterpenoids also dominate the saturate fraction gas chromatograms of the other coal samples extracted which did not have anomalously low TmaX values. As discussed below, there is additional geochemical evidence for plant species contributing to 712 that did not make significant contributions to the organic matter of the other samples which may explain the low Tm~~ value. Six samples were picked for extraction (Table 3) based on their organic petrology and Rock-Eval results. As usual for low-maturity coals, the extract and hydrocarbon yields,

Table 4 Tentative identification of peaks in Figs. 9 and 10 based on mass spectral characteristics A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P

norisopimarane norpimarane isopimarane abietane phyllocladane dehydroabietane 22,29, 30-trisnorphop- 13( 18)-ene 17/3(H)-22,29, 30-trisnorphopane C29 pentacyclic triterpane (M + m / z 410) 30-norphop-17(21)-ene hop-17(21)-ene C30 pentacyclic triterpene (M + m / z 410) 17/3(H), 21/3(H)-30-norhopane 17a (H), 21/3(H)-homohopane ( 22 R) 17/3(H),21/3 (H)-hopane 17/3(H), 21/3(H)-homohopane

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W.D. Kalkreuth et al. ~International Journal of Coa! Geology 30 (1996) 151-182

and the proportion of hydrocarbons in the extract are very low. Sample 712 differs from the other samples by showing a much higher ratio of saturate to aromatic hydrocarbons. The largest peaks in the saturate fraction gas chromatograms (SFGCs) of all six samples are diterpenoid compounds (Fig. 9). While there is some variation in the relative distribution of diterpenoids between samples, the major compounds in all six samples are tentatively identified as norpimarane and pimarane isomers (Fig. 9; Table 4). Compounds A and B have similar mass spectra. Based on the relative abundance of the m / z 177 fragment compared to the m / z 163 and 191 fragments in published mass spectra (i.e. m / z 177 > 191 for A, m / z 177 < 191 for B), A was tentatively identified as norisopimarane and B as norpimarane (Philp, 1985; Noble et al., 1986; Keuser, 1994). The spectra of A and B closely resemble the spectra of two compounds found by Livsey et al. (1984) in a sample from an offshore Labrador well. Peak C has a spectrum similar to that published for isopimarane by Noble et al. (1986) and sandaracopimarane (Snowdon, 1978). There is some doubt over the identification of sandaracopimarane as no standards were available at the time (L. Snowdon, pers. commun., 1994). Hence, peak C is tentatively identified as isopimarane in Table 4. There is less ambiguity over the identification of the other peaks in Table 4, although they are tentative, being based solely on mass spectral characteristics. Sample 712 contains phyllocladane (E) in relatively high abundance (Fig. 9, a) and other samples (Fig. 9b, c, d and f) show significant amounts of abietane (D) and dehydroabietane (F). The distribution of diterpanes in Stenkul Fiord coals is similar to that reported by Keuser (1994) in Eureka

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Sound Group coals from the Bache Peninsula and Strathcona Fiord areas of Ellesmere Island. All of these diterpenoid structures typically occur in gymnosperms rather than angiosperms (Chaffee et al., 1986; Philp, 1994). The next most abundant compounds are C23-C31 n-alkanes with a pronounced odd carbon number predominance. These are most abundant relative to the diterpenoid compounds in sample 722 (Fig. 9d). This distribution of n-alkanes is commonly found in the extracts of low-maturity coals and sediments with a significant terrestrial organic matter input and is thought to be derived from the waxes from higher land plants (e.g., Eglinton and Hamilton, 1967; Tissot and Welte, 1984). Triterpanes are also relatively abundant in these samples with sample 722 (Fig. 10 c) having the highest abundance of triterpanes relative to diterpanes, especially the hop-17(22)-ene (Fig. 10d). The hop-17(22)-ene is the most abundant triterpenoid in most of the SFGCs of these samples (Fig. 9). The distribution of triterpenoids in the saturate fractions was examined in more detail by use of m / z 191 mass fragmentograms. Three of the extracted samples (716, 719 and 726) have very similar m / z 191 mass fragmentograms with the 17a(H),21(19) 22R homohopane as the highest peak (Fig. 10a). The m / z 191 mass fragmentogram of sample 712 is dominated by hop-17(21)-ene (Fig. 10 b). While hop-17(21)-ene and the C31 homohopane are major peaks in samples 722 and 730, these samples also contain high amounts of an unidentified C29 saturated pentacyclic and an unidentified C30 hopene (Fig. 10c and d). This latter is the highest peak in the mass fragmentogram of sample 730. While the identity of these two peaks is not known, their mass spectra do not appear to be similar to any published spectra of higher-plant-derived triterpenoids and show characteristics suggesting that they are hopanoid-derived. Therefore, with the possible exception of the C29 pentacyclic and the C30 hopene, the triterpenoids are all hopanoids and hence are bacterially derived (Ourisson et al., 1979; Rohmer et al., 1992). Consequently, the extracts of the Stenkul Fiord coals do not show evidence of a significant angiosperm contribution to the original organic matter. The low maturity of these coals is indicated by the high abundance of hopanes and 17( 13),21(t9) hopane isomers. The only 17ee(H),21(19) isomer (the isomers normally found in more mature samples such as oils) present in high abundance is the C31 22R isomer which has been reported previously in terrestrial sediments at low maturity by Quirke et al. (1984), who attributed its presence in peat extracts to a moss origin. More recently, Peters and Moldowan (1993, p.148) have suggested that bacteriohopanetetrol could be oxidised to a C 32 acid, followed by loss of the carboxyl group to give the C 3~ homohopane in depositional environments where free oxygen is available. As normally reported for coal extracts, steranes are present in much lower concentrations than hopanes. Under the conditions used for GC-MS analysis, very little can be said about their distribution because of triterpenoids interfering in the m / z 217 mass fragmentograms. However, C29 steranes do appear to predominate as expected for sediments derived mostly from higher land plants (e.g., Peters and Moldowan, 1993). Lower amounts of sesquiterpanes and isoprenoids are also present in these coal extracts. In summary, the geochemical data indicate the Eureka Sound Group coals from Stenkul Fiord to be of low rank with plant material of gymnosperm rather than angiosperm origin. Sample 712 has several characteristics, such as a lower Tr,ax value, a

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177

higher saturate to aromatic hydrocarbon ratio and the presence of phyllocladane and lack of abietic acid derived compounds in significant amounts, that suggest its organic matter is derived from different plant species than the other samples.

5. Depositional environments of Stenkul Fiord coals Eureka Sound Group strata at Stenkul Fiord were deposited in a wide range of depositional environments. The basal part of the section (Member 1) is interpreted to represent a brackish water deposit of an estuary or large lagoon with development of a number of thin coal seams. Members 2 and 4 represent alluvial plain deposits in which thick peats accumulated in periods of minimal clastic influx. Locally occurring light-grey sandstones of Member 3 separating the zones of major coal development (Members 2 and 4) may be deposits of a local marine transgression. The abundance of fossilized trees preserved both in the seams and in the associated clastic beds, the predominantly xylitic texture of the seams in which many of the botanical structures have been preserved (branches, bark, roots) and the abundance of amber suggest a forested swamp environment throughout the time of coal formation at Stenkul Fiord. The woody nature of the coals is confirmed by the predominance of wood-derived macerals such as textinite, texto-ulminite and eu-ulminite (Fig. 6). Peat formation took place under relatively high water tables which resulted in good tissue preservation and generally very low inertinite contents. The sole seam for which drier conditions during peat accumulation is indicated (Fig. l I) is lhat at the base of the exposed strata in Section CR-83-07 (Table 1; Fig. 6). Thin fusain lenses and the occurrence of fusinite and semifusinite macerals suggest fire-derived woody material.

5.1. Vegetation, paleoem,ironment, climate The pollen floras of the Stenkul Fiord section suggest that the vegetation of the area, during much of the time of deposition of the material forming the coals, was swamp forest in which trees of genera of the Taxodiaceae were abundant. In addition to the pollen and spores discussed previously many samples contain pollen of the aquatic plant Potamogeton and spores of Ovoidites spp. (cysts of freshwater green algae), which indicate swamp conditions. Metasequoia and Taxodium were probably important members of the forest but other taxodiaceous plants, which produced pollen of the Sequoia type, were also present. The abundance of the other pollen and spore groups in many samples (Fig. 6), and the fluctuations in percentages of all the groups, indicates that changes in local vegetation affected species abundances in the pollen assemblages. The pollen and spore types present remained constant, except for the appearance of a few younger species high in the sequence, and the regional flora apparently changed little during deposition of the coal measures. The higher percentages of Pinaceae in the lower part of the sequence suggest a greater influence of forest species growing in the region, but not necessarily immediately adjacent to the site of deposition. However, the abundance of fern spores in some intervals, of Ericaceae pollen at the base, and Pistillipollenites mcgregori in two

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samples near the top, suggests that plants growing in open areas near the site of deposition, and forming the local vegetation, were significant at such times. Angiosperm pollen was common through most of the interval and the many types recorded most likely represent plants which comprised mixed, deciduous broadleaf vegetation of the secondary forest layer and forest margins. However, none of these was at any time abundant enough in the pollen flora to indicate that they formed the dominant vegetation. The palynological preparations contain abundant cuticular material but only rare vascular tissue whereas maceral analysis shows that abundant vascular tissue was present in the coals. During palynological preparation low-rank humified plant vascular tissue is dissolved, thus leading to differences in interpretation of depositional environments based on palynology or petrography alone. The presence of vascular tissue in preparations made without oxidation indicates that this tissue is normally dissolved.

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The pollen present in the assemblages is primarily from genera and species which today grow in temperate climates with moderate rainfall. The climatic conditions at the time the Arctic forests were growing were probably also moist and temperate. Basinger (1991) suggested that the polar climate was mild and equable with winter temperatures seldom below freezing. Francis (1991) suggested that plants in the arctic forests were adapted to extended periods of daylight and darkness. The deciduous habit of the main forest trees may also have been an important factor in tolerance of long dark winters which were not very cold (Francis, 1991). The climate was probably relatively stable throughout the time represented. Vegetation changes were possibly of a successional nature in a continually changing floodplain environment. The abundance of petrified tree stumps preserved in-situ in many seams and the frequently observed layers of amber in the coal-measures at Stenkul Fiord are evidence that trees contributed significantly to peat accumulation throughout the lifetime of the mire. Petrographic composition of the seams as determined by maceral analysis is consistent with the field observations and shows a predominance of wood-derived macerals (Fig. 6) with well-preserved botanical structures. Results from palynological analyses of the seams suggest that both gymnosperm and angiosperm species contributed to the wood-derived components in the seams (Fig. 6). Gymnosperms appear to be dominant but in places angiosperms form a significant part of the pollen and spore assemblages recorded in the coal-beating succession at Stenkul Fiord. The significant contribution of angiosperms to the build up of the peat as interpreted by palynology is in apparent contradiction to results from organic geochemistry, which would suggest a predominance of gymnosperms, with virtually no biomarker evidence of angiosperm derived extractable organic matter. From the geochemical point of view this would suggest that much, if not all, of the angiosperm assemblages determined by palynological analysis may be allochthonous and might have been transported into the mire from surrounding areas. If angiosperms were indeed autochthonous to the mire, it would suggest that relatively high yields of extractable gymnosperm-derived resinitic material mask any contribution by angiosperms to the extractable hydrocarbons. Further studies involving the analysis of plant megafossils associated with the seams are needed to resolve the contradictory results. 6. Quality and resource assessment

Coal quality data generated during industry exploration in the early 1980s indicate that the coal is a good thermal feedstock. Proximate analysis confirms the reflectance classification of the coals as mainly lignitic but approaching subbituminous rank. Ash contents are as low as 4% (as received basis) in individual seams but are 20-30% in thicker zones that might be mined as a package. Several thick seams ( > 2 m) had ash contents below 15%. Sulphur values were low with 0.5 wt% (as received basis) as a maximum, while most ranged between 0.18 and 0.28 wt%. Calorific values of minable coal zones ranged between 10,000 and 23,000 M J / k g (air-dried basis); most averaged around 14,000 to 19,000 MJ/kg.

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At Stenkul Fiord nineteen coal seams thicker than 1 m form minable coal zones of up to 8 m thickness. The coal exposure is excellent and seven " m a r k e r " seams can be traced over several kilometres. The Eureka Sound Group and coal zones are easily traced on air photos and an estimate of coal resources can be made. An industry estimate of "inferred" resources, for Stenkul Fiord and adjacent S~Sr and Vendom Fiord areas, was 750 Mt 3 (to a depth of 200 m). In the area at the head of Stenkul Fiord more than 200 Mt of "speculative" coal resources at less than 200 m depth is thought to be present. Of that amount 5 Mt may be ruinable with small machinery typical of that present in arctic communities. The deposit is 90 km north of the hamlet of Grise Fiord where the coal could be used for power generation and space heating.

7. Summary The coal-bearing succession of the Tertiary Eureka Sound Group at Stenkul Fiord, Ellesmere Island, was examined for determination of coal seam distribution and quality, coal petrographic composition, geochemical composition and palynomorph distribution. The coal seams occur in the Iceberg Bay Formation of the Eureka Sound Group. Calorific values and huminite reflectances show that the rank of the seams is lignitic to subbituminous. The substantial combined thickness of the seams, their lateral continuity, low sulphur content and surface exposure indicate that they have good prospects for possible future exploitation. Petrographic analyses show that wood-derived macerals of the humotelinite group characterize the coals. Geochemical analyses show that diterpanes are predominant and suggest that the wood macerals are primarily gymnospermous. Palynological assemblages are usually dominated by Taxodiaceae pollen but Pinaceae pollen and pteridophyte spores are often abundant. Angiosperm pollen may be common but its amount is quite variable. The assemblages indicate that the Stenkul Fiord coals are Late Paleocene and Early Eocene in age. Geological interpretation, petrographic characteristics and palynological determination suggest that peat accumulated in forested swamps on an alluvial coastal plain. The pollen assemblages suggest the climate during growth of the mires was temperate with moderate rainfall. The results from this study indicat that the Stenkul Fiord coals developed at the same time as the Strathcona Fiord coals and in a similar environment.

Acknowledgements The Polar Continental Shelf Project supported the fieldwork in 1993 and the authors wish to acknowledge the financial assistance. The samples were prepared for petrographic analysis by M. Tomica, GSC Calgary, Coal and Organic Petrology Laboratories, and her contribution to the project is gratefully acknowledged. 3 1 t = 1 metric tonne = 103 kg.

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