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Urban factories—interdisciplinary perspectives on resource efficiency
Chapter 3
Urban factoriesdinterdisciplinary perspectives on resource efficiency Felix Kreuz1, Max Juraschek2, Michael Bucherer3, Anne So¨fkerRieniets4, Arnim Spengler5, Uwe Clausen1, Christoph Herrmann2 1
TU Dortmund University, Institute of Transport Logistics, Dortmund, Germany; 2TU Braunschweig, Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology, Braunschweig, Germany; 3 TU Braunschweig, Institute of Industrial Building and Construction Design, Braunschweig, Germany; 4TU Dortmund University, Department of Urban Design and Land Use Planning, Dortmund, Germany; 5Universita¨t Duisburg Essen, Institute for Urban Development and Planning, Essen, Germany
Chapter outline 1. Introduction and background 2. Interfaces of urban factories 3. Planning activities for urban factories 4. Toward an interdisciplinary design approach of urban factories
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5. Common control system of urban factories Acknowledgments References
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49
1. Introduction and background Cities and urban agglomerations are subject to societal and spatial change. As a result, many factories are pushed from their urban production site to the outskirts of the city, abroad, or new greenfield sites. However, many businesses strive to maintain their urban production sites to generate business advantages such as innovativeness in technology and products or attractiveness as an employer. The urban factory as a vision of future urban production acknowledges that factories in an urban environment are able to create additional benefits for themselves and for their surrounding quarters, e.g., by energy Urban Freight Transportation Systems. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817362-6.00003-3 Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Published in cooperation with WCTRS.
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42 PART | I Land-use and urban production
production and collaborative consumption or provision of manufacturing and social infrastructure. This vision relies on the connectedness of all relevant stakeholders, first and foremost, on the factory itself and the residents and neighbors. In addition, many other stakeholders such as local authorities, employees, proprietaries, or service and trade businesses have to be considered. By cooperating, this stakeholder network will enhance efficiency with regard to significant resources of the city-factory-system. Examples for cooperation enhancing resource efficiency of manufacturing systems in urban environments can be found, for instance, in the concept of (urban) industrial symbiosis (van Berkel et al., 2009). Hence, production also provokes conflicts with the principal functions of urban quarters such as living, leisure, service, and trade. For example, transport and logistics activities of the factory are in conflict with private and other commercial transport and compete for infrastructure, which often has already reached its capacity limits. Furthermore, noise and exhaust emissions of different sources, e.g., production itself or construction activities, soil sealing, or the less esthetic design and ambiance of production sites, create tension with its surroundings. As described, factories are nowadays commonly associated with negative impacts. With companies nowadays pursuing more sustainable business models, production technologies are becoming more energy and resource efficient and thus are able to decrease or even eliminate their negative impacts on their environment (Herrmann et al., 2014). Examples of this trend are observable throughout many scopes of the factory-city-system: Residential and factory buildings are renovated or retrofitted energy efficiently or planned to a passive-house standard. Private and commercial vehicles with conventional combustion engines, to some extent, are being replaced by hybrid or allelectric vehicles. Renewable energy sources or waste heat are increasingly being utilized in energy supply concepts. However, the impact of these measures is usually limited to individual fields of application and functional areas. In addition, the conceptual approach remains the same: avoidance. The more efficient use of resources (most common energy) intends to enhance the chances of integrating a factory in an urban environment by avoiding (reciprocal) negative effects. Overall, this can lead to the city and factory isolating themselves from each other spatially, organizationally, and possibly also culturally. The measures applied thus only lead to limited efficiency gains. However, to convert purely local efficiency gains into systemic global efficiency gains on a higher system level, measures that have a systemic interdisciplinary character are necessary. Common core of those measures is cooperation and connectedness of stakeholders and coordinated, jointly conducted planning activities.
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2. Interfaces of urban factories An urban factory is defined by Juraschek et al. (2016) as a factory situated in an urban environment that acts as a multifunctional settlement area with complementary uses for production entities in close proximity. In general, two motivations can be identified for research on urban factories (Juraschek et al., 2018). The first objective is to minimize the negative impacts of factories originally erected outside urban areas that have subsequently been reached by the city’s growth. As these unintentionally urban factories were originally not planned as production sites within cities, several conflicts arise with neighboring usages. For companies, the second objective of research on urban factories is to utilize the potentials of urban areas for the factory. The positive or negative impacts of urban factories on their environment and vice versa are in both cases manifold and complex. To achieve these two objectives and to meet the requirements of the city and factory, an interdisciplinary examination of the city-factory-system is indispensable. Interdisciplinary research aims at solutions, which are beyond the scope of a single discipline by “[integrating] information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines” (National Academy of Sciences, 2005). To work together on an interdisciplinary basis, it is therefore imperative to examine firstly which disciplines are necessary to develop resource-efficient solutions for urban factories. The disciplines involved may differ depending on the focus and problem situation of individual locations but comprise in general at least production engineering, industrial building and architecture, logistics and transport, energy design, and urban planning and development. If these disciplines are necessary to plan and operate (urban) production sites, they also have corresponding functional interfaces. The following overview shows significant functional interfaces and interaction potentials of the disciplines: Production engineering is at the core of an urban factory. The purpose of every (urban) factory is value creation, which is achieved by the production system transforming input flows of materials, energy, and information into products. For this activity, the production system depends on functions located within other disciplines. Production engineering is the initiator for the disciplines such as industrial building and architecture, logistics and transport, and energy design and therefore has direct interfaces with them. There is an indirect interface with the discipline of urban planning and development, which accordingly configures the general relationship between factory and city. Fig. 3.1 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline production engineering with the other disciplines involved. Industrial building and architecture requires the framework conditions set by the discipline production engineering for the planning of a production site.
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FIGURE 3.1 Production engineering interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
These are fixed requirements, which have to be met to enable the production system to operate. The relationship to the discipline of logistics and transport is similar. In addition, the discipline of industrial building and architecture has a direct connection with the discipline urban planning and development because, for example, regulations usually have to be implemented through the architectural design of the buildings and site layout. Fig. 3.2 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline industrial building and architecture with the other disciplines involved. Logistics and transport is also characterized as a service provider for the discipline production engineering and therefore requires precise framework conditions to which the supply and disposal of the factory are designed. Although the interface to the discipline energy design is less pronounced, logistics and transport place demands on the other disciplines of industrial building and architecture and urban planning and development. It should be noted that these two disciplines make fundamental and long-term decisions in terms of spatial, traffic, and structural planning, which logistics and transport have to take into account after implementation (ideally these disciplines were already involved in joint planning). Fig. 3.3 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline logistics and transport with the other disciplines involved. Energy design’s interfaces to the three production-related disciplines, production engineering, industrial building and architecture, and logistics and transport, are foremost concerned with the energy requirements of the different forms of energy. As for a sustainable energy design it is vital to link
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FIGURE 3.2 Industrial building and architecture interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
FIGURE 3.3 Logistics and transport interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
energy requirements with surplus energy from other areas, the interfaces also include energy surpluses and corresponding load curves. This also applies to the interface with urban planning and development but on a larger scale in accordance with a stable energy network. Fig. 3.4 describes the core contents
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FIGURE 3.4 Energy design interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
of the functional interfaces of the discipline energy design with the other disciplines involved. Urban planning and development sets the global framework for all disciplines in which all (value-adding) planning and activities take place. In contrast to the other disciplines, production is not at the core of planning, even if, for example, a special location is to be developed in terms of urban development and planning. The guiding motive for action is the sum of all the interests of the urban stakeholders with production being one of these. Accordingly, the interfaces refer on the one hand to the flow of information or the necessary communication between the disciplines. In addition, general planning requirements for safe, clean, sustainable, and healthy cities form the interfaces to the other disciplines. Fig. 3.5 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline urban planning and development with the other disciplines involved.
3. Planning activities for urban factories In contrast to a functional need to cooperate during planning and operations, interdisciplinary research requires an integration of the disciplines, which necessarily challenges each involved discipline to deploy its own analytical skills and tools “while opening one’s mind to the methods of other disciplines” in a collaborative approach (Darbellay et al., 2017). Therefore, the methodological approach of analysis and planning also has to be coordinated. As an example of the need for coordination and the resulting potential problems, the different scopes (city and factory) during planning and the intensity of
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FIGURE 3.5 Urban planning and development interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
planning activities in these scopes can be used. Fig. 3.6 illustrates the scopes and the intensity of the planning activities over time. The disciplines’ planning activities relate to two different spatial scopes. The disciplines production engineering, industrial building and architecture, and logistics and transport act essentially in the scope factory. Within this scope, planning is generally carried out on the basis of business principles.
FIGURE 3.6 Planning activities of involved disciplines for urban factories.
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Accordingly, planning focuses on the value-adding function of the factory intrinsic to the specific location. All three disciplines are also influenced by specifications and regulation from other scopes. The discipline production engineering, for example, must comply with environmental regulations. The same applies to the discipline of logistics and transport. Furthermore, there are the framework conditions of the transport infrastructure, which are located in the spatial scope of the city. In addition to the functional design of the building and the site, the discipline of industrial building and architecture also takes into account esthetic and urban planning aspects. The figure also shows that the disciplines refer to each other in their planning activities within the two scopes, as they share a common planning object. The planning of the three disciplines production engineering, industrial building and architecture, and logistics and transport within the scope factory follows a sequential pattern. Thus, the planning is divided into subtasks for which the disciplines find solutions according to their area of responsibility. Such an approach corresponds to the classical approaches of factory planning. Fig. 3.7 illustrates the approach of factory planning according to Grundig (2014), on which the illustration of the planning activities of the discipline production engineering is based on. The disciplines energy design and urban planning and development play a major role in the scope city. The planning in the field of urban planning and energy supply of the city usually refers to a higher, more abstract level, in which primarily conceptual planning is carried out. The developed mission statements and visions are then transferred to individual areas and locations.
FIGURE 3.7 Planning activities of discipline production engineering (steps 0e9 based on Grundig (2014)).
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Thus, a general planning activity prevails in these two areas. This becomes more specific for individual areas and, if necessary, enters into the specific site planning. For the discipline of energy design, specific planning is usually necessary if the planned location has special needs, for example, with regard to the amount of energy required or the energy source to be used. The discipline of urban planning and development enters into specific site planning when a site is to be developed for the establishment of a company or when the planning is so far advanced that it can be approved or accepted. In summary, it can be stated that in the planning of production sites in urban space, different time sequences and spatial approaches prevail between the disciplines. Thus, not only the functional differences but also the methodological differences between the disciplines pose a challenge for the necessary interdisciplinary planning and design of urban factories. These challenges are increasing with the project size as many real-world large-scale projects demonstrate.
4. Toward an interdisciplinary design approach of urban factories To realize the vision of urban production sites that are able to create additional benefits for themselves and for their surrounding quarters, planning activities have to be based on methodical and content-related standardization and continuous synchronization. The planning activities of the different disciplines are based on given or imposed requirements for the achievement of objectives. Different quantitative or qualitative assessment standards are used for each discipline, which do not directly translate between them. Although the content is different, all disciplines have one activity in common: an evaluation of the planning. In addition to uniform evaluation standards (selection function), common objectives also have a coordinating function. The overall planning, as well as individual and partial planning, can be aligned with these (Meyer and Reher, 2016). Thus, a common reference system that measures the global achievement of objectives would be suitable as an interdisciplinary tool. A common reference system can foster interdisciplinary decision-making and enable an overall improved system efficiency (Pfohl et al., 2017). For interdisciplinary decision-making, specific measures are required for overcoming barriers resulting, e.g., from differing scientific vocabulary or nonmatching spatial and temporal scales. There are different approaches to overcome these barriers, e.g., by analyzing and utilizing capabilities for different types of decision support (Abele and Boltze, 2017). A reference system in the context of and limited to production, logistics, and traffic is for instance proposed by Boltze et al. (2017). To gain a holistic view on urban factories and decision support as well as implementation procedures of suitable measures, an even broader reference system is required.
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To comprehensively illustrate the concept of a common reference system, the logistics controlling will be used as an example in the following. Logistics controlling is generally a factory-centric methodology, which will be used as a starting point for the development of a corresponding evaluation system in the following. Logistics at production sites is the subject of the management control system. To plan, coordinate, and manage logistics activities and processes, organizations use manifold methods and instruments. In general, the core of these methods and instruments are performance indicators (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure 2001, 2009). Examples of these indicators for logistics are delivery reliability, the mean number of deliveries per time period, number of suppliers, the degree of storage capacity utilization, or mean transport distance per shipment. To maintain profitable logistics and production, these indicators are measured to meet the objectives set by the factory. Additionally, these indicators are applicable to assess the logistic workload, which has to be handled and sustained by the city and its stakeholders. Consequently, the description of the interface between the factory and city in terms of logistics is based on the management control system of the factory. This factory-centered view has to be matched and broadened by the city-centered interface description. The city-centered description is more complex due to the heterogeneity of the stakeholders. On city level, the following three key interest groups can be identified. l l l
City authorities Transport users and other transport participants Residents/urban society
On the one hand, authorities’ interests in transport and mobility can be described by the objectives determined by transport planning (e.g., capacity of traffic infrastructure, infrastructure utilization, level of service). On the other hand, city authorities pursue transport safety and ecologically efficient and low-emission (e.g., silent) transport, which is not harmful to the health of citizens (Meyer, 2013). As a result, the interests of these two stakeholders are opposed to each other. To integrate the factory-centered and city-centered view on the logistics interface of urban factories, it is reasonable to operationalize the management control system framework, which is used in the factorycentered interface description. The performance indicators of the factory’s logistics are measured and evaluated concerning internal organizational objectives. However, the city-centered view is based on municipal and societal objectives. In the city-factory-system as a vision of future urban production sites, these objectives are combined. The factory’s logistics operations are additionally measured with regard to municipal and societal objectives. However, imposing additional objectives on the factory’s logistics does not necessarily result in benefits for the factory and the city in terms of more
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resource-efficient symbiosis. Especially for the factory, the efficiency of logistics operations could be reduced. Therefore, the resources to meet the objectives would have to be extended as well. To achieve the combined objectives, the factory is able to use the city’s resources, which currently are not accessible by the factory. Factory and citydin the futuredwill cooperate in terms of common objectives and a common resource basis to identify and use the overall resource-efficient transport and logistics operations.
5. Common control system of urban factories The exemplarily described extension of a factory-centered logistics controlling to the scope city can serve as an approach for the interdisciplinary planning of production sites in urban space. However, as it is obvious in the exemplary description of the extension of logistics controlling, conflicts of objectives arise within such an extended system. A common reference system that integrates conflicting goals harbors the danger of setting false incentives for planning and thus undermining the desired goal of uniform planning. When taking an integrated viewpoint by including other disciplines, there is a corresponding challenge to avoid conflicts of objectives. To make it possible, the mere integration of existing discipline-specific systems is not sufficient. A truly common control system must be developed on a common basis. The resulting integrated perspective is located one level higher than the isolated subsystem perspectives of city and factory on their own. As crucial enablers, the definition and utilization of common interfaces between the involved disciplines and their activities need to be taken into account. With the goal of designing resource-efficient factories and cities in mind, a clearly defined set of shared resources is essential as a basis for the development of a common planning system and thus a common understanding of the system. However, due to the different scopes, perspectives, and the complex and dynamic interactions, the identification and description of all resources of the city-factory-system is a challenge. All resources must be identified without allowing overlaps between them because otherwise a risk arises that over- or underrepresentation of individual resources will create false incentives for the planning and design of urban factories. Nevertheless, the extensive creation of common grounds proves to be advantageous, as it already constitutes a first step toward interdisciplinary cooperation. Ascribing a certain degree of autonomy to the Urban Factory within its urban context as an object of observation, it can be recognized as a system itself. Thus, taking the general definition of a resource as “means that is or can be used in a process” (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, 2016) as a basis, a clearly defined specific set of shared “Resources of the Urban Factory” needs to be developed to foster cooperation of all urban stakeholders and to enable production sites in urban environments to contribute to an overall increase in the resource efficiency of the “Factory-City-System.”
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Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding of this work enabled by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy within the sixth Federal Government’s Energy Research Program (EnEff:Stadt, Grant 03ET1311A-D).
References Abele, E., Boltze, M., 2017. Dynamic and Seamless Integration of Production, Logistics and Traffic. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland. Boltze, M., Ru¨hl, F., Berbner, U., Friedrich, H., 2017. The Interdisciplinary Decision Map: A Reference Model for Production, Logistics and Traffic. In: Dynamic and Seamless Integration of Production, Logistics and Traffic. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 31e47. Darbellay, F., Moody, Z., Lubart, T.I. (Eds.), 2017. Creativity, Design Thinking and Interdisciplinarity. Springer, Singapore. Grundig, C.-G., 2014. Fabrikplanung: Planungssystematik - Methoden e Anwendungen. Carl Hanser Verlag GmbH & Co. KG, Munich, p. 41. Herrmann, C., Schmidt, C., Kurle, D., Blume, S., Thiede, S., 2014. Sustainability in manufacturing and factories of the future. International Journal of Precision Engineering and Manufacturing Technology 1 (4), 283e292. Juraschek, M., Becht, E.J., Bu¨th, L., Thiede, S., Kara, S., Herrmann, C., 2018. Life cycle oriented industrial value creation in cities. Procedia CIRP 69, 94e99. Juraschek, M., Vossen, B., Hoffschro¨er, H., Reicher, C., Herrmann, C., 2016. Urban Factories: Ecotones as Analogy for Sustainable Value Creation in Cities, vol. 1. interdisziplina¨re Konferenz zur Zukunft der Wertscho¨pfung, pp. 135e145. Meyer, H., Reher, H.-J., 2016. Projektmanagement: Von der Definition u¨ber die Projektplanung zum erfolgreichen Abschluss. Springer Gabler, Wiesbaden. Meyer, J., 2013. Nachhaltige Stadt- und Verkehrsplanung. Grundlagen und Lo¨sungsvorschla¨ge. ViewegþTeubner Verlag, Wiesbaden, pp. 99e129. National Academy of Sciences, 2005. Facilitating Interdisciplinary Research. The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. Pfohl, H.-C., Berbner, U., Zuber, C., 2017. Interdisciplinary Decisions in Production, Logistics, and Traffic and Transport: Measures for Overcoming Barriers in Interdisciplinary DecisionMaking. In: Dynamic and Seamless Integration of Production, Logistics and Traffic. Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 13e30. Van Berkel, R., Fujita, T., Hashimoto, S., Fujii, M., 2009. Quantitative assessment of urban and industrial symbiosis in Kawasaki, Japan. Environmental Science and Technology 43 (5), 1271e1281. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, 2016. Ressourceneffizienz e Methodische Grundlagen, Prinzipien und Strategien, vol. 03.100.01, VDI 4800 Blatt 1. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, 2009. VDI-Richtlinie 4491 e Logistikcontrolling e Logistics Controlling. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin. Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, 2001. VDI-Richtlinie 4400 e Logistikkennzahlen fu¨r die Beschaffung; Logistikkennzahlen fu¨r die Produktion; Logistikkennzahlen fu¨r die Distribution. Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin.
Urban factoriesdinterdisciplinary perspectives on resource efficiency Felix Kreuz1, Max Juraschek2, Michael Bucherer3, Anne So¨fkerRieniets4, Arnim Spengler5, Uwe Clausen1, Christoph Herrmann2 1
TU Dortmund University, Institute of Transport Logistics, Dortmund, Germany; 2TU Braunschweig, Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology, Braunschweig, Germany; 3 TU Braunschweig, Institute of Industrial Building and Construction Design, Braunschweig, Germany; 4TU Dortmund University, Department of Urban Design and Land Use Planning, Dortmund, Germany; 5Universita¨t Duisburg Essen, Institute for Urban Development and Planning, Essen, Germany
Chapter outline 1. Introduction and background 2. Interfaces of urban factories 3. Planning activities for urban factories 4. Toward an interdisciplinary design approach of urban factories
41 43 46
5. Common control system of urban factories Acknowledgments References
51 52 52
49
1. Introduction and background Cities and urban agglomerations are subject to societal and spatial change. As a result, many factories are pushed from their urban production site to the outskirts of the city, abroad, or new greenfield sites. However, many businesses strive to maintain their urban production sites to generate business advantages such as innovativeness in technology and products or attractiveness as an employer. The urban factory as a vision of future urban production acknowledges that factories in an urban environment are able to create additional benefits for themselves and for their surrounding quarters, e.g., by energy Urban Freight Transportation Systems. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817362-6.00003-3 Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Published in cooperation with WCTRS.
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42 PART | I Land-use and urban production
production and collaborative consumption or provision of manufacturing and social infrastructure. This vision relies on the connectedness of all relevant stakeholders, first and foremost, on the factory itself and the residents and neighbors. In addition, many other stakeholders such as local authorities, employees, proprietaries, or service and trade businesses have to be considered. By cooperating, this stakeholder network will enhance efficiency with regard to significant resources of the city-factory-system. Examples for cooperation enhancing resource efficiency of manufacturing systems in urban environments can be found, for instance, in the concept of (urban) industrial symbiosis (van Berkel et al., 2009). Hence, production also provokes conflicts with the principal functions of urban quarters such as living, leisure, service, and trade. For example, transport and logistics activities of the factory are in conflict with private and other commercial transport and compete for infrastructure, which often has already reached its capacity limits. Furthermore, noise and exhaust emissions of different sources, e.g., production itself or construction activities, soil sealing, or the less esthetic design and ambiance of production sites, create tension with its surroundings. As described, factories are nowadays commonly associated with negative impacts. With companies nowadays pursuing more sustainable business models, production technologies are becoming more energy and resource efficient and thus are able to decrease or even eliminate their negative impacts on their environment (Herrmann et al., 2014). Examples of this trend are observable throughout many scopes of the factory-city-system: Residential and factory buildings are renovated or retrofitted energy efficiently or planned to a passive-house standard. Private and commercial vehicles with conventional combustion engines, to some extent, are being replaced by hybrid or allelectric vehicles. Renewable energy sources or waste heat are increasingly being utilized in energy supply concepts. However, the impact of these measures is usually limited to individual fields of application and functional areas. In addition, the conceptual approach remains the same: avoidance. The more efficient use of resources (most common energy) intends to enhance the chances of integrating a factory in an urban environment by avoiding (reciprocal) negative effects. Overall, this can lead to the city and factory isolating themselves from each other spatially, organizationally, and possibly also culturally. The measures applied thus only lead to limited efficiency gains. However, to convert purely local efficiency gains into systemic global efficiency gains on a higher system level, measures that have a systemic interdisciplinary character are necessary. Common core of those measures is cooperation and connectedness of stakeholders and coordinated, jointly conducted planning activities.
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2. Interfaces of urban factories An urban factory is defined by Juraschek et al. (2016) as a factory situated in an urban environment that acts as a multifunctional settlement area with complementary uses for production entities in close proximity. In general, two motivations can be identified for research on urban factories (Juraschek et al., 2018). The first objective is to minimize the negative impacts of factories originally erected outside urban areas that have subsequently been reached by the city’s growth. As these unintentionally urban factories were originally not planned as production sites within cities, several conflicts arise with neighboring usages. For companies, the second objective of research on urban factories is to utilize the potentials of urban areas for the factory. The positive or negative impacts of urban factories on their environment and vice versa are in both cases manifold and complex. To achieve these two objectives and to meet the requirements of the city and factory, an interdisciplinary examination of the city-factory-system is indispensable. Interdisciplinary research aims at solutions, which are beyond the scope of a single discipline by “[integrating] information, data, techniques, tools, perspectives, concepts, and/or theories from two or more disciplines” (National Academy of Sciences, 2005). To work together on an interdisciplinary basis, it is therefore imperative to examine firstly which disciplines are necessary to develop resource-efficient solutions for urban factories. The disciplines involved may differ depending on the focus and problem situation of individual locations but comprise in general at least production engineering, industrial building and architecture, logistics and transport, energy design, and urban planning and development. If these disciplines are necessary to plan and operate (urban) production sites, they also have corresponding functional interfaces. The following overview shows significant functional interfaces and interaction potentials of the disciplines: Production engineering is at the core of an urban factory. The purpose of every (urban) factory is value creation, which is achieved by the production system transforming input flows of materials, energy, and information into products. For this activity, the production system depends on functions located within other disciplines. Production engineering is the initiator for the disciplines such as industrial building and architecture, logistics and transport, and energy design and therefore has direct interfaces with them. There is an indirect interface with the discipline of urban planning and development, which accordingly configures the general relationship between factory and city. Fig. 3.1 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline production engineering with the other disciplines involved. Industrial building and architecture requires the framework conditions set by the discipline production engineering for the planning of a production site.
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FIGURE 3.1 Production engineering interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
These are fixed requirements, which have to be met to enable the production system to operate. The relationship to the discipline of logistics and transport is similar. In addition, the discipline of industrial building and architecture has a direct connection with the discipline urban planning and development because, for example, regulations usually have to be implemented through the architectural design of the buildings and site layout. Fig. 3.2 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline industrial building and architecture with the other disciplines involved. Logistics and transport is also characterized as a service provider for the discipline production engineering and therefore requires precise framework conditions to which the supply and disposal of the factory are designed. Although the interface to the discipline energy design is less pronounced, logistics and transport place demands on the other disciplines of industrial building and architecture and urban planning and development. It should be noted that these two disciplines make fundamental and long-term decisions in terms of spatial, traffic, and structural planning, which logistics and transport have to take into account after implementation (ideally these disciplines were already involved in joint planning). Fig. 3.3 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline logistics and transport with the other disciplines involved. Energy design’s interfaces to the three production-related disciplines, production engineering, industrial building and architecture, and logistics and transport, are foremost concerned with the energy requirements of the different forms of energy. As for a sustainable energy design it is vital to link
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FIGURE 3.2 Industrial building and architecture interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
FIGURE 3.3 Logistics and transport interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
energy requirements with surplus energy from other areas, the interfaces also include energy surpluses and corresponding load curves. This also applies to the interface with urban planning and development but on a larger scale in accordance with a stable energy network. Fig. 3.4 describes the core contents
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FIGURE 3.4 Energy design interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
of the functional interfaces of the discipline energy design with the other disciplines involved. Urban planning and development sets the global framework for all disciplines in which all (value-adding) planning and activities take place. In contrast to the other disciplines, production is not at the core of planning, even if, for example, a special location is to be developed in terms of urban development and planning. The guiding motive for action is the sum of all the interests of the urban stakeholders with production being one of these. Accordingly, the interfaces refer on the one hand to the flow of information or the necessary communication between the disciplines. In addition, general planning requirements for safe, clean, sustainable, and healthy cities form the interfaces to the other disciplines. Fig. 3.5 describes the core contents of the functional interfaces of the discipline urban planning and development with the other disciplines involved.
3. Planning activities for urban factories In contrast to a functional need to cooperate during planning and operations, interdisciplinary research requires an integration of the disciplines, which necessarily challenges each involved discipline to deploy its own analytical skills and tools “while opening one’s mind to the methods of other disciplines” in a collaborative approach (Darbellay et al., 2017). Therefore, the methodological approach of analysis and planning also has to be coordinated. As an example of the need for coordination and the resulting potential problems, the different scopes (city and factory) during planning and the intensity of
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47
FIGURE 3.5 Urban planning and development interfaces with other involved disciplines for urban factories.
planning activities in these scopes can be used. Fig. 3.6 illustrates the scopes and the intensity of the planning activities over time. The disciplines’ planning activities relate to two different spatial scopes. The disciplines production engineering, industrial building and architecture, and logistics and transport act essentially in the scope factory. Within this scope, planning is generally carried out on the basis of business principles.
FIGURE 3.6 Planning activities of involved disciplines for urban factories.
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Accordingly, planning focuses on the value-adding function of the factory intrinsic to the specific location. All three disciplines are also influenced by specifications and regulation from other scopes. The discipline production engineering, for example, must comply with environmental regulations. The same applies to the discipline of logistics and transport. Furthermore, there are the framework conditions of the transport infrastructure, which are located in the spatial scope of the city. In addition to the functional design of the building and the site, the discipline of industrial building and architecture also takes into account esthetic and urban planning aspects. The figure also shows that the disciplines refer to each other in their planning activities within the two scopes, as they share a common planning object. The planning of the three disciplines production engineering, industrial building and architecture, and logistics and transport within the scope factory follows a sequential pattern. Thus, the planning is divided into subtasks for which the disciplines find solutions according to their area of responsibility. Such an approach corresponds to the classical approaches of factory planning. Fig. 3.7 illustrates the approach of factory planning according to Grundig (2014), on which the illustration of the planning activities of the discipline production engineering is based on. The disciplines energy design and urban planning and development play a major role in the scope city. The planning in the field of urban planning and energy supply of the city usually refers to a higher, more abstract level, in which primarily conceptual planning is carried out. The developed mission statements and visions are then transferred to individual areas and locations.
FIGURE 3.7 Planning activities of discipline production engineering (steps 0e9 based on Grundig (2014)).
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Thus, a general planning activity prevails in these two areas. This becomes more specific for individual areas and, if necessary, enters into the specific site planning. For the discipline of energy design, specific planning is usually necessary if the planned location has special needs, for example, with regard to the amount of energy required or the energy source to be used. The discipline of urban planning and development enters into specific site planning when a site is to be developed for the establishment of a company or when the planning is so far advanced that it can be approved or accepted. In summary, it can be stated that in the planning of production sites in urban space, different time sequences and spatial approaches prevail between the disciplines. Thus, not only the functional differences but also the methodological differences between the disciplines pose a challenge for the necessary interdisciplinary planning and design of urban factories. These challenges are increasing with the project size as many real-world large-scale projects demonstrate.
4. Toward an interdisciplinary design approach of urban factories To realize the vision of urban production sites that are able to create additional benefits for themselves and for their surrounding quarters, planning activities have to be based on methodical and content-related standardization and continuous synchronization. The planning activities of the different disciplines are based on given or imposed requirements for the achievement of objectives. Different quantitative or qualitative assessment standards are used for each discipline, which do not directly translate between them. Although the content is different, all disciplines have one activity in common: an evaluation of the planning. In addition to uniform evaluation standards (selection function), common objectives also have a coordinating function. The overall planning, as well as individual and partial planning, can be aligned with these (Meyer and Reher, 2016). Thus, a common reference system that measures the global achievement of objectives would be suitable as an interdisciplinary tool. A common reference system can foster interdisciplinary decision-making and enable an overall improved system efficiency (Pfohl et al., 2017). For interdisciplinary decision-making, specific measures are required for overcoming barriers resulting, e.g., from differing scientific vocabulary or nonmatching spatial and temporal scales. There are different approaches to overcome these barriers, e.g., by analyzing and utilizing capabilities for different types of decision support (Abele and Boltze, 2017). A reference system in the context of and limited to production, logistics, and traffic is for instance proposed by Boltze et al. (2017). To gain a holistic view on urban factories and decision support as well as implementation procedures of suitable measures, an even broader reference system is required.
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To comprehensively illustrate the concept of a common reference system, the logistics controlling will be used as an example in the following. Logistics controlling is generally a factory-centric methodology, which will be used as a starting point for the development of a corresponding evaluation system in the following. Logistics at production sites is the subject of the management control system. To plan, coordinate, and manage logistics activities and processes, organizations use manifold methods and instruments. In general, the core of these methods and instruments are performance indicators (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure 2001, 2009). Examples of these indicators for logistics are delivery reliability, the mean number of deliveries per time period, number of suppliers, the degree of storage capacity utilization, or mean transport distance per shipment. To maintain profitable logistics and production, these indicators are measured to meet the objectives set by the factory. Additionally, these indicators are applicable to assess the logistic workload, which has to be handled and sustained by the city and its stakeholders. Consequently, the description of the interface between the factory and city in terms of logistics is based on the management control system of the factory. This factory-centered view has to be matched and broadened by the city-centered interface description. The city-centered description is more complex due to the heterogeneity of the stakeholders. On city level, the following three key interest groups can be identified. l l l
City authorities Transport users and other transport participants Residents/urban society
On the one hand, authorities’ interests in transport and mobility can be described by the objectives determined by transport planning (e.g., capacity of traffic infrastructure, infrastructure utilization, level of service). On the other hand, city authorities pursue transport safety and ecologically efficient and low-emission (e.g., silent) transport, which is not harmful to the health of citizens (Meyer, 2013). As a result, the interests of these two stakeholders are opposed to each other. To integrate the factory-centered and city-centered view on the logistics interface of urban factories, it is reasonable to operationalize the management control system framework, which is used in the factorycentered interface description. The performance indicators of the factory’s logistics are measured and evaluated concerning internal organizational objectives. However, the city-centered view is based on municipal and societal objectives. In the city-factory-system as a vision of future urban production sites, these objectives are combined. The factory’s logistics operations are additionally measured with regard to municipal and societal objectives. However, imposing additional objectives on the factory’s logistics does not necessarily result in benefits for the factory and the city in terms of more
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resource-efficient symbiosis. Especially for the factory, the efficiency of logistics operations could be reduced. Therefore, the resources to meet the objectives would have to be extended as well. To achieve the combined objectives, the factory is able to use the city’s resources, which currently are not accessible by the factory. Factory and citydin the futuredwill cooperate in terms of common objectives and a common resource basis to identify and use the overall resource-efficient transport and logistics operations.
5. Common control system of urban factories The exemplarily described extension of a factory-centered logistics controlling to the scope city can serve as an approach for the interdisciplinary planning of production sites in urban space. However, as it is obvious in the exemplary description of the extension of logistics controlling, conflicts of objectives arise within such an extended system. A common reference system that integrates conflicting goals harbors the danger of setting false incentives for planning and thus undermining the desired goal of uniform planning. When taking an integrated viewpoint by including other disciplines, there is a corresponding challenge to avoid conflicts of objectives. To make it possible, the mere integration of existing discipline-specific systems is not sufficient. A truly common control system must be developed on a common basis. The resulting integrated perspective is located one level higher than the isolated subsystem perspectives of city and factory on their own. As crucial enablers, the definition and utilization of common interfaces between the involved disciplines and their activities need to be taken into account. With the goal of designing resource-efficient factories and cities in mind, a clearly defined set of shared resources is essential as a basis for the development of a common planning system and thus a common understanding of the system. However, due to the different scopes, perspectives, and the complex and dynamic interactions, the identification and description of all resources of the city-factory-system is a challenge. All resources must be identified without allowing overlaps between them because otherwise a risk arises that over- or underrepresentation of individual resources will create false incentives for the planning and design of urban factories. Nevertheless, the extensive creation of common grounds proves to be advantageous, as it already constitutes a first step toward interdisciplinary cooperation. Ascribing a certain degree of autonomy to the Urban Factory within its urban context as an object of observation, it can be recognized as a system itself. Thus, taking the general definition of a resource as “means that is or can be used in a process” (Verein Deutscher Ingenieure, 2016) as a basis, a clearly defined specific set of shared “Resources of the Urban Factory” needs to be developed to foster cooperation of all urban stakeholders and to enable production sites in urban environments to contribute to an overall increase in the resource efficiency of the “Factory-City-System.”
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Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding of this work enabled by the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Energy within the sixth Federal Government’s Energy Research Program (EnEff:Stadt, Grant 03ET1311A-D).
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