Soil parent materials in the Moshaysk district, Russia

Catena 34 Ž1998. 61–74

Soil parent materials in the Moshaysk district, Russia A. Kleber a

a,)

, V.V. Gusev

b

Bayreuth UniÕersity, Chair of Geomorphology, 95440 Bayreuth, Germany b 121108 Moscow, Kurena 36r10, Russian Federation

Abstract Soil profiles developed on moraines of the penultimate glaciation on the Russian Plain have formed from redistributed material, mainly sand, derived from upslope. This material consists of layers, some of which also contain, or may even be dominated by, loess. The lowest layer differs little from the underlying substratum except where it covers deposits other than till; it is mainly inherited from till, but has been altered by solifluction, leading to downslope clast orientation and to a high bulk density. The overlying layers, also solifluction deposits, contain loess, the content of which increases towards the surface. Deeper profiles on flat relief, especially on one particular toeslope, are divided into at least three of these layers, the lowest of which contains a mature truncated paleosol. This buried soil, an Alfisol with clay–humus cutans, is assumed to represent the soil of the last interglacial. Above this, the illuvial horizon of the surface soil is developed. This is overlain by the uppermost layer, which is of loose consistency and rich in loess. It contains the eluvial horizon of the surface soil. On flat relief, modern pedogenesis is dominated by perched water tables resulting from differences in the bulk density of the layers. The maximum loess content in the upper layer and the wide distribution of a paleosol and an intermediate layer make these layers different from similar sequences in Central and Western Europe. q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Paleosols; Pedogenesis; Soil disconformities; Loess material

1. Introduction Based on earlier work on stratified soils in Germany Že.g., Semmel, 1964., Kleber Ž1992. proposed that cover-beds, or slope detritus uniformly covering large areas of the landscape and sometimes mixed with loess, are important in determining soil type and modern pedogenetic processes. Cover-bed sequences have also been reported from )

Corresponding author. Fax: q49-921-55-2314

0341-8162r98r$19.00 q 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 3 4 1 - 8 1 6 2 Ž 9 8 . 0 0 0 8 2 - 4

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elsewhere ŽKleber, 1993, 1994a, Kleber, 1997; Veit, 1993a,b., suggesting that they may be widespread, and thus allow a systematic approach to soil and landscape development. However, many described sequences were rather different from those found in Germany. Thus, there is a need for further research in various parts of Europe. Here we present research on soil parent materials from the area of Moshaysk, located on the Russian Plain, about 150 km west of Moscow ŽTable 1 lists the co-ordinates for each study site.. This area experiences a continental climate, but was affected to the same extent as Central Europe by climatic fluctuations during the Pleistocene ŽZubakov and Borzenkova, 1990.. The sites studied are underlain by till of the penultimate glaciation ŽMoskva. or by related deposits. Stratified surficial material is known south of the study area, where the paleosol of the last interglacial ŽMikulino. is a widespread feature of the Russian loess province ŽVeklich et al., 1984.. North of this province no widespread paleosol is known, though there is patchy pollen evidence of the Mikulino Interglacial ŽVasilyev et al., 1982.. Evidence of the paleosol is especially lacking in the areas of the ‘Sod-podzolic soils’ of the Russian classification; these are formed from so-called ‘loess-like sediments’ or ‘mantle-loams’, which have features of loess but contain some coarser material than typical loess. Substantial variations in the properties of these soils were regarded by many authors as a result of mainly pedogenetic processes. They explained variations in ped sizes, in the distribution and the character of cutans, and in soil bulk density, some of which are associated with abrupt boundaries within the soils, in terms of pedogenesis, and conceded only minor primary stratification ŽTargulian et al., 1974; Tonkonogov et al., 1987.. Glazovskaya et al. Ž1975. explained textural differences within illuvial horizons in the same way. However, Gusev Ž1991. described ice-wedge casts, probably of late Pleistocene age, within mantle-loams of the Moshaysk region. Clay accumulation has affected the material filling the casts, which came from higher horizons, much less than surrounding soil at the same depth. This suggests that some clay illuviation preceded the accumulation of the upper parts of the mantle-loams. Romanova and Ivakhnenko Ž1988., Sokolov Ž1989., Makeev and Makeev Ž1989. and Kleber and Gusev Ž1992. considered that the differences between the eluvial and the underlying argillic horizons in terms of clay and silt content, distribution of the fractions of iron, clay mineralogy and heavy mineralogy are primary properties of the soil parent materials. Differences of clay mineralogy and total clay content might be explained by pedogenetic processes, but those in coarser components of the soils Žsand and gravel. cannot be explained pedogenetically; however, they are usually neglected ŽTursina, 1989.. Until recently, there was little discussion of the geomorphological processes that led to the formation of mantle-loams. One exception is the early work of Gerentchuk Ž1939. who proposed a solifluction origin based on clast orientation. However, this provided no explanation for the high silt contents of these materials. Makeev and Yakusheva Ž1995. attributed the silt content to the addition of windblown silt. Furthermore, no attention has yet been paid to the possibility of stratification within the illuvial horizons of these soil profiles. From field measurements, grain size data and heavy mineral analyses, we show how the different soil parent materials can be distinguished and whether typical parent material sequences occur in the Moshaysk region.

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2. Methods Particle sizes were determined by sieving and the pipette method using Na 4 P2 O 7 as a dispersant, after removing carbonate by treatment with acetic acid. Heavy minerals were analysed in the fine sand fraction because most grains in smaller fractions were covered by iron oxide coatings not removable by warm 15% hydrochloric acid and many, especially in surficial parts of the soils, were etched by weathering making them indeterminable. The grains were separated from those lighter than about 2.89 grcm3 by flotation in bromoform, and then embedded in resin of refractive index about 1.67 for microscopic examination. At least 200 grains were identified per sample. Organic carbon ŽC org . was measured photometrically, pH was determined in CaCl 2 solution and amounts of iron Žtotal, oxalate- and dithionite-soluble. were determined by the method of Scheffer and Schachtschabel Ž1993.. Soil terminology follows that of Soil Survey Staff Ž1994.. Nine profiles were dug by hand ŽTable 1.. All sites except that of Profile 9 were clear-felled and then ploughed within the last 20 years ŽGusev, 1988., so they probably have not been eroded significantly. We do not discuss Ap horizons, although the ploughing may have caused some downslope movement of soil material, perhaps with selective transport of certain grain sizes.

3. Results Profiles 1 to 4 cross the flat surface Žslopes not exceeding 1.58. of a former kettle hole. Below the Ap horizon, profile 1, at one end of the catena ŽFig. 1., has an albic E horizon Žfor wet colours see Table 1, the dry colour is 10YR7r3., which intrudes downwards along former desiccation or frost cracks into an underlying argillic horizon. This is in turn underlain by another argillic horizon of different colour: the upper argillic horizon is yellowish brown whereas the lower one is reddish brown. The reddish brown colour is typical of till of the Moskva glaciation. The lower horizon also has a greater bulk density. Because this prevented digging deeper, the lower material was initially assumed to represent the till. However, Profile 2, with almost the same horizons, was dug to a greater depth. Below the dense horizon, there is till with a loose consistency and an even redder colour. Profile 4, which lies at the other end of the catena, is similar. However, in Profile 3 near the centre of the catena, another argillic horizon Ž3Btg. is intercalated between the upper and the lower Žreddish. argillic horizons. It is similar to the upper argillic horizon but differs somewhat in colour Žmainly darker ped surfaces. and structure Žlarger ped sizes.. Lacustrine sediments occur below the dense reddish material in Profile 3. There is an abrupt upward decrease in gravel content in most profiles at the Er2Bt horizon boundary ŽTable 1, Fig. 2.. There is also an upward increase of coarse Žoften also medium. silt in all profiles from less than 25% to typically 45%. In many of the profiles, the fine clay Ž- 1 mm. content is less in the E than in the Bt horizons, probably due to clay translocation.

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Table 1 Soil horizons and their analytical characterisation

A. Kleber, V.V. GuseÕr Catena 34 (1998) 61–74

Table 1 Žcontinued.

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First column contains the profile number and latituderlongitude coordinates in front of each group of profiles. Parentheses connecting some samples indicate that they were close to each other Žwithin 15 cm.; so they demonstrate steep gradients. Numbers are percentages Žexcept for pH and colour.. n.d.s not determined. Layer sdesignation of parent materials with: UL s upper layer Žin parentheses if only Ap horizon is preserved.; uIL s upper intermediate layer; lIL s lower intermediate layer; BL s basal layer; lac.s lacustrine sediment; outw.s glacio-fluvial outwash. Grain size classes are fine and coarse clay ŽfC -1, csC 1–2 mm., fine, medium, and coarse silt ŽfSi 2– -6.3, mdSi 6.3– - 20, csSi 20– -63 mm., fine, medium, and coarse sand ŽfS 0.063– - 0.2, mdS 0.2– - 0.63, csS 0.63– - 2 mm., and fine and coarse gravel ŽfGr 2– - 20 mm and csGr G 20 mm.. cGr s volume % of whole soil Žfield estimate.; fGr s wt.% of whole soil without coarse gravel; other particle classess wt.% of fine earth - 2 mm. The fine fractions are also expressed on a clay-free basis to minimise pedogenetic effects in determining disconformities. Lines indicate major breaks, which are taken to indicate parent-material differences in particular. At the foot of the table, the averages given include values published by Kleber and Gusev Ž1992..

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66 A. Kleber, V.V. GuseÕr Catena 34 (1998) 61–74

Fig. 1. Composite catena of relief units and their soils ŽProfiles 1–9., Moshaysk area.

A. Kleber, V.V. GuseÕr Catena 34 (1998) 61–74

Fig. 2. Grain size groups of the profiles. The horizons are in the same order as they appear in Table 1. 67

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The heavy mineral analyses ŽTable 2. show no major trends throughout the profiles, but some differences between horizons suggest parent material heterogeneity, in particular the amounts of hornblende in Profiles 1, 2, and 4, of epidote in Profile 2, of garnet in Profiles 3 and 4 and of kyanite in Profiles 1 and 4. Profiles 1, 3 and 4 have much more heavy mica Žmainly biotite. in the E than in deeper horizons. Mica is less stable than most of the other minerals ŽBoenigk, 1983., so this cannot be explained simply by selective weathering in an originally homogeneous parent material. Profiles 5 to 8 represent a catena from the toeslope to the top of a moraine front-slope with an inclination up to 3.58. Profile 8 at the top has horizons similar to Profile 3 though the underlying till could not be reached. In contrast, Profiles 7, on the convex section of slope, and 6, somewhat below it, have only two argillic horizons. The difference in profile thickness between these profiles is mainly because of this missing horizon, as the upper ArE-2Bt sequence thins only slightly along the catena ŽFig. 1.. In Profile 5, located on the toeslope, the 2Bt horizon is thicker than in other profiles because of footslope accumulation. It coarsens gradually with depth, and there is no sharp parent material disconformity. As a result of its greater thickness, the argillic properties become weaker and disappear entirely with depth in the 2Bw horizon. However, the 3Bt horizon below has very well preserved clay coatings on almost all peds. This indicates that a single episode of pedogenesis does not explain the entire profile down to the 3Bt horizon, because the Bt horizons are separated by a material that is not modified by clay translocation to the same extent. This identifies the 3Bt as a paleosol horizon. There are several criteria that can be used to distinguish the 3Bt horizon from the overlying material. The first difference is in colour: this is obvious on ped surfaces, but almost disappears if the pit surface is smoothed, because the colour of the soil matrix is almost the same in the 2Bt, 2Bw, and 3Bt horizons ŽTable 1.. The 2Bw horizon has the same ped interior and ped surface colours, but in the 2Bt horizon the ped surface colour is 7.5YR 4r6, and in the 3Bt horizon it is even darker Ž7.5YR 3r3.. The second difference is in soil structure: in the 2Bt and 2Bw horizons, the main structural units are peds 3–5 cm across, whereas those in the 3Bt horizon are 10–15 cm across. This change is so abrupt that almost none of the peds extend across this boundary. The third change is in grain size distribution; for example, silt differs by almost 20%, mostly at the expense of sand ŽTable 1.. The same criteria can be used to distinguish the two Bt horizons in Profiles 8 and 9, and also in Profile 3 except for the contrast in coarse silt, regardless of whether an intervening horizon exists. Profile 9 is located on very flat Ž- 18 slope. moraine relief, not far from the crest. Its thinner ArE horizon is interpreted as a result of soil erosion, since this site has a longer arable history than the others. Within the 2Bt horizon, many friable light brown Ž7.5YR 6r4; 10YR 8r2 when dry. lenses and elongated stains occur, their long axes oriented

Notes to Table 2: Values are percentages of non-opaque grains.The ‘alternative calculation’ in Profile 3 is on a mica-free basis. Lines notify major breaks, which are taken to indicate parent-material differences. At the foot of the table, the averages given include values published by Kleber and Gusev Ž1992..

A. Kleber, V.V. GuseÕr Catena 34 (1998) 61–74 Table 2 Heavy mineral analyses.

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parallel to the gentle slope. These contain more coarse silt and less sand than the remainder of the 2Bt horizon ŽTable 1., and less epidote in the fine sand fraction ŽTable 2..

4. Discussion 4.1. Layers The results indicate recurring variations in soil parent materials, which can be referred to three layers: the lowest, reddish, material of high bulk density, which is usually poor in silt, is hereafter called the basal layer; the uppermost, loose, very silt-rich layer is called the upper layer; all the intervening silt-rich materials are called the intermediate layer, although this may be subdivided into upper and lower parts. The upper layer has a loose consistency and usually the greatest content of coarse silt and the least sand and gravel. Weathering of gravel is usually indicated in the field by weathering rinds ŽTonkonogov et al., 1987; Verba, 1990., but these were observed neither in this nor in deeper layers, so the differences between layers in gravel content cannot be entirely attributed to weathering. The heavy mineral analyses and field evidence also indicate that this material is a separate deposit from the underlying material. The occurrence of buried A horizons beneath similar deposits ŽKerzum et al., 1991; Makeev and Yakusheva, 1995. support this view. Radiocarbon dates for these horizons indicate they are Early Holocene in age ŽAlexandrovskiy et al., 1991. so the overlying strata, which are probably identical to the upper layer, are even younger. However, the material dated was humic acid, which tends to under-estimate ages ŽMatthews, 1993., especially in non-calcareous situations ŽGamper, 1985.. The intermediate layer Žor layer complex. is yellowish brown, has an intermediate bulk density, and it is usually dominated by coarse silt, though to a lesser degree than the upper layer. In some profiles, there is a disconformity within this layer, leading to separation into two parts. The total soil thickness largely depends on the thickness of this particular layer or group of layers. The texture and mineralogy of the light brown lenses and stains within the upper intermediate layer of Profile 9 indicate that they contain more loess material than the surrounding deposit. Their orientation, friable consistency and irregular shape suggest that they were transported downslope, perhaps while they were frozen. The basal layer has undergone significant pedogenesis in most profiles, but its matrix has retained the reddish cast typical of Moskva till. However, it cannot be interpreted as undisturbed till because of its high bulk density. Furthermore, whenever rock fragments larger than 2 cm occur in this layer Žand to a lesser degree in other layers above., they align parallel to the slope Žthis was measured in some profiles but is not presented here because of the infrequent clast occurrence.. Such properties are well known, for example, in Central Europe ŽKleber, 1992. and Scotland ŽFitzPatrick, 1956., and are attributed to slow gelifluction processes during moist interstadials. The clast orientation in particular cannot be explained other than by downslope transport. Furthermore, in

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many instances it forms a thin layer covering glacial and post-glacial deposits. It is unlikely that glacial processes could deposit such a thin, extensive cover; instead the material has probably been redistributed after its original deposition as till. Unlike the overlying layers, there is no evidence of eolian input to the basal layer. Thus, it is probably a gelifluction deposit composed mainly of till, the main material available upslope. The overlying deposits, in contrast, are mixtures of till and eolian material. The upward increase of coarse silt suggests an increasing loess contribution. Mixed gelifluction and loess deposits are common in many parts of Europe ŽKleber, 1992, 1994a, Kleber, 1997.. Using regression analyses, Kleber Ž1994b, 1995. estimated the relative proportion of geliflucted older layers and loess in cover-beds. Specific grain size classes were strongly correlated between different layers and interpreted in terms of reworking from layer to layer. The number of samples studied from the Moshaysk district was insufficient for sound statistical analyses. However, some preliminary trends may be seen, though they need to be supported by additional data. Amounts of certain grain size classes tend to rise in particular layers parallel to those in underlying layers. This trend is weak Ž r f 0.4 for coarse sand and clay. at the ends of the grain size spectrum but better in the centre Ž r f 0.7 for fine sand and medium silt, significant at the 95% level.. The only size class with a very poor correlation Ž r f y0.1. is coarse silt. Based upon a much larger set of data from the western USA, Kleber Ž1994b. found that such correlations are typical for mixed slope deposits containing loess, because the amount of fresh loess incorporated into a cover-bed varies with time and site much more than does the influence of local underlying material. As loess mainly introduces coarse silt, it weakens the correlation for this size class. Although we analysed very fine sand rather than coarse silt, the heavy mineral analyses also indicate some eolian influence. In particular, the unusually high mica content in some samples probably originates in this way because wind transports mica flakes more easily than other minerals. Hornblende is more abundant in the upper and basal layers than in the intermediate layers, whereas epidote displays the opposite trend. Calculations on the heavy mineral data similar to those on grain size classes show that the variability of minerals such as hornblende, garnet, and titanite in the upper layer can be explained by the variability of the till or basal layer, but that of other minerals such as epidote, kyanite and heavy mica, cannot. This suggests a loess origin for the latter minerals. Epidote and kyanite are known to be very unevenly distributed through the tills of the Russian Plain ŽSudakova, 1990, 1995., so their occurrence in the upper layers suggests they were introduced as part of the loess. However, the optimistic suggestion of Kleber and Gusev Ž1992., that past wind directions might be deduced from heavy mineral analyses of the various layers has not yet been achieved. 4.2. Soils The upper layer contains the surface soil E horizons, except where the combined effects of soil erosion and downslope ploughing have incorporated the E horizon into the

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Ap. Sites on level surfaces, with impeded lateral water flow, are furthermore characterised by mottling, indicative of stagnant soil water, probably due to the effects of perching on the underlying, denser layers. The latter show clear evidence of seasonally perched soil water, colours of reduced iron on crack surfaces ŽKanivets, 1988. and in mottles, and colours of oxidised iron inside peds. These effects are superimposed on the normal Alfisol horizon sequence of the surface soil, in which clay translocation is commonly believed to continue at the present time ŽKaraveyeva et al., 1986; Urusevskaya et al., 1987.. However, soil pH in some eluvial and in all illuvial horizons is too low to allow for this process to reach more than a few cm deep ŽScheffer and Schachtschabel, 1993., except perhaps along some major cracks. Radiocarbon ages of deeper Bt horizon cutans obtained by Alexandrovskiy et al. Ž1991. seem to support this, although Anderson and Paul Ž1984. point to the problems of dating organo-mineral complexes. The abrupt changes of several properties within thick intermediate layers are best explained by two soil forming events that led to a composite profile. In one profile, the Bt horizon of the lower intermediate layer was clearly identified as a buried soil because of overlying, less pedogenetically altered material. This paleo-argillic horizon is older than the surface soil, and because it has much thicker clay films, represents a major soil forming phase, probably of the last interglacial ŽMikulino., as it is younger than the underlying till of Moskva age. If this is true, its parent material, overlying the Moskva deposits, dates from the late Moskva glaciation. Unlike the surface soil, this buried horizon is characterised by dark greyish clay films, which indicate derivation from a clay–humus complex in a mollic A horizon ŽTursina, 1989.. This suggests that, unlike the present soil, the inferred Mikulino soil had an early stage of development with a strongly humic epipedon. The difference in the diameter of major soil structural units suggests different desiccation histories of the two materials since they were deposited. 4.3. Comparison with other areas In a comparison of cover-bed sequences and their soils of various areas, Kleber Ž1997. distinguishes two major types. One is characterised by relatively uniform layers separated by widespread paleosols. The other has cover-beds, which differ in a predictable manner in their sediment properties—they have a loess-free layer at their base and loess-bearing layers above—and paleosols are not ubiquitous. The profiles of this study belong to the latter kind. Complete German and French sequences ŽKleber, 1992, 1994a, Kleber, 1997. have their silt maximum in intermediate layers and usually increased gravel and sand contents in the upper layer, whereas in our profiles the silt maximum is in the upper layer. The loess deposition rate was probably less and solifluction stronger during the Younger Dryas, when the upper layers formed in Germany and northern France, than when the upper layer in the Moshaysk area formed. A second difference is that an intermediate layer occurred in all our profiles and almost half of the profiles included a paleosol, whereas intermediate layers are spatially very restricted in other areas and paleosols occur rarely.

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Acknowledgements We thank the German Research Foundation for financial support, V.O. Targulian, A.O. Makeev, Moscow, and R.W. Arnold, Washington D.C., for helpful discussion, and J.A. Catt and two anonymous reviewers for their invaluable comments on the manuscript.

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