A state-of-the-art review of hydropower in Malaysia as renewable energy: Current status and future prospects

Energy Strategy Reviews 22 (2018) 426–437

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Review

A state-of-the-art review of hydropower in Malaysia as renewable energy: Current status and future prospects

T

Monowar Hossaina,∗, A.S.N. Hudaa, Saad Mekhilefa,∗, Mehdi Seyedmahmoudianb, Ben Horanc, Alex Stojcevskib, Mahrous Ahmedd,e a

Power Electronics and Renewable Energy Research Laboratory (PEARL), Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia b School of Software and Electrical Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Victoria, Australia c School of Engineering, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia d Electrical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Taif University, 21974, Tiaf, Saudi Arabia e APEARC, Faculty of Engineering, Aswan University, 81542, Aswan, Egypt

ARTICLE INFO

ABSTRACT

Keywords: Hydropower Small hydropower Renewable energy Malaysia

The gradual depletion of fossil-fuel-based energy resources and the growing rate of greenhouse gas emission are two of the most significant global concerns in recent years. These concerns have resulted in an increasing demand for the utilization of renewable energy resources. From among all renewable resources, hydropower is the leading contributor to grid-connected electricity in the world. In this article, the hydropower potential in Malaysia, current and future prospects of large and small-scale hydropower development, and issues and challenges related to hydropower development are described. Small hydropower promotion techniques, government initiatives, and the advantages and barriers to small hydropower development are also included.

1. Introduction Energy is considered a prime driving force for the socio-economic development of a country [1]. According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), about 81.1% and 80.1% of the total world primary energy were generated from the burning of fossil fuels respectively in 2014 and 2015 [2]. As a result, global greenhouse gas (GHG) emission is increasing dramatically [3]. Notably, the world GHG emission from fossil fuel combustion was 54 Gt CO2-eq in 2010 and is expected to reach 70 Gt CO2-eq in 2050 [4]. Thus, many countries in the world are now moving towards renewable and environmentally friendly energy resources for electricity generation. The hydropower is a clean, renewable, and cheap source of electricity [5–7]. According to the 2016 World Energy Statistics published by the IEA, approximately 16.4% (∼23,816 TW h, TWh) of the world's electricity in 2014 was generated from hydropower. In several countries, hydropower is the major contributor to the electrical grid. In 2014, Norway led the world in hydropower use, with 96% of its domestic electricity demand supplied by hydropower. Then, it was followed by Venezuela, Brazil, Canada, China, France, and India with 68.3%, 63.2%, 58.3%, 16.3%, 16.7%, 12.2%, and 10.2% respectively [2]. Fig. 1 shows the annual hydropower generation capacity of the world's top hydropower

∗

generation countries along with their installed capacity. Malaysia is a country with abundant renewable energy (RE) resources. Hydropower, biomass, and solar power are the three major sustainable energy resources available in this country [8,9]. According to the National Energy Balance (NEB) report [10], the total installed electricity generation capacity in Malaysia was 29,973.8 MW (MW) in 2014, with the peak demand for Peninsular Malaysia recorded at 16,901 MW, for Sarawak at 2306 MW, and for Sabah at 908 MW. In 2014, gross electricity generation registered 147,480 GW h (GWh), an increase of 2.8% compared to 143,497 GWh in 2013. The report also indicated that hydropower was the leading source of RE among all renewable sources, providing about 83.24% of all electricity generated by renewable sources and approximately 15.9% of the country's total electricity production (Fig. 2). Malaysia has a gross theoretical hydro energy potential of 123,000 GWh per year (GWh/year) [11]. With the commissioning of new hydropower stations (HPS) currently under construction, approximately 30% of the economically utilizable potential hydropower of the country are expected to be exploited. Moreover, Malaysia has about 500 MW of small hydropower potential in its numerous rivers, streams, and dams [12]. Therefore, hydropower can play an important role in the electricity generation mix in Malaysia. Importantly, small

Corresponding authors. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Hossain), [email protected] (S. Mekhilef).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2018.11.001 Received 24 July 2017; Received in revised form 1 November 2018; Accepted 9 November 2018 2211-467X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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hydropower development in Malaysia from 1966 to 2020. The present status of hydropower generation, ongoing and future hydro projects, and issues related to hydropower development are included in Section 4. Small hydropower development, including current situation, future opportunities, government initiatives, and advantages and barriers toward small hydropower development are discussed in Section 5. Section 6 provides a conclusion. 2. Hydro/water resources in Malaysia Annual rainfall over the land mass of Malaysia amounts to 990 billion m3, of which approximately 566 billion m3 appear as surface run-off and 64 billion m3 recharges ground water [19]. Annual surface run-off water in Peninsular Malaysia is 147 billion m3, 113 billion m3 in Sabah, and 306 billion m3 in Sarawak, which together make up the water resources of Malaysia, the balance of which about 360 billion m3 return to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration [20,21]. Therefore, the combination of hilly areas with vast river networks and high year-round rainfall gives the country huge hydropower potential. Hydropower potential is available in almost all of Malaysia's states, although the high potential sites are Perak, Pahang, Sarawak, and Sabah states. The annual average rainfall of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak are 2540, 2630, and 3850 mm, respectively. As a result, Malaysia receives an annual average rainfall of more than 2500 mm, due mainly to the southwest and northeast monsoons [22]. Table 1 presents the annual average rainfall of 40 rainfall stations in Malaysia from 1997 to 2007. The data were collected by Raman et al. [23] from the Malaysian Metrological Department. The installed capacity of major hydro in Malaysia as of 31 December 2016 was 5819 MW, of which 2367 MW was contributed by Peninsular Malaysia, 66 MW by Sabah, and 3452 MW by Sarawak [2]. The installed capacity of mini hydro in Malaysia as of 31 December 2014 was 72.2 MW, with a total generation of 1,82,063 MWh in 2014 contributed by Tenega Nasional Berhad (TNB) 9.327 MW, Sarawak Energy Berhad (SEB) 7.297 MW, Sabah Electricity Sendirian Berhad (SESB) 8.0 MW, mini hydro feed-in tariff (FiT) holder 15.7 MW, mini hydro IPP 20 MW, and others 11.90 MW [10].

Fig. 1. Top hydropower generation countries with their installed capacity [2].

hydropower resources from streams and rivers can lighten the rural and remote areas, where large-scale power generation is not economically viable. Hydropower could also be utilized both for large- and smallscale power generation depending on the water flow rate and head [13,14]. Compared with a fossil-fuel-based power plant, the efficiency of the modern hydro system is about 85%, while the efficiency of a conventional fossil-fuel-based plant is only about 50% [15,16]. Moreover, due to its various advantages, such as renewable, clean, low environmental impact, inexpensive, and indigenous energy source, hydropower could play a vital role in the sustainable and eco-friendly energy mix in Malaysia [17]. Thus, to ensure a sustainable and environmentally friendly energy future, the Malaysian government has paid increasing attention to hydropower development [18]. Currently, several large-scale hydropower projects are under construction in Malaysia. Sarawak, in particular, is embarking on a strenuous journey to build a series of hydroelectric dams to meet the need for a green energy supply to run its industries and spin the economic activities, thus achieving what they call a “developed status” by 2020. The Malaysian government is planning to increase the hydropower capacity in Sarawak to 7723 MW by 2020 under the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) project [10]. Methodology: The article includes five main parts. The government and private reports on hydropower in Malaysia from 1966 to 2020 are reviewed in Section 1. In Section 2, the potential of hydropower resources in Malaysia, with 40 locations (10 years) of annual rainfall data, is presented. Section 3 presents a brief description of the history of

3. Historical development of hydropower in Malaysia Chenderoh HPS or Chenderoh Dam is the oldest hydroelectric project in Malaysia. In early 1920, the British Federated Malay States Administration constructed the dam. It is situated in Tasik Chenderoh,

Fig. 2. Share of (a) installed and (b) available electricity generation capacity as of 31 December 2014 in Malaysia. 427

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(250 MW), Ulu Julai unit 2 Pahang (186 MW), and Bakun Sarawak (2400 MW) [25]. Several HPSs are currently still under construction. The HPSs are mainly built on rivers where the terrain generates an artificial lake or reservoir above the dam. Most of the projects are located at Sarawak because the geography of this state is highly suitable for HPS installation [26]. A brief description of the ongoing HPSs is given below.

Table 1 Average annual rainfall from 1997 to 2007 in Malaysia. Rainfall Station

Ave. annual rainfall, mm

Johor 1. MARDI Kluang 2. Hospital Tangkak

2123.7 1856.6

3. MARDI AlorBukit 4. Mersing

2344.9 2395.0

N. Sembilan 1. Hospital Jelebu

1566.9

2. Hospital K. Pilah 3. Atherton Estate, Rantau Selangor 1. Ulu Gombak 2. Ulu Langat Pahang 1. Felda Kg. New Zealand 2. Felda Kg. Sertik 3. Felda Lurah Bilut 4. Felda Tersang Satu 5. Pos Senderut 6. Pusat Perikanan Bukit 7. Tinggi 8. Pusat Pertanian Kg. Awah 9. RPS Betau 10. Pos Telanok

1627.7 1810.3

11. Pos Terisu Perak 1. Hospital Tapah

Rainfall Station

Ave. annual rainfall, mm

2. Felda Sungai Berang 3. Felda Trolak 4. Hospital Kampar 5. MARDI Parit 6. Hospital Bahagia Ulu 7.Felda Lasah 8. Hospital Lenggong 9. Pos Legap 10. Pos Piah

2590.0 2981.6 3579.8

2089.7 2436.8 3760.8

2190.2 1734.6 2021.5 2100.9 2453.8 1903.8

4. Pos Hau 5. Pos Wias 6. RPS Kuala Betis Terengganu 1. Felda Jerangau

2722.8 1909.8 2637.3

2053.0

3162.1

2040.2

2. Institut Pertanian Besut Kedah 1. Ampangan Muda 2. Hospital Baling

3013.5

Average

2393.2

2644.6 2503.5

Price hikes and the gradual depletion of non-renewable fossil fuel resources are the key threats to a sustainable energy future. Therefore, in preparation for the near future, the Malaysian government is trying to identify and harness all possible hydropower potential in Malaysia. In Peninsular Malaysia, TNB intends to construct an additional hydroelectric generating unit (Unit 5) with an installed capacity of 12.3 MW for the Chenderoh HPS located in the state of Perak, Malaysia. The average annual energy output of the dam is estimated at 22.5 GWh. Additionally, TNB has been planning to implement the Tekai hydroelectric project. This proposed project will consist of two cascading dams, Upper Tekai dam (150 MW peaking) and Lower Tekai dam (5.8 MW base load), both of which will have surface powerhouses or power stations with a combined generating capacity of 155.8 MW. The average annual energy output of the proposed scheme is 274 GWh. TNB is currently planning with the relevant stakeholders to build new hydro plants, namely, Nenggiri, Lebir, and Telom, with multipurpose capabilities, including flood mitigation [28]. In Sarawak, a total of nine prospective sites have been identified to produce more than 4000 MW of hydropower [27]. Future hydropower projects may include Baram 3 (300 MW), Linau (297 MW), Belepeh (114 MW), Pelagus (411 MW), and Baleh (1300 MW). The Limbang 1 and 2 (245 MW) and Lawas (87 MW) hydropower projects may also be developed as a regional system in the north, in conjunction with the power supply to Brunei and Sabah. Fig. 3 shows the list of hydropower projects in Sarawak between 2008 and 2020. Additionally, there are several proposed hydroelectric power dams at the planning or feasibility study level, including Limbang, Lawas, Baram, Belaga, Mejawa (12 km downstream of Bakun Dam), and Punan Bah dams. However, the construction of future hydropower projects will only commence upon the completion of the feasibility studies and Social and Environmental Impact Assessment [27].

2086.7 1970.1

11. Felda Ijok Kelantan 1. Pos Belatim 2. Pos Brook 3. Pos Gob

2433.2 2458.9

4.3. Future HPSs

2159.4 2481.4

2576.2 2379.3 2886.0

3231.3

2487.4 2322.8

near Kuala Kangsar, Perak. The first-time work commenced on the development of the Cameron Highlands hydroelectric power plant was in 1959, considered a landmark in the history of hydroelectric technology in the country. Before the 1st Malaysian Plan (1966–70), the Cameron Highlands (106 MW), Ulu Langat (2.3 MW), Chenderoh (27 MW), Sempang (1.2 MW), and Rahman (2.3 MW) hydroelectric schemes were already in operation. The historical development of the hydropower sector in Malaysia during the 1st (1966–70) to the 11th (2015–20) Malaysian Plans are described in Table 2. Meanwhile, Table 3 shows the historical up and down of hydropower in the national fuel mix for electricity generation.

4.4. Issues related to hydropower development Huge opportunities to develop hydropower in Malaysia are possible in the future. However, many problems still exist for large and medium hydropower development. Some of the major aspects are described in the following subsections.

4. Current and future status of hydropower development in Malaysia

4.4.1. Economic aspects Economic aspects associated with hydropower development are generally related to necessary equipment purchase, cost overrun, loan refunding, and so on. The cost of power generation in a hydropower plant is higher than in a thermal power plant because of the huge initial investment. The funds are mostly managed through loans and there is the heavy pressure of loan refunding after construction. For hydropower construction that uses commercial loans, rising interest rate is one of the barriers to hydropower development. Another problem is a cost overrun, which means a higher expense than estimated. Cost overrun sometimes occurs because of project delays, rising interest rates, strikes, and excavation problems. Simon Darby, for instance, was burdened with RM 1.7 billion cost overruns for Bakun dam [10,30]. Relocation of the people in the reservoir area is one of the main sectors of expenditure during hydropower project development [31]. Post installation cost associated with the refurbishment of old hydropower plants is also a huge expenditure source for hydropower

4.1. Existing major HPSs in Malaysia TNB, SEB, and SESB are the three major power companies in Malaysia. TNB and SEB are responsible for the generation, transmission, and distribution of electricity in Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak, respectively. SEB is wholly owned by the state government of Sarawak. Meanwhile, SESB is responsible for electricity supply in Sabah and the Federal Territory of Labuan. Table 4 shows the installed capacity of major HPSs in Malaysia as of 31 August 2016. Existing small HPSs are presented in Section 5 (see Table 5). 4.2. HPSs under construction In Malaysia, three major hydroelectric projects started full commercial operation between 2014 and 2016, namely, Hulu Terengganu 428

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Table 2 Historical development of the hydropower sector in Malaysia during the 1st (1966–70) to the 11th (2015–20) Malaysian Plans [24]. Plan

Period

Hydropower status and development

1st Malaysian Plan (RMK1)

1966–70

2nd Malaysian Plan (RMK2)

1971–75

3rd Malaysian Plan (RMK3)

1976–80

4th Malaysian Plan (RMK4)

1981–85

5th Malaysian Plan (RMK5)

1986–90

6th Malaysian Plan (RMK6)

1991–95

7th Malaysian Plan (RMK7)

1996–00

8th Malaysian Plan (RMK8)

2001–05

9th Malaysian Plan (RMK9)

2006–10

10th Malaysian Plan (RMK10)

2011–15

11th Malaysian Plan (RMK11)

2016–20

In 1965, the total installed electricity generation capacity from hydro was 138.8 MW. During this plan period, several major projects were commissioned, such as the Batang Padang (154 MW), Raub (20 MW), and Bentong (14 MW) hydroelectric projects. By 1970, the installed hydropower generation capacity in Malaysia reached 265 MW. Numerous hydroelectric projects were initiated for feasibility studies during this plan period, including Temenggor, Terengganu, and Tembeling in West Malaysia and the Tenom-Pangi hydroelectric project in Sabah. The major hydroelectric power plant at Cameron Highlands was upgraded to 259.7 MW during this time. The power generation capacity was increased from 770 MW in 1976 to 2140 MW in 1980, of which 635 MW (29.3%) was generated using hydropower plants mainly from the Temenggor hydroelectric project (340 MW). In 1979, construction work was commenced on Tenom-Pangi (phase I, 66 MW), which was the first hydropower project in Sabah. The feasibility study of the Batang Ai project, the first hydropower in Sarawak, was completed in 1978 and construction work was started in 1980. In 1980, construction of the 150 mhigh Kenyir Dam, the largest hydroelectric scheme in Peninsular Malaysia and on the east coast at that time, was started. During this plan period, several hydro projects were undertaken, including Kenyir (400 MW), Kenering (120 MW), and Bersia (72 MW). In Sarawak, the Batang Ai hydroelectric project (108 MW) was installed. Several feasibility studies were undertaken on the development of hydroelectric projects, such as those for Tekai, Ulu Jelai, Nenggiri, Pelagus, Bakun, and Maran. Additionally, as a part of rural electricification, 18 mini hydro projects were implemented to provide electricity in isolated areas. Construction of the 150 mhigh Kenyir Dam was completed in December 1985. The hydropower project at Kenyir (400 MW) in Terengganu was fully commissioned in 1986. During this time, several feasibility studies were undertaken on small hydropower projects for Sri Aman, Kapit, Sarikei, and Limbang, as well as major hydro projects at Murum, Baleh, and Belaga. The Bakun hydropower project was likewise assessed in terms of financial affordability and its impact on the balance of payments prior to the decision of its implementation. The estimated gross hydropower potential for the country was 29,000 MW at the end of this plan period. Of this figure, 1414 MW had been developed as of 1990, involving large plants such as Kenyir hydroelectric (400 MW) and mini hydropower projects with capacities ranging from 100 kW to 10 MW. About 69% of the hydropower potential yet to be developed is in Sarawak, 17.2% in Sabah, and 13.8% in Peninsular Malaysia. During this plan period, an additional 70 MW of hydropower was commissioned by TNB at Sungai Piah in Perak, including the continued construction of the 600 MW Pergau hydroelectric project. The total electricity generated by hydropower increased from 4061 GWh in 1990 to 4725 GWh in 1995. Construction of the Bakun hydroelectric project was begun during this period. This project in Sarawak had a total capacity of 2400 MW and was the largest hydroelectric power generation project in Malaysia. In this plan period, the government emphasized more on indigeous coal-based power generation, and the share of hydropower in the total electricity generated declined from 10.0% to 5.5%. Moreover, the construction of the Bakun hydroelectric project was continued. The Bakun hydroelectric project, which had an installed capacity of 2400 MW, was commissioned in 2009/2010, and some other large hydropower schemes were initiated. The share of hydropower in total electricity generation increased by 0.1% during this period. Construction of the Murum hydroelectric project (944 MW) started in this period as well. Two hydroelectric plants with a combined capacity of 622 MW were commissioned during the Plan period in Hulu Terengganu. The commercial date of operation of Hulu Terengganu was December 2015. During this period, grid-connected mini hydro was 4 MW. The full commercial operations of Murum HPS (944 MW) and Bakun HPS (2400 MW) started in this period. The commercial operation of Ulu Jelai unit 2 HPS (186 MW) was started in August 2016. Some major and mini hydro projects are under construction. The Malaysia government is planning to increase the hydropower capacity in Sarawak to 7723 MW by 2020 under the SCORE project.

development, which includes expenditures on infrastructure and replacement or repair of equipment. Moreover, if hydropower plants are located far away from the load center, then the costs of transmission lines and transmission losses will be high [10].

behind their dissatisfaction. Some of the complaints of the indigenous people of Sungai Asap area are described here [32]: i. Paying for new housing, which led many families into debt. ii. Becoming restricted in their way of earning a livelihood. Most of the families are almost fully dependent on the river and the forest for fish and forest products, respectively, and those are their main sources of income. iii. Not providing sufficient land for housing and farming. Each family was supposed to have been allocated 10 acres of agricultural land but was only given 3 acres. iv. Dissatisfaction with land quality and resettlement location. The land is mostly rocky, hilly, and sandy, making it unsuitable to live on,

4.4.2. Social aspects Resettlement of the people in the hydropower dam construction area is the most affective social aspect for the people in the area. A total of about 40 indigenous groups live in Sarawak. Although most of the indigenous groups were resettled, they are not leading happy lives compared to before. In addition, resettlement is associated with large effects on their local culture, religious beliefs, and effects associated with the inundation of their burial sites. Numerous complaints are Table 3 Fuel mix in electricity generation from 1990 to 2015 in Malaysia [24]. Source type

Generation (GWh) 1990

Oil Coal Natural gas Hydropower Others Total

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

GWh

Fuel mix %

GWh

Fuel mix %

GWh

Fuel mix %

GWh

Fuel mix %

GWh

Fuel mix %

GWh

Fuel mix %

9532 3146 5967 4061 62 22,768

41.9 13.8 26.2 17.8 0.3 100

4599 4055 28,349 4725 84 41,813

11 9.7 67.8 11.3 0.2 100

2910 6097 53,345 6928 0.0 69,280

4.2 8.8 77.0 10.0 0.0 100

2075 20,557 66,198 5186 283 94,299

2.2 21.8 70.2 5.5 0.3 100

276 50,337 77,091 7723 2482 1,37,909

0.2 36.5 55.9 5.6 1.8 100

1588 68,302 63,537 22,238 3176 1,58,843

1.0 43.0 40.0 14.0 2.0 100

429

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vegetation are some of the reasons for GHGs. However, some of these problems can be mitigated by building fish ladders and dredging the silt [15]. The extent of poor-quality water may be reduced by using selective or multi-level water intakes. This approach may also reduce oxygen depletion and the volume of anoxic waters. In the reservoir area, various water-related problems could begin, including flooding, water unavailability for cultivation, and water inaccessibility for drinking or other purposes. A substantial risk of the introduction and spread of waterborne diseases may likewise emerge. Around the world, approximately 400,000 km2 of land has been submerged due to dam construction. The Baram Dam in Sungai Asap will flood over 2000 km2 of rainforest [10]. During hydropower plant construction, the weathered rock, organic, and chemical materials are transported in rivers, which cause sedimentation by trapping these materials in the reservoir. Generally, the operating lifetime of a large dam is 100 years, and the sedimentation problem is very common, though for a shorter time. As a result, fertile land decreases, and chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used to compensate for the loss in productivity. Additionally, deforestation is one of the main environmental challenges caused by hydropower development. With the construction of Bakun Dam, 50 million m3 of biomass area, 6 rare fish species, 32 protected bird species, 6 protected mammals, as well as herons, eagles, woodpeckers, silvered leaf monkeys, gibbons, langurs, and flying squirrels, and more than 1600 protected plants will be abolished [10]. Similarly, the existence of 300 rare and engendered species will be threatened due to Murum Dam. Deforestation and conversion of forests into carbon-producing industrial sectors will accelerate environmental degradation. The environmental impact assessment study should be carried out before construction, and state-of-the-art technology should be used to minimize the environmental effects [35].

Table 4 Installed capacity of major HPSs in Malaysia as of 31 December 2016 [10,25]. Hydropower station 1. Terengganu Stesen Janakuasa Sultan Mahmud Kenyir Hulu Terengganu 2. Perak Stesen Janakuasa Temenggor Stesen Janakuasa Bersia Stesen Janakuasa Kenering Chenderoh Sg. Piah Hulu Sg. Piah Hilir 3. Pahang Stesen Janakuasa Sultan Yussuf Jor Stesen Janakuasa Sultan Idris II Woh Cameron Highland Scheme Ulu Jelai 4. Kelantan Pergau Kenerong Upper Kenerong Lower Subtotal (Peninsular Malaysia) 5. Sabah Tenom Pangi 6. Sarawak Batang Ai Bakun Murum Subtotal (East Malaysia) Total

Installed capacity (MW)

Total (MW)

4 × 100

400.0

250

250.0

4 × 87 3 × 24 3 × 40 3 × 10.7 + 1 × 8.4 2 × 7.3 2 × 27

348.0 72.0 120.0 40.5 14.6 54.0

4 × 25 3 × 50

100.0 150.0 11.9 186

186 4 × 150 2×6 2×4

600.0 12.0 8.0 2367.0

3 × 22

66.0

4 × 27.0 8 × 300 4 × 236

108.0 2400 944 3452.0 5819.0

and the lands are very far from the town. v. In some cases, the land surrounding the Asap is used to cultivate crops that belong to palm oil and forestry companies. Therefore, people could lose their lands at any time.

5. Small hydropower development in Malaysia

The Sarawak government plans to complete numerous dams by 2020. SAVE Rivers (NGO) and indigenous people from all around Sarawak started to protest the proposed plant because of the environmental and social adverse effects [33]. Local and international NGOs have identified various social impacts of hydroelectricity in this state (Table 6).

In a small hydropower system (SHS), electricity is generated on a small scale for small communities or industries. Small hydropower has no globally standard definition, and its categorization is dependent on a country's level of hydropower development [36,37]. In Malaysia, hydro generation capacity up to 10MW is generally considered small hydropower. Small hydropower plants can be further classified according to size, namely, mini, micro, and pico hydropower. The capacity of mini hydropower is usually below 2000 kW. At present, Malaysian microhydro projects are small run-of-the river schemes with power outputs ranging from 5 kW to 500 kW. A power plant with less than 5 kW capacity is termed as pico hydropower system [38]. In Malaysia, to accelerate the rural electrification program and as a fuel diversification strategy after the 1970 oil-price escalation, high priority was assigned to the development of small hydro resources. Under the 4th (1981–85) to 11th Malaysian Plans (2016–20) [24], the emphasis was given to the development of mini hydro projects as part of the rural electrification initiative. The potential for small hydropower plants in East and West Malaysia has been investigated in a number of studies [23,38,39]. In 1982, 22 pilot small hydro projects were identified for implementation in Peninsular Malaysia, in the states of Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang, Kedah, Perak, Negeri Sembilan, and

4.4.3. Environmental aspects Numerous environmental issues arise with the development of hydropower projects. Large amounts of cement, steel, and machinery are used in building a hydropower plant. These materials cause substantial global warming which must be assessed. Changing water quality owing to the mixing of dissolved metals for a long time because of HPS operation is also one of the negative environmental aspects. Sedimentation increases and the level of dissolved oxygen decreases because of the change of river flow through temperature changes of the building dam water. The dam may forever change the river system and wildlife habitats. Damming also obstructs fish migration, and rotating turbines could kill the fishes. Furthermore, plants and fishes in the rivers could die because of the change in water temperature and living conditions. Decomposition and methane emissions from rotting Table 5 Brief description of ongoing HPSs. Under construction

Remarks

Baleh HPS Baram 1 HPS

It has a capacity of 1295 MW and is located in Baleh river, approximately 95 km from its confluence with Rajang river in the Kapit division [27]. It has a capacity of 1200 MW and is being developed on Baram river in the state of Sarawak. The site is located about 250 km north from Miri, Sarawak. The total project cost is estimated at RM 4 billion [27]. It has a capacity of 372 MW and is located in Pahang, which is about 200 km north of Kuala Lumpur. Upon completion, the plant will produce an average annual energy output of 326 GW. The total investment for this project is RM 849 million [28].

Ulu Jelai HPS unit 1

430

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Fig. 3. Hydropower projects in Sarawak between 2008 and 2020 [29].

Johor. Approximately RM 51.3 million was allocated to benefit 18,675 rural households. The total installed capacity was about 6225 kW, with the unit sizes ranging from 25 kW to 1870 kW, as shown in Table 7 [24]. Afterwards, a total of 82 schemes with a total installed capacity of 33 MW were identified and approved by the government for implementation between 1983 and 1986 at an estimated cost of RM 220 million. The entire program was subsequently revised in 1988. Budget constraints led to further delays in the program implementation, which was now divided into three phases. Phase 1, completed in December 1987, involved 16 schemes at a cost of RM 49.10 million (Table 8). Rural electrification rates in Sabah and Sarawak were decidedly lower in 2010 at 84.7% and 75.2%, respectively [40], due to the extremely remote, isolated, and scattered rural areas and the lack of proper infrastructure. The rural communities are composed mainly of indigenous people who live far away from the local grid, and grid extension is not financially viable. In these areas, small hydropower is a better option. During the 7th Malaysian Plan, three mini hydropower projects with a total capacity of 950 kW were undertaken at Pukak, Tagap, and Tenompok in Sabah [24]. To provide electricity to the rural communities in Sarawak, the government has likewise taken initiatives through its public works department, Jabatan Kerja Raya (JKR) Sarawak. Since 1991, JKR Sarawak has participated in the installation of RE supplies for government agencies, such as rural airfields, schools, clinics, and community halls in remote areas, including Bario, Long Banga, and Long Akah. JKR

Table 7 Small hydro pilot projects are undertaken in 1982. State

Installed capacity (kW)

No. of projects

No. of consumers

Estimated cost (RM million)

Kedah Perak N. Sembilan Johor Pahang Terengganu Kelantan Total

438 1495 100 25 1404 893 1870 6225

4 8 2 1 3 2 2 22

1314 4485 300 75 4212 2679 5610 18,675

7.80 14.50 1.68 0.93 9.27 6.99 10.13 51.30

Table 8 Phase I mini hydro projects in Peninsular Malaysia. State

Kedah Perak Selangor Pahang Terengganu Kelantan Total

Installed capacity (kW)

No. of projects

No. of consumers

Cost RM million Local

Foreign

Total

1365 2285 1120 620 710 1455 7555

3 5 1 2 2 3 16

941 331 – 620 510 1050 3452

6.30 8.28 1.43 2.84 4.82 8.84 32.51

2.44 4.86 0.39 1.28 2.26 5.36 16.59

8.74 13.14 1.82 4.12 7.08 14.20 49.10

Table 6 Major social effects of hydropower development in Sarawak [34]. Name of the project

Social impacts

Directly affected population

Baram Dam

Forced resettlement, land lost, cultural erosion, survival threatened

Murum Dam Bakun Dam, Sungai Asap, Belaga Bakun Dam, Ulu Balui

Forced resettlement of semi-nomadic Penans, land, and forest lost, cultural genocide Forced resettlement, land lost and dwindling resources, survival threatened, extremely high school dropout rate, cultural erosion, and social disintegration Native land flooded due to dam impoundment. Livelihood threatened, education and medical services forfeited by the government to punish natives who refused to move

More than 20,000 natives of the Kayan, Kenyah, and Penan ethnic minorities More than 6000 natives, majority of whom are Penans More than 9500 natives were resettled in1998. Now, the population has grown to at least 16,000 Around 2000 natives at four longhouses

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Table 9 Some major micro hydro projects in Sarawak [42]. Location

Funding

Year

Capacity (kW)

Long Lawen, Balaga Abok Mawang, Sri Aman

Local community UNIMAS/Local community UNIMAS/Local community UNIMAS Local community Local community PACOS/Local community UNIMAS/Local community JKR/Local community

2001 2006/07

10 30

2007

1

2007 2006 2006 2008

0.2 1 3 40

2009

12

2009

15

Kampung Pinang, Simunjan Kampung Baru, Bario Pa Ramapuh, Bario Bued Main Beruh, Bario Kampung Bario Asal, Bario Kampung Semulong Ulu, Sri Aman Be'kalalan

Table 11 Installed capacity of mini HPSs in Malaysia run by TNB, SEB, and SESB as of December 2014 [10].

*PACOS–Partners of Community Organizations; UNIMAS–University Malaysia Sarawak; JKR– Jabatan Kerja Raya.

Sarawak provides equipment, logistic support, and construction materials left over from other projects [41]. Some of the major mini hydro projects carried out in Sarawak as a part of rural electrification between 2001 and 2009 are listed in Table 9. The projects were funded through a range of support mechanisms, including the local community, UNIMAS, JKR, and PACOS. Moreover, in the village of Ba’Kelalan, Sarawak, several micro hydropower systems were installed from 2004 to 2010 as a part of rural electrification. Table 10 shows the profile of the micro hydropower system in Ba'Kelalan. The projects were funded through a range of support mechanisms, including government, NGO, and communitybased and private funding. Currently, there are more than 58 mini-scale HPSs in Malaysia but all are not in operation. Table 11 presents the name and installed capacity of the mini hydro run by TNB, SEB, and SESB, while Table 12 shows the cumulative installed capacity of the mini hydro run by FiT holder, IPP, as well as TNB, SEB, and SESB as of the 2014 NEB report [10]. Tables 10 and 11 show that the total installed capacity of mini hydro in Malaysia in 2014 was 72.2 MW, with a total generation of 1,82,063 MWh contributed by TNB (9.327 MW), SEB (7.297 MW), SESB (8.0 MW), mini hydro FiT holder (15.7 MW), mini hydro IPP (20 MW), and others (11.90 MW).

Station

Capacity (MW)

Kedah 1. Sg Tawar Besar

0.540

2. Sg Mempalam

0.397

3. Sg Mahang Perak 1. Sg Tebing Tinggi 2. Sg Asap 3. Sg Kinjang 4. Sg Bil 5. Sg Kenas 6.Sg Chempias 7. Sg Temelong Terengganu 1. Sg Brang 2. Sg Cheralak Pahang 1. Sg Sempam G2 2. Sg Pertang 3. Sg Perdak 4. Sg Sia Kelantan 1. Sg Renyok G1 2. Sg Renyok G2 3. Sg Sok 4. Sg Rek Subtotal

0.483

Grand Total

0.178 0.110 0.349 0.258 0.532 0.120 0.872 0.270 0.50 1.245 0.492 0.364 0.548 0.800 0.800 0.588 0.270 9.327

Station Sabah 1. Kedamaian (Kota Belud) 2. Malangkap (Kota Belud) 3. Sayap (Kota Belud) 4. Bombalai (Tawau) 5. Merotai (Tawau) 6. Kiau (Kota Belud) 7. Naradau (Ranau) 8. Pengapuyan Subtotal Sarawak 1. Sg Pasir 2. Penindin 3. Sebako 4. Lundu 5. Kalamuku 1 6. Kalamuku 1 7. Sg Keijin 8. Sg Kota 1 9. Sg Kota 2 Subtotal

(9.327 + 13.043+7.297)

Capacity (MW) 2.103 1.000 1.000 1.100 1.100 0.375 1.760 4.830 13.043 0.760 0.352 0.333 0.352 0.500 0.500 0.500 2.000 2.000 7.297

29.667

Table 12 Electricity generation and installed capacity of small hydro energy by public and private licensees by region, 2014 [10].

5.1. Promotion and status of mini hydropower development

Region

Type of scheme

Installed capacity (MW)

Unit generated (MWh)

Peninsular Malaysia

Mini hydro-FiT Mini hydro-IPP Mini hydroCameron Highlands schemes Mini hydro-TNB Mini hydro-SESB Mini hydro-FiT Mini hydro-SEB

9.20 20.00 11.90

41,976 52,880 30,321

9.3 8.00 6.50 7.3 73.68

8753 19,943 16,650 11,540 1,82,063

Sabah

Although large-scale hydropower plays an important role in the national electricity generation mix, little effort has been exerted to develop small hydropower resources. The potentials of small hydropower have yet to be explored. This section describes the status of mini hydropower development and the promotion techniques applied by the Malaysian government.

Sarawak Grand Total

utilize RE could apply to sell electricity to the national utility, such as TNB. In this program, RE will only be paid based on a maximum generating capacity of 10 MW. Since the inception of the program in 2001 until the end of 2011, 44 projects with a total grid connected capacity of 334.70 MW were approved. Among them, 13 mini hydro projects have a total capacity of 87.7 MW. The mini hydro projects covered almost 30% of the total number of projects. By contrast, only four mini

5.1.1. Promotion via Small Renewable Energy Programme To encourage private sectors to join small-scale power generation using RE, the Small Renewable Energy Programme (SREP) was initiated in May 2001 [44]. Under the SREP, small power generation plants that Table 10 Micro hydro projects in Ba'Kelalan [43]. Village

Funding

Year

Capacity (kW)

Load

Buduk Nur Buduk Aru Buduk Nur Buduk Bui Long Langai Long Rusu

Private Community based Government NGO-community Government Government

2004 2006 2008 2008 2010 2010

7.5 10 30 12.5 15 35

Apple Lodge and 9 households Bible school, dormitory, and staff housing Public clinic, church, and 76 households Church and 26 households Church and 35 households Church and 19 households

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Table 13 Statistics of SREP projects by fuel source [45]. Types

Sources

No. of projects

Grid-connected capacity (MW)

Remarks

Biomass

Palm residue Wood residue Rice husk Solid waste

17 1 1 1 7 3 13 1 44

168 5 10 5 25.85 3.16 87.7 30 334.70

5 projects with a total of 45 MW in operation

Biogas (agro-based) Landfill gas Mini hydro Geothermal Total

hydro plants in operation have a total capacity of 12.5 MW. Table 13 shows the list of approved projects by fuel source [45,46].

In operation 2 projects of 2.95 MW in operation 2 projects of 3 MW in operation 4 projects with a total of 12.5 MW in operation 14 projects with a total of 68.45 MW in operation

Table 14 List of FIAHs as of January 2017 [45]. FIAH

5.1.2. Promotion via FiT The promotion of RE development in the country was previously based on SREP. In December 2011, the Malaysian government launched a FiT scheme for RE. Once the FiT program was started, it replaced the SREP. One of the main reasons for launching the FiT program is the low rate of RE prices in the previous SREP. Therefore, SREP was not a fruitful program that could draw the attention of investors. With the launch of the FiT program, it is expected to intensify electricity generation using RE sources. Existing SREP players were provided the opportunity to either remain in the SREP or shift to the FiT program. The Sustainable Energy Development Authority (SEDA), an agency of the Ministry of Energy, Green Technology, and Water, is a statutory body formed under the SEDA act 2011 [Act 726]. The key role of SEDA is to administer and manage the implementation of the FiT mechanism, which is mandated under the Renewable Energy Act 2011 [Act 725]. An individual or company who holds a feed-in approval certificate issued by SEDA Malaysia is called a feed-in approval holder (FIAH). The holder is eligible to sell RE at the FiT rate. Table 14 shows the list of FIAHs for small hydropower development as of January 2017 [45].

Perak 1. Gunung Hydropower Sdn. Bhd. 2. Gunung Hydropower Sdn. Bhd. 3. Koridor Mentari Sdn. Bhd. 4. Kuasa Sezaman Sdn. Bhd. 5. Zeqna Corporation Sdn. Bhd. 6. Conso Hydro Sdn. Bhd. 7.Genlinting Hydro Sdn. Bhd. 8. Temenggor Hydro Sdn. Bhd. 9. Talang Hydro Sdn. Bhd. 10. Singgar Hydro Sdn. Bhd. 11. Pelus Hydro Sdn. Bhd. Kelantan 1. I.S. Energy Sdn. Bhd. 2. Pesaka Technologies Sdn. Bhd. 3. Alaf Budi Sdn. Bhd. Terengganu 1. Tanah Jernih Sdn. Bhd. 2. Jernih Bumiraya Sdn. Bhd. 3. Jernih Seribumi Sdn. Bhd. Pahang 1. Amcorp Perting Hydro Sdn. Bhd. 2. Trident Cartel Sdn. Bhd. 3. Contour Mechanism Sdn. Bhd. 4. Pasdec Mega Sdn. Bhd. 5. Sumbangan Sakti Sdn. Bhd. 6. Sejahtera Kuasa Sdn. Bhd. Selangor 1. Renewable Power Sdn. Bhd. Sabah 1. Esajadi Power Sdn. Bhd. (Kota Belud) 2. Esajadi Power Sdn. Bhd. (Kota Marudu) 3. One River Power Sdn. Bhd. (Kota Marudu) 4. One River Power Sdn. Bhd. (Kota Marudu) 5. One River Power Sdn. Bhd. (Kota Marudu) Total

5.2. FiT and incentives Power plants using RE sources could sell electricity to the national utility companies through the RE power purchase agreement, which is a legal contract entered into between a FIAH and a distribution licensee (e.g., TNB, SESB, SEB, etc.). However, the maximum limit of selling electricity to the grid is 30 MW [47]. The RE electricity producers using small hydropower will be given a license of 21 years effective from the commissioning date of the power plant [45]. In addition, several fiscal incentives have been introduced which are outlined as follows [48,49]:

• Pioneer status with 100% income tax exemption of statutory income for 10 years, or • 100% investment tax allowance on qualifying capital expenditure incurred within a period of five years. • Import duty and sales tax exemption on equipment related to RE which is not manufactured locally, and • Sales tax exemption on RE equipment purchased from local manu-

Capacity (MW) 10.0 10.0 5.25 7.0 6.0 2.0 2.25 14.0 19.0 27.0 25.8 3.200 12.00 3.50 2.000 8.010 3.930 6.6 10.0 10.0 5.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 2.0 4.5 13.5 5.6 10.0 118.74

The green technology financing scheme, another fiscal incentive, was also promoted to provide financial support for RE-based power generation. Under this scheme, the RE projects developed within Malaysia by legally registered Malaysian-owned companies (at least 51%) could receive up to RM 50 million loans with 15 years of tenure provided by participating local financial institutions. Additionally, RE power generation companies will benefit from interest subsidies of 2% from the total interest rate, as well as a government guarantee of 60% of the total approved loan. In 2001, the first tariff rate for RE-generated electricity was initiated [19]. Table 18 presents the FiT rates for RE sources fixed by SEDA, Malaysia as of January 2016 (see Table 19). Moreover, the vast micro hydropower potential in the country has not yet been harnessed significantly. In the future, the government could take more efficient actions to exploit this energy. Raman et al. [23,39] carried out several reconnaissance studies to identify the micro hydro potential in Malaysia. The studies considered the power output from 5 kW to 1000 kW as the micro hydropower range. The

facturers.

Since the operation of the FiT mechanism in December 2011, SEDA has approved 2760 RE applications with a total installed RE capacity of 995.62 MW. Of this total, 2084 applications with a total installed capacity of 444.27 MW have begun operations (Table 15), and a total installed capacity of 551.35 MW is under progress (Table 16). Table 17 shows the annual power generation from the RE installation under the FiT mechanism since its commencement in December 2011 with avoidance of CO2. 433

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Table 15 Total installed RE capacity (MW) granted with feed-in approvals under the FiT mechanism and which have achieved the FiT commencement date [45]. Year

Biogas

Biogas (Landfill/Agri waste)

Biomass

Biomass (Solid Waste)

Small hydro

Solar PV

Geothermal

Total (MW)

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Cumulative

2.0 3.38 1.10 0.0 0.0 6.48

1.20 3.20 0.0 6.40 13.86 24.86

36.90 0.0 12.5 12.0 19.50 80.90

8.90 0.0 0.0 7.0 0.0 15.90

11.70 0.0 0.0 6.60 12.0 30.30

31.54 106.95 64.74 60.04 22.76 286.03

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

92.24 113.53 78.34 92.04 68.12 444.27

reconnaissance study was conducted using data from the Department of Survey and Mapping Malaysia and Metrological Department Malaysia. Only streams with a high head (i.e., above 50 m) were considered in the study. A total of 149 sites of about 28.64 MW were identified. Table 20 shows the assessment of micro hydropower in Malaysia. Table 21 shows 10 potential sites found to have a capacity above 0.5 MW. In another study conducted by SEB (Research and Development) [50], a total of 104 potential small hydropower sites in 8 divisions throughout the state of Sarawak were identified. From this study, the total potential power of 10,158.3 kW was evaluated. These areas are accessible either by boats or by traveling through logging roads. Almost all the local settlements are located either near or along the rivers or streams. The distances of the potential source of hydropower range from less than 1 km to 5 km. At present, most of these settlements are using small generator sets as a source of power for their electricity. The calculation of steam flow rate, hydraulic head, and subsequently power potential is based on the data and information collected on the ground during the day of the survey. Table 22 shows the assessment of small hydropower sites in Sarawak.

environmentally friendly compared to large hydro and fossil-fuelbased power generation systems. The use of SHSs causes minimal changes in natural habitats. Protection against floods and droughts can be achieved easily. Table 23 compares the potential environmental impacts of various energy-source-based power plants [53]. On average, every 1 GW of RE-based power generation reduces CO2 emissions by 3.3 million tons per year. Table 24 shows the target generation of RE electricity in Malaysia from 2011 to 2050 with CO2 avoidance. 5.4. Barriers toward small hydropower development Although the advantages of using SHSs have been identified and accepted as a key source for RE-based electricity generation in Malaysia, attempts to implement this approach in practice are inexorably accompanied by several problems that significantly delay, hamper, and sometimes even entirely obstruct the whole process [32]. Some of the common challenges of small-scale hydropower development in Malaysia are mentioned below:

5.3. Advantages of SHSs

• Lack of sufficient funding – In most e cases, conventional investors

SHSs offer several benefits over large hydropower systems, as well as other RE systems and fossil-fuel-based power generation systems. Some of the advantages are mentioned below [10,30,51]:

•

• Utilization of small water resources– Small rivers, waterfalls, •

•

streams, canals, and so on can be utilized to install an SHS. The water flow could be controlled according to the available demand. Less social effect– Migration of local people could be prevented or reduced if SHSs are used. SHSs provide electricity and water for irrigation and drinking. At the same time, job and business facilities could be increased in rural areas, which could reduce migration to cities. The adoption of SHS will improve the rural economy by increasing employment in hydropower development and supply cheaper electricity for domestic use [52]. Less environmental effect– SHSs do not engage in extreme deforestation, rehabilitation, silting problems, and submergence. Therefore, these systems are usually considered to be more

•

prefer to invest in large-scale hydro projects instead of small ones. Therefore, the implementation of small hydro projects usually faces a funding problem. Less private sector participation– Less participation of the private sector is one of the significant barriers toward small hydropower development in Malaysia. In the past, a good number of small hydro projects were approved but were not implemented due to this problem. In most cases, project developers seek multipurpose projects rather than simple power supply projects. Private sector participation through reasonable FiT is one of the important steps for promoting SHSs. Lack of technical facilities– Regular maintenance, local repair, and replacement facility, and small hydropower equipment are often not readily available, which results in extended down times and less revenue. Limited local capacity to design and manufacture SHP components and lack of sufficient local specialists to perform feasibility studies and handle the designing, implementing, and costing

Table 16 Installed RE capacity (MW) granted with feed-in approvals under the FiT mechanism and which have not achieved the FiT commencement date [45]. Year

Biogas

Biogas (Landfill/Agri waste)

Biomass

Biomass (Solid Waste)

Small hydro

Solar PV

Geothermal

Total (MW)

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Cumulative

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 21.80 54.19 24.28 5.51 107.78

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 24.45 31.0 35.0 10.0 100.45

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 21.0 2.5 4.0 27.50

0.0 0.0 0.0 13.94 20.0 39.75 68.15 66.12 207.96

0.01 0.02 0.64 5.66 64.57 36.77 0.0 0.0 107.66

0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

0.01 0.02 0.64 21.60 130.82 182.71 129.93 85.63 551.35

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Table 17 Annual power generation (MWh) from RE power plant under the FiT mechanism and CO2 avoidance in tonnes [45]. Year

Biogas

Biogas (Landfill/Agri waste)

Biomass

Biomass (Solid Waste)

Small hydro

Solar PV

CO2 avoidance in tonne

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

98.11 12117.15 19772.25 16626.45 2643.49

7465.40 9477.59 31844.44 40583.82 18452.54

101309.87 209407.62 226196.38 197207.62 123190.11

3234.52 11144.25 4347.83 18090.50 6963.50

25629.78 73032.12 64549.65 55406.38 11064.22

4714.01 48632.64 178329.59 249515.19 73847.19

124403.8 375502.6 737780.3 1136206.66 1299157.81

Table 18 FiT and bonus FiT rates in Malaysia for RE sources as of January 2016 [45]. Capacity of RE

FiT rate (RM/kWh)

Small Hydro Up to and including 2 MW Above 2 MW and up to and including 10 MW Above 10 MW and up to and including 30 MW Solar PV (Community) Up to and including 4 kW Above 4 kW and up to and including 24 kW Above 24 kW and up to and including 72 kW Solar PV (Individual) Up to and including 4 kW Above 4 kW and up to and including 12 kW Biogas Up to and including 4 MW Above 4 MW and up to and including 10 MW Above 10 MW and up to and including 30 MW Biomass Up to and including 10 MW Above 10 MW and up to and including 20 MW Above 20 MW and up to and including 30 MW

Criteria for Bonus FiT rate Solar PV(Community) Use as installation in buildings or building structures Use as building materials Use of locally manufactured or assembled solar PV modules Use of locally manufactured or assembled solar inverters Solar PV(Individual) Use as an installation in buildings or building structures Use as building materials Use of locally manufactured or assembled solar PV modules Use of locally manufactured or assembled solar inverters Biogas Use of gas engine technology with the electrical efficiency of above 40% Use of locally manufactured or assembled gas engine technology Biomass Use of gasification technology Use of steam-based electricity generating systems with an overall efficiency of above 20% Use of locally manufactured or assembled boiler or gasifier

0.26 0.25 0.24 0.8249 0.8048 0.6139 0.7424 0.7243 0.3184 0.2985 0.2786 0.3085 0.2886 0.2687

2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020

+0.1550 +0.1325 +0.0500 +0.0500 +0.1395 +0.1060 +0.0500 +0.0500 +0.0199 +0.0500 +0.0199 +0.0100 +0.0500

• Less income of rural people– Most small hydropower potential

Table 19 Target of power generation using RE sources. Year

FiT rate (RM/kWh)

Capacity (MW) Biomass

Biogas

Mini hydro/Share (%)

Solar PV

Solid waste

Total

110 150 200 260 330 410 500 600 700 800

20 35 50 75 100 125 155 185 215 240

60/27.40 110/30.14 170/31.31 230/30.55 290/29.44 350/28.94 400/27.78 440/26.44 470/24.97 490/23.56

9 20 33 48 65 84 105 129 157 190

20 50 90 140 200 240 280 310 340 360

219 365 543 753 985 1209 1440 1664 1882 2080

•

6. Conclusion Malaysia has an assessed hydropower potential of 29,000 MW, but only about 11% of this has been developed so far. Hydropower is the third largest contributor to meeting the current electricity generation in Malaysia after natural gas and coal. Conventional fossil fuels have adverse effects on the environment and are gradually being depleted. Although some hydropower projects have adverse social and environmental effects, the development of domestic hydropower resources as the main contributor to current electricity generation is necessary due to its useful characteristics, such as being a renewable, clean, environmentally friendly, and inexpensive source of energy. The installed capacity of hydropower in Malaysia will reach about 10,000 MW through the comprehensive development of hydropower and the implementation of renewable targets by 2020. Owing to the advantages of a decentralized power supply, especially for the welfare of rural inhabitants, low implementation cost, short construction duration, and other factors, small hydropower has already achieved acceptance from all social and environmental aspects. The Malaysian government has emphasized the development of small hydro sites that have been identified and is continuously striving to find other potential sites. The specific goal for RE to include small hydropower development by 2020 has been set. RE is estimated to add another 10%

Table 20 Assessment of micro-hydropower in Malaysia [23,39]. State

No. of sites

Total estimated power (kW)

Johor Negeri Sembilan Selangor Pahang Perak Kedah Kelantan Terengganu Sarawak Sabah Total

12 17 2 26 34 5 10 3 22 18 149

1687.9 847.8 343.8 4835.1 9944.86 496.7 1419.87 829.9 5053.61 3181.89 28,641.43

sites are located in remote rural areas. In many rural areas of Malaysia, rural people tend to have limited disposable income to finance for electricity and their services. This situation discourages energy service companies from investing in such projects. Limited awareness– Currently, only a few NGOs are engaged in the promotion of small hydropower technology in Malaysia. Therefore, further promotion techniques should be taken to increase awareness levels throughout the country.

of the schemes also have significant effects on small hydro development. Therefore, unwanted delays and high costs are frequently associated with the development of small hydropower projects [33]. 435

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Table 21 Micro hydropower potential sites identified with a capacity above 0.5 MW [23,39]. Stream name

Location

Head (m)

Catchment area (km2)

Flow rate (m3/s)

Power (kW)

Sg. Sg. Sg. Sg. Sg. Sg. Sg. Sg. Sg. Sg.

Kg. Ayer Itam, Batu Kurau, Larut, Perak Kg. Pohon Satu, Sabah Kg. Kinjang, Chenderiang, Perak Kg. Teji, Ringlet, Cameron Highland, Pahang Kg. Ulu Teras, Selama, Larut, Perak Long Sukang, Lawas Kg. Kelian Gunong, Selama, Larut, Perak Ladang Orang Asli, Tapah, Perak Kg. Pasir Raja, Dungun, Terengganu Long Julan, Marudi, Sarawak

120 100 240 200 140 100 200 160 100 140

17 43 12 11 12 24 8 15 19 14

1.2 1.35 0.56 0.64 0.85 1.12 0.56 0.70 1.04 0.65

847.6 794.61 791 753.4 700.4 659.23 659.2 659.2 612.1 535.62

Ayer Itam Pohon Satu Kinjang Menlock Teras Silou Lata Puteh Ayer Busok Bangan Mare

Table 24 Energy and environmental target from 2011 to 2050 in Malaysia. Decentralized power supply– Small hydropower plants are particularity suitable as decentralized power supply to meet the local small-scale electricity demand of remote areas, rural towns, or localized industries. Its transmission cost is less than those of other systems because the load center is not far from the power station. Therefore, the cost of the decentralized power system is less than the grid-connected centralized power supply system. Surplus power from the decentralized power system could be fed to the grid as well. The decentralized power system using fossil fuel is more expensive to run due to the high price of fuel oil, the huge expenditure for transporting oil to the power station, and finally, the inefficiency of the system without better access. Therefore, power especially small-scale hydropower systems, are highly recommended for decentralized power supply in such areas because of their uninterrupted power supply. Cost effective– The operating cost of SHSs is comparatively lower than that of any other RE system [32]. At the same time, a small hydropower site located near the areas with electricity demand is financially more viable. Simple and less expensive construction work and inexpensive equipment are required to establish and operate small hydropower projects. Additionally, the installation period is short and the schemes give quick financial returns. The cost of electricity generation from small hydro is generally constant. Therefore, there are huge opportunities for domestic and foreign entrepreneurs to invest more in small hydropower plants in Malaysia. Cost savings from the use of locally manufactured hydro equipment and local labor make SHSs more preferable for remote areas [54].

Table 22 Assessment of small hydropower sites in Sarawak [27]. Name of the division

No. of sites

Total potential power (kW)

Samarahan Sri Aman Betong Sarikei Kapit Bintulu Miri Limbang Total

01 10 07 12 54 5 3 12 104

1.8 247 194 1427 2432.5 946 424 4486 10158.3

•

•

Table 23 Major environmental effects of various energy-source-based power plants. Source

Environmental effects

Fossil fuels Solar PV Wind Biomass Small hydropower

CO2 emission, air pollution, water pollution, waste, noise PV panel disposal, visual impact Noise, visual impact, avian and bat mortality Air pollution, waste, visual impact Blockage of fish passage and interruption of sediment transport

of the total power generation capacity by 2020. The current utilization of small-scale hydropower systems in Malaysia is approximately 14% of the total potential. Thus, a comprehensive review was also made on the current status of small hydro scheme development in Malaysia. Clearly, small hydro is suitable for rural and remote areas because it does not need to construct dams and has minimal impact/effects on the environment. Although Malaysia has vast hydropower potential, some impediments limit the development of small hydro in the country. Long clearance and approval process time hinder the development of hydro/ small hydro projects. In the 11th Malaysian Plan (2016–2020), the country is aiming to increase national electricity coverage rate to 99% by 2020 from the current coverage of 94% (Sabah) and 91% (Sarawak). Malaysia must make all attempts to accelerate the development and implementation of small hydro, and more attention must be focused on the target of specific installation capacity. To promote small hydro projects, non-governmental and governmental organizations should take more proactive steps. At the same time, the government could arrange training programs for hydro installation, operation, and maintenance. The local manufacturer could also encourage hydropower generation by manufacturing and marketing related components domestically. Research and development activities are necessary to select the suitable hydro turbine in a specific site and identify key points for small hydro installation in Malaysia.

Year

Biomass (GWh)

Biogas (GWh)

Mini hydro (GWh)

Solar (GWh)

Solid waste (GWh)

RE capacity (GWh)

CO2 avoidance (tonne/ year)

2011 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050

675 2024 4906 7297 8217 8217 8217 8217 8217

123 613 1472 2146 2514 2514 2514 2514 2514

300 1450 2450 2450 2450 2450 2450 2450 2450

7.7 61 194 456 1019 2128 4170 7765 13,540

123 1223 2208 2330 2392 2453 2514 2575 2637

1228 5374 11,229 14,680 16,592 17,762 19,865 23,522 29,358

846,975 3,707,825 7,747,900 10,128,817 11,448,339 12,255,721 13,707,192 16,229,914 20,256,975

Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support received from the Scientific Research Deanship, Taif University, KSA, through Grant No. 1-439 – 6072. References [1] A.S.N. Huda, S. Mekhilef, A. Ahsan, Biomass energy in Bangladesh: current status and prospects, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 30 (2//2014) 504–517. [2] International Energy Agency, Key world energy Statistics, https://www.iea.org/ publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld2016.pdf, (2016) , Accessed date: 4 January 2017.

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