A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

A WIDE PERSPECTIVE ON NUTRIENTS IN BEVERAGES

1

Ulas Acaroz⁎, Damla Arslan-Acaroz†, Sinan Ince‡ ⁎

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food Hygiene and Technology, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey, †Bayat Vocational School, Department of Laboratory and Veterinary Health, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey, ‡Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Afyon Kocatepe University, Afyonkarahisar, Turkey

1.1 Introduction The production and consumption of beverages are important regarding industrial economy as well as ingredients of beverages play an essential role in diet and human health. Beverages include necessary nutrients for human diet and also contain nonnutritive component which possesses vital biological activities. Beverages can be generally categorized into two main classes as alcoholic and nonalcoholic. The most commonly consumed nonalcoholic beverages are water, milk and milk-based drinks, tea, coffee, fruit juice, soft and energy drinks, whereas wine, beer, and spirits are alcoholic refreshments. Amino acids, carbohydrates, lipids, vitamins, and minerals compose basic nutrients of beverages. Besides, beverages comprise various phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, and stilbenes. Nutritive and nonnutritive compounds influence the structure, color, stability, storage attributes of beverages and give rise to several beneficial effects on human body. This chapter presents definition and importance of nutrients in alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages associated with their effect on human health.

1.2  Nutrients in Beverages 1.2.1  Nonalcoholic Beverages Ingredients of nonalcoholic beverages are presented in Table  1.1 which have been summarized from USDA, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28 (2017). Also, nonnutritive Nutrients in Beverages. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816842-4.00001-0 © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1

Table 1.1  Mean Nutrient Composition of Some Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic Beverages (1 Value per 100 g) Coffee (Brewed, Prepared With Tap Water)

Tea (Black, Brewed, Prepared With Tap Water)

Milk (Producer, Fluid, 3.7% Milkfat)

Fruit Juice Drink (>3% Juice, High Vitamin C)

Energy Drink (With Carbonated Water and High Fructose Corn Syrup)

Beer, (Regular, All)

Wine (Table, All)

Spirits (Distilled, Gin, Rum, Vodka, Whiskey, 90 Proof)

Nutrient

Unit

Water (Bottled, Generic)

Water Energy Protein Total lipid (fat) Carbohydrate, by difference Fiber, total dietary Sugars, total Minerals Calcium, Ca Iron, Fe Magnesium, Mg Phosphorus, P Potassium, K Sodium, Na Zinc, Zn Vitamins Vitamin C, total ascorbic acid Thiamin Riboflavin

g kcal g g g

99.98 0 0 0 0

99.39 1 0.12 0.02 0

99.7 1 0 0 0.3

87.69 64 3.28 3.66 4.65

88.1 46 0.13 0.11 11.35

84.52 62 0.42 0 15

91.96 43 0.46 0 3.55

86.58 83 0.07 0 2.72

62.1 263 0 0 0

g

0

0

0

0

0.1

0

0

0

0

g

0

0

0

–

10.69

13.75

0

0.79

0

mg mg mg mg mg mg mg

10 0 2 0 0 2 0

2 0.01 3 3 49 2 0.02

0 0.02 3 1 37 3 0.02

119 0.05 13 93 151 49 0.38

3 0.25 5 7 122 8 0.04

0 0 0 0 10 48 0.63

4 0.02 6 14 27 4 0.01

8 0.37 11 20 99 5 0.13

0 0.04 0 4 2 1 0.04

mg

0

0

0

1.5

25

25

0

0

0

mg mg

0 0

0.014 0.076

0 0.014

0.038 0.161

0.003 0.014

0 0

0.005 0.025

0.005 0.023

0.006 0.004

Niacin Vitamin B-6 Folate, DFE Vitamin B-12 Vitamin A, RAE Vitamin A, IU Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) Vitamin K (phylloquinone) Lipids Fatty acids, total saturated Fatty acids, total monounsaturated Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated Cholesterol Other Caffeine

mg mg μg μg μg IU mg

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0.191 0.001 2 0 0 0 0.01

0 0 5 0 0 0 0

μg

0

0.1

0

g

0

0.002

0.002

g

0

0.015

g

0

mg mg

0.084 0.042 5 0.36 33 138

0.036 0.032 0 0 5 17 0.05

0 0.833 283 2.5 0 0 0

0.513 0.046 6 0.02 0 0 0

0.166 0.054 1 0 0 0 0

0.013 0.001 0 0 0 0 0

0

0

0

0

0

2.278

0.017

0

0

0

0

0.001

1.057

0.002

0

0

0

0

0.001

0.004

0.136

0.03

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

14

0

0

0

0

0

0

40

20

0

38

0

0

Data obtained from USDA, 2017. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference. Release 28. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list (Accessed September 2017).

4  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

compounds (flavonoids, lignans, phenolic acids, and stilbenes) of nonalcoholic beverages are presented in Tables 1.2. and 1.3. These data have been summarized from Phenol-Explorer Database (Rothwell et al., 2013). In addition, some nutrients of nonalcoholic beverages are illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

1.2.1.1 Water Water is vital and essential natural resource for life, participating in the metabolism of the living organisms. Water possesses unique physical and chemical properties. Due to the hydrogen bond, water has distinctive physical feature. It is formed from two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen (H2O). In another explanation water is dihydrogen oxide. Also, water is the most plentiful molecule on the Earth's surface and about 70% of its surface is covered by water (Chanda and Fokin, 2009; Brezonik and Arnold, 2011). It is highly interactive molecule which has various roles in the body and acts as a reactant, medium for reactions, solvent, carrier for nutrients and waste products, thermoregulator, lubricant, and shock absorber. Also, it plays a role in the hydrolysis procedure of macronutrients (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.) (Jéquier and Constant, 2010). Water must be ingested several times during the day inasmuch as it cannot be accumulated in the body. It comprises 55% of body weight in elderly and 75% in infants. Water percentage of the body weight is lower in adults than in children and infants. Daily water need is supplied from food but mainly from fluid intake. Gender, age, physical activity, and climate could increase water demand (Gandy, 2015; Ferreira-Pêgo et al., 2015). Water can be regarded both as an essential nutrient and as food. Most of the inorganic chemicals in drinking water are naturally occurring such as calcium, magnesium, sodium, silicium, iodine, fluorine, chromium, lithium, selenium, and molybdenum. Depending on the chemical composition of water, it is a significant source of minerals (Ferreira-Pêgo et al., 2015; Rosborg, 2016). According to the dominant ionic composition of mineral waters, they are classified as sulfate waters (sulfate content is >200 mg/L), bicarbonate waters (bicarbonate content is >600 mg/L), salt waters, and sulfurous waters. Drinking water contributes often <10% total daily intake of these elements (Rosborg, 2016). The link among human health, water, and geological materials (i.e. rocks, soils, minerals, and climate) has been known for centuries. The hardness of water is largely determined by dissolved mineral concentration. These minerals are mainly calcium and magnesium which are predominantly found in combination with bicarbonate sulfate and chloride (Anne, 2011; Davies, 2015; Rosborg,

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   5

2016). In water industry, various units are used for the classification of water hardness. The simplest one is the molar or millimolar concentrations of total amount of dissolved calcium and magnesium. According to this, water is classified as soft, moderately hard, hard, and very hard (0–0.60, 0.61–1.20, 1.21–1.80 and > 1.80 mmol/dm3, respectively) (Davies, 2015). Magnesium levels vary remarkably depending on the water type. Drinking water and beverages contain moderate to high (10– 100 ppm) magnesium. Magnesium is the second most copious intracellular cation after potassium and fourth most plentiful cation in the body. Water, fruits, and vegetables as well as foods of animal origin provide the required magnesium for human body (Rosanoff, 2013; Davies, 2015; Yu et al., 2016). An adult healthy body contains about 21–28 g of magnesium. It is predominantly distributed in the intracellular (34%) compartments and skeleton (65%). Magnesium plays an essential role as a cofactor in >300 biochemical reactions in the body. Also, it is a regulatory ion for neurons and cardiomyocytes as well as it acts as a calcium antagonist. It is essential for biochemical and physiological processes of cells such as glycolysis, ATP metabolism, and electrolyte transport through membranes, protein synthesis, fatty acid synthesis, neuromuscular excitability, and muscle contraction. Magnesium is mainly absorbed in the small intestine and small amounts of it absorbed from colon. The recommended daily intake of magnesium for an adult is about 300–400 mg. However, the magnesium content of packaged food, bottled water, and beverages is generally not reported on the label (Ayuk and Gittoes, 2014; de Baaij et al., 2015; Davies, 2015). Calcium constitutes 1%–2% of adult human body weight. The adult body contains approximately 1.2 kg of calcium. Over 99% of total body calcium is found in bones and teeth. The rest of it is present in extracellular fluid, blood, muscle, and other tissues. Calcium ions play pivotal roles in the physiology and biochemistry of all organisms. Also, calcium salts provide rigidity to skeleton (Anne, 2011). When the need for calcium increases (i.e. pregnancy, menopause, osteoporosis, children, old age), calcium-rich mineral waters may be advised. Approximately 70% of the dietary calcium is derived from milk and milk products. The bioavailability of water calcium is at least as high as that of milk (Anne, 2011; Vitoria et al., 2014). Fluoride is predominantly supplied by drinking water in some societies. It is difficult estimate the daily intake of fluoride due to inadvertent consumption of fluoride through dental products and due to wide variations in the fluoride content of water supply. An appropriate fluoride intake minimizes the risk of caries and dental fluorosis (Abuhaloob et al., 2015).

6  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

Table 1.2  Some Flavonoids and Lignan Levels of Several Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic Beverages Flavonoids

Lignans

Compounds

Plum, Prune, Pure Juice

Pomegranate Pure Juice

Black Tea Infusion

Green Tea Infusion

(−)-Epicatechin (−)-Epicatechin 3-O-gallate (−)-Epigallocatechin (−)-Epigallocatechin 3-O-gallate (+)-Catechin (+)-Gallocatechin (+)-Gallocatechin 3-O-gallate Apigenin Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside Delphinidin 3-O-glucoside Isoxanthohumol Kaempferol Kaempferol 3-O-galactoside Malvidin 3-O-glucoside Myricetin Naringin Phloridzin Quercetin Quercetin 3-O-arabinoside Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside Theaflavin Xanthohumol Isolariciresinol Lariciresinol Lariciresinol Matairesinol Pinoresinol Secoisolariciresinol Syringaresinol

 –  –  – –  24.7  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –    –  –  5.85  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –  –

– – – 0.36846 – – – – 3.43375 1.355 – – – – – – 0.09585 0.24538 – – – – – – – – – – –

 3.93885  7.34147  7.18951  9.12011  2.45413 14.01194  0.67419  –  –  –  –  0.00636  0.34667  –  0.25391  –  –  0.00364  0.01818  1.62273  3.26697  –  –  0.0002  0.0002  0.00185  0.004  0.00652  –

 7.93207  7.4959 19.67747 27.16133  0.70026  2.25937  0.46825  –  –  –  –  0.83  0.42  –  0.592  –  –  1.525  –  1.46  –  –  –  0.0001  0.0001  0.00377  0.0014  0.01  –

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   7

Arabica Coffee (Filter)

Robusta Coffee (Filter)

Beer (Regular)

Red Wine

White Wine

Apple Cider

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

0.0581 – – – 0.10634 – – 0.00417 – – 0.04343 – – – 0.00067 0.00075 – 0.00667 0.00058 0.086 – 0.00141 – – – 0.00025 – 0.02525 –

3.77985 0.76504 0.056 – 6.80644 0.084 – 0.07595 0.20955 1.06377 – 0.23392 0.78636 9.96698 0.82766 0.75 – 0.8331 0.49 0.80553 – – 0.065 0.0074 0.0074 0.015 0.0004 0.0425 0.00343

0.94906 0.02083 – – 1.0822 0.00333 – – – – – 0.01625 – 0.03875 – 0.23 – 0.03896 0.225 0.18875 – – 0.03 0.0016 0.0016 0.00385 0.0001 0.00822 0.00145

9.02503 – – – 4.60661 – – – – – – – – – – – 1.52841 – 0.25286 0.01143 – – – – – – – –

Rum

Scotch Whisky

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.0005 – 0.004 –

8  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

Table 1.3  Some Phenolic Acids and Stilbenes Levels of Several Alcoholic and Nonalcoholic Beverages Compounds Some phenolic acids

Stilbenes

2-Hydroxybenzoic acid 3,4-Dicaffeoylquinic acid 3,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid 3-Caffeoylquinic acid 4,5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid 4-Caffeoylquinic acid 4-Feruloylquinic acid 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid 4-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid 4-p-Coumaroylquinic acid 5-Caffeoylquinic acid Caffeic acid Ellagic acid Ferulic acid Gallic acid o-Coumaric acid p-Coumaric acid Syringic acid Vanillic acid d-Viniferin e-Viniferin Pallidol Piceatannol Piceatannol 3-O-glucoside Resveratrol Resveratrol 3-O-glucoside

Plum, Prune, Pure Juice

Pomegranate Pure Juice

Black tea Infusion

Green Tea Infusion

– – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – 0.11985 0.24495 2.06333 0.00054 0.45 0.01485 0.00538

– – – 0.24409 – 1.20286 – – – 0.84 0.20455 – – – 4.62736 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – 0.33 – – – – – – 2.3 – – – 0.49391 – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – 20.35 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – –

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   9

Arabica Coffee (Filter)

Robusta Coffee (Filter)

Beer (Regular)

Red Wine

White Wine

Apple Cider

Rum

Scotch Whisky

– 3.53 2.65 – 1.54 19 13.26 – – – 43.09 0.073 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

– 5.96 4.42 32.26 3.09 36.46 30.05 – – – 75.8 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –

0.19895 – – – – 0.01333 – 0.96399 0.03324 – 0.07829 0.03022 – 0.26466 0.07223 0.15269 0.09878 0.0175 0.06839 – – – – – – –

0.03833 – – – – – – 0.54735 0.16 – – – – 0.08032 3.59051 0.03 0.54731 0.26779 0.32339 0.63667 0.15333 0.204 0.58167 0.94846 0.27084 0.62027

0.044 – – – – – – 0.02 0.095 – 0.09667 1.87682 – 0.09 0.21762 0.03333 0.15327 0.00543 0.03979 – 0.00557 0.00068 – 0.46298 0.04156 0.25088

– – – – – – – – – 5.07972 21.45311 0.34 – 0.1925 0.175 – 0.9325 – – – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – 0.21 – 0.06 – – 0.03 0.01 – – – – – – –

– – – – – – – – – – – – 0.82303 – 0.09258 – – 0.09924 0.02909 – – – – – – –

10  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

Non alcoholic beverages

Water

Minerals (Ca, Mg, F, K..)

Milk and milk based drinks

Proteins, carbonhydrates, lipids, minerals, vitamins

Tea

Caffeine, flavonols, phenolic compounds

Coffee

Caffeine, polyphenolic and phenolic compounds

Fruit juice

Vitamins, minerals, nectar

Soft and energy drinks

Caffeine, sweeteners, flavorings, CO2

Fig. 1.1  Nonalcoholic beverages and their nutrients.

1.2.1.2  Milk and Milk-Based Drinks Milk Milk and its products are important food source of proteins, vitamins, and essential minerals. The most consumed milk type by human is bovine milk which includes water, protein, lactose, fat, minerals, and vitamins (approximately 87%, 3%, 4%–5%, 3%–4%, 0.8%, and 0.1%, respectively). Various factors such as environmental conditions, lactation stage, animal species, and nutritional status of animal may affect the chemical composition of milk. For instance, while sheep milk has high fat and protein content, goat milk includes high amount of vitamins (A, B1, and B12), calcium, and phosphorus (Kalač and Samková, 2010; Pereira, 2014; Balthazar et al., 2017). Milk contains approximately 32 g protein/L which are composed of soluble (whey proteins, 20%) and insoluble proteins (caseins, 80%). The soluble protein fractions are α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, immunoglobulins, lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, lysozyme, transferrin, and proteose-peptone. Caseins can be classified into three fractions (α-, β -, and ĸ-caseins). Casein can bind certain minerals, especially phosphorus and calcium to form a coagulum and improve its digestibility in the stomach. The amino acid profile of whey proteins and caseins is quite different. Whey proteins contain leucine, isoleucine, valine, and lysine amino acids in high level, whereas casein includes a high amount of methionine, histidine, and phenylalanine. The main carbohydrate of milk is lactose which is a disaccharide consisting of galactose and glucose. Lactose can exist in two isomeric forms as α

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   11

and β (Tang et al., 2009; Pereira, 2014). The main fat fraction of milk is triacylglycerol but it contains other lipids such as diacylglycerol, cholesterol, phospholipids, and free fatty acids. Besides, trace quantities of hydrocarbons, fat-soluble vitamins, and flavor compounds are found in milk. Milk fatty acids are also formed by 70% saturated fatty acids (palmitic, myristic, stearic, butyric, and caproic acids) and 30% unsaturated fatty acids (oleic, linoleic, and α-linolenic acids). Additionally, milk contains trans-fatty acids such as vaccenic acid and conjugated linoleic acid. Milk is a rich source of calcium, however, several other elements such as phosphorus, magnesium, selenium, and zinc are also found in milk. Also, milk contains water-soluble (B-complex vitamins) and liposoluble (A, D, and E) vitamins (Mansson, 2008; LindmarkMansson et al., 2003; Pereira, 2014). Fruit Milk Both milk and fruit juices include high nutritional value compounds. Fruit juices are rich in bioactive substances, such as carotenoids, vitamins, and phenolic compounds. Also, milk have unsaturated fatty acids, essential amino acids, β-carotene, vitamins, and minerals. Beverage, containing milk and fruit, affects the gastric digestion where absorption of lipophilic and hydrophilic ingredients is highly increased. For instance, the bioaccessibility of xanthophylls, carotenes, and these compounds with lipophilic antioxidant activity was improved up to 1.9 times when milk was mixed with fruit juice. Therefore, fruit milk is a good choice among beverages (Gülçin, 2012; Rodríguez-Roque et al., 2014). Kefir Kefir is a fermented milk product having natural carbonation, aroma, and slight acidic taste. It contains water, sugars, protein, ash, fats, lactic acid, and minor amounts of alcohol. Kefir is differentiated from other fermented milk beverages due to its changeable microflora which can also be isolated and reused several times for kefir fermentation. Kefir grains contain yeast cells, lactic acid bacteria, and acetic acid bacteria (i.e., Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus, Kluyveromyces, and Saccharomyces). The microorganisms in kefir grains produce effective compounds such as organic acids, several types of bactericide which have a lethal effect on pathogenic bacteria. Type and quantity of kefir grains affect the carbon dioxide level. During fermentation, acids (lactic, acetic, pyruvic, hippuric, butyric, and propionic), diacetyl, and acetaldehyde generate taste and aroma of kefir. In addition, kefir also includes vitamins, macroelements, and microelements. Milk fat content, grain types, and the manufacturing process play an important role on the composition of kefir (Hui and Evranuz, 2012; Ahmed et al., 2013).

12  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

Ayran Ayran is a nonalcoholic fermented milk beverage produced homemade (the addition of water to yogurt) or industrially (the addition of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus to standardized milk for fermentation). Ayran is highly nutritious and well digestible drink which includes water, protein, salt, fat, vitamin, minerals (particularly calcium), and probiotic bacteria. However, several factors such as milk type, the efficiency of fat removal, and the dilution rate can influence the chemical composition of ayran. Also, ayran shows probiotics properties and the most commonly used probiotics are lactic acid bacteria, specifically Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium species. However, probiotics may be used with a support culture such as S. thermophilus (Ayar and Burucu, 2013; Altay et al., 2013).

1.2.1.3 Tea Tea is the second most popular beverage after water and consumed daily by millions of people around the world. It is originated from China and manufactured from the leaves of Camellia sinensis var. sinensis and Camellia sinensis var. assamica. Assamica varieties are rich in caffeine and flavonols and show high polyphenol oxidase activity. Therefore, they are best suited for black tea production. In contrast, sinensis varieties include less flavanols and relatively low polyphenol oxidase activity which are suitable for green tea manufacturing. Tea types are categorized according to fermentation degree based on processing procedures and can be classified as dark tea (postfermented by microbe), black tea (fully fermented by oxidizing enzyme), oolong tea (semifermented), and green tea (nonfermented) (Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010; Lv et al., 2013; Wierzejska, 2014). Herbal teas are often consumed as beverages which are brewed from the fruits, seeds, flowers, leaves, stems, or roots of plants and have been used worldwide for curative health care (Zhao et al., 2013). Tea leaves include free amino acids, polysaccharides, minerals, enzymes, caffeine, theobromine, theophylline, theanine, organic acids, flavonoids (flavonol, flavones, isoflavones, flavanonol, flavanones, flavanol, and anthocyanidin), quercetin, kaempferol, and their glycosides, phenolic acids, and numerous flavor compounds (Senanayake, 2013; Wierzejska, 2014; Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015). Theaflavins and thearubigins account for the color of black and oolong teas. These compounds are occurred by oxidation of flavan3-ols during the production of oolong and black teas. Theaflavins consist of theaflavin, theaflavin-3-gallate, theaflavin-3′-gallate, and theaflavin-3, 3′-digallate which comprise 2%–6% of the dry weight in black tea leaves. The level of nonprotein amino acids (l-Theanine and GABA) is higher in white tea than in other tea types. Green tea leaves

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   13

contain significant amounts of polyamines (i.e., spermine and spermidine) which are derived from l-arginine, l-ornithine, and methionine metabolism (Sang et al., 2011; Zhao et al., 2011; da Silva Pinto, 2013). Tea has naturally high tannin content. Tannins can be classified as hydrolyzable tannins and condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins). Hydrolyzable tannins such as gallic acid (gallotannin) and ellagic acid (ellagitannin) are generally found in low levels. Tea polyphenols predominantly are catechins (epigallocatechin gallate, epicatechin gallate, epigallocatechin, and epicatechin) responsible for distinctive aroma, color, and taste (Kumari and Jain, 2012; Wierzejska, 2014). The pharmacologically most active catechin is epigallocatechin gallate which accounts for approximately 50% of the catechin content of green tea. The concentration of polyphenols in tea leaves varies due to the climate conditions of tea cultivation, the age of picked leaves, and the process of infusion including the amount of tea used for a cup, water temperature, and brewing time (Kumar et al., 2007; Senanayake, 2013; Wierzejska, 2014; Gahreman et al., 2015). Caffeine is naturally found in tea, coffee, and cocoa. The caffeine concentration in tea leaves ranges from 2% to 5%, and is about twofold higher in black tea than in green tea. The highest concentration of caffeine is present for a long time in brewed teas (Vuong and Roach, 2014; Wierzejska, 2014; Gahreman et al., 2015). Tea leaves contain numerous elements such as fluoride, manganese, chrome, selenium, calcium, magnesium, and zinc. However, tea infusion is not a good source of calcium, zinc, and magnesium in a diet. This situation is different for fluoride and manganese which are highly prevalent in tea infusions. Tea is a major dietary source of aluminum to humans. A cup of tea covers 7%–10% and 25%–30% of the daily intake of this element in adults and children, respectively. Tea infusion also contains small amounts of niacin (0.1 mg/100 mL) and folates (5 μg/100 mL) (Wierzejska, 2014; de Silva et al., 2016).

1.2.1.4 Coffee The name of coffee comes from the province of Ethiopia named Kaffa, indicating that the coffee is originated from Ethiopia. Edible coffee beans were produced from only two species, namely Coffea arabica Linné (Arabica) and Coffea canéphora Pierre (Robusta). While C. arabica currently accounts for 75%–80% of the world's production, C. canéphora meets 30% of the world's coffee demand (Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). Coffee is a popular beverage which is consumed due to its refreshing and stimulating attributes (Ballesteros et  al., 2014). It contains >1000 different chemical compounds including lipids, carbohydrates, nitrogenous compounds, phenolic compounds, alkaloids vitamins, and minerals (i.e., calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron, nickel,

14  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

chromium, and magnesium). Especially, caffeine, polyphenols, melanoidins, and diterpenes are significant chemical compounds of coffee (Lee et al., 2014; Nuhu, 2014). Several factors such as the variety of coffee, the type of brewing method, the roasting degree, and the serving size highly influence the type and amount of compounds taken with coffee (Vitaglione et  al., 2012). The preparation method affects the lipid content of coffee. For instance, filtered brewed coffee contains lesser amount of lipids than boiled unfiltered coffee. Also, lipid profiles may be adversely affected by preparation method of the coffee (Ranić et al., 2015). There are several compounds in coffee which contribute to its unique aroma such as chlorogenic acids, alkaloids (mainly, caffeine and trigonelline), diterpenes (cafestol and kahweol), and melanoidins (Ludwig et al., 2014). Caffeine is the most commonly consumed methylxanthine alkaloid. It is odorless, slightly bitter compound at the room temperature and easily soluble in hot water. It is found naturally in various plants, yet mostly derived from tea leaves, coffee beans by methylation of theobromine or theophylline, or by synthesis from malonic acid and dimethylurea. Synthetic forms of caffeine are used in the industry for the improvement of various foods, beverages, dietary supplements, and medication. For example, caffeine is added to cola drinks (Wilson and Temple, 2003; Fitt et al., 2013). Phenolic acids are the most abundant polyphenols found in coffee which are essential for the formation of coffee flavor. Catechol contributes to the coffee aroma as predominant volatile phenolic compound followed by 4-ethylcatechol, 4-ethylguaiacol, quinol, pyrogallol, and 4-vinylcatechol. Caffeic acid and its derivative chlorogenic acid are the most common polyphenols in coffee. At least five major groups of chlorogenic acid isomers, namely caffeoylquinic, feruoylquinic, dicaffeoylquinic, caffeoylferuloylquinic, and p-coumaroylquinic acids, are found in green coffee beans (Vitaglione et al., 2012; Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015; Aguiar et al., 2016). Also, other minor classes of chlorogenic acids such as diferuloylquinic, dimethoxycinnamoylquinic, and di-p-coumaroylquinic acids are present in coffee (CanoMarquina et al., 2013; Aguiar et al., 2016). Diterpenes, especially cafestol and kahweol, known as pentacyclic alcohols are found to be in the lipid fraction of coffee. Kahweol chemically differs from cafestol by a double bond between carbons. These compounds hardly pass the cellulose paper filter. Therefore, unfiltered coffees such as French press and Turkish coffee have higher levels of diterpenes than filtered coffee (Kitzberger et al., 2013; Cano-Marquina et al., 2013; Nuhu, 2014). Trigonelline is a pyridine alkaloid derived from nicotinic acid by methylation of nitrogen atom. It is partially degraded to several pyridine derivatives and nicotinic acid during the roasting process of

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   15

coffee. Trigonelline level in roasted coffee is influenced by coffee variety and degree of roasting. In both Arabica and Robusta coffees, trigonelline is used as a discriminator of roasting level. Robusta coffee has slightly lower amount of trigonelline than Arabica (Nuhu, 2014; Ludwig et al., 2014). Melanoidins are nitrogenous compounds with high molecular weight and brown color which are the end products of Maillard reaction. They are produced during roasting process and contribute to flavor and color characteristics of coffee. In human diet, coffee brew is one of the main melanoidin sources (Moreira et al., 2012; Ludwig et al., 2014).

1.2.1.5  Fruit Juice Fruit juice is one of the most common beverages which is consumed due to the contents of vitamins (i.e., β-carotene, folate, and vitamin C), minerals (potassium, calcium, and magnesium), and carbohydrates. Fruits and fruit juices also contain phosphates, fiber, organic acids, sugars, antioxidants, and flavoring compounds. Even though trace quantities of fats and proteins are available in fruits, these ingredients are not vital for fruit juices (Liu, 2013; Kregiel, 2015; Ashurst, 2016). The sugar content of each sort of fruit juice varies due to the type of fruits. Fructose is one of the leading components of all fruits, but the content of sucrose, sorbitol, and glucose differs in each fruit. Some fruits, such as lemons, limes, blackberries, and raspberries, have comparatively low sugar content. Pomegranates, grapes, figs, bananas, mangoes, and tangerines include high content of saccharides. Fiber is another essential ingredient found in fruits and fruit juice for a balanced diet. Dietary fiber is composed of lignin and carbohydrates including starch or the nonstarch polysaccharides cellulose, hemicelluloses, oligosaccharides, pectins, and hydrocolloids. Apples, blackberries, pears, and raspberries are rich source of fiber (Han et al., 2012; Kregiel, 2015). Regardless of weight, age, and gender people should consume at least 14 g of fiber for every 1000 cal according to the USDA. According to recommendation of European Food Safety Authority, average daily dietary fiber intakes should be 10–20, 15–30, and 16–29 g for young, adolescents, and adults, respectively (USDA, 2010; EFSA, 2010). Polyphenolic compounds like gallic acid, cis- and trans-resveratrol, catechins, and quercetin play a role as metal chelators and free radical scavengers. Phenolic acids could be divided into two main groups as hydroxybenzoic and hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives. The amount of phenolic compounds differs among the fruits. Blackberry and wild blueberry have high amount of phenolic acid (Liu, 2013; Zielinski et al., 2014).

16  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

Flavonoids are one of the major groups of phenolic compounds found in fruits. In the literature, >4000 flavonoids have been reported. Most common flavonoids found in our diet are flavonols (i.e., quercetin, myricetin, kaempferol, and galangin), flavanols (i.e., catechins), flavanones (i.e., naringenin, eriodictyol, and hesperetin), flavones (i.e., luteolin, chrysin, and apigenin), isoflavonoids (i.e., formononetin, daidzein, glycitein, and genistein), and anthocyanidins (i.e., malvidin, cyanidin, peonidin, delphinidin, and pelargonidin). For instance, oranges and orange juices have high content of hesperetin and naringenin. Also, epicatechin, quercetin, and cyanidin are the major flavonoids of apples and apple juices (Zhao and Hall, 2008; Liu, 2013). Besides, fruit juice concentrate is commonly manufactured in the industry. To produce fruit juice concentrate, fruit juices are submitted to heat process for the evaporation of the majority of the water. Consequently, the obtained product has much better conditions for storage, preservation, and transport. However, heating process can influence certain properties and components of original fruit juice. The processing of fruit juice can enhance the flavonoid content inasmuch as flavonoids can be released from the rind during extraction processes. Therefore, flavonoids could be better ingested than those in fresh fruits. Also, fruit juice concentrates may be suitable for the production of functional foods (Bermúdez-Soto and Tomás-Barberán, 2004).

1.2.1.6  Soft and Energy Drinks Soft Drinks Soft drinks are largely produced as acidic beverages (pH 2.5–4.0) and consumed worldwide (Azeredo et al., 2016). Classification of soft drinks can be carried out in several ways. However, soft drinks can be generally defined as nonalcoholic drinks that combine a balance of acidity and sweetness with flavor and color (Ashurst et al., 2017). The ingredients of soft drinks are water, sweetener, carbon dioxide, flavorings, coloring agents, acidulants, chemical preservatives (within the legal limits), antioxidants, and foaming agents such as saponins (Kregiel, 2015). While regular soft drinks include roughly 90% water, diet soft drinks contain up to 99% water (Azeredo et al., 2016). Innovations in soft drinks industry encompass development of new tastes, use of low-calorie formulations, natural colorants, and addition of proteins and health-appealing beverages such as herbs and collagen (Azeredo et al., 2016). Except zero-calorie products, the sugar content of soft drinks varies between 1% and 12%. Glucose, sucrose, or fructose is added to soft drinks as a natural carbohydrate sweetener. Sucrose is disaccharide carbohydrate, consists of glucose and fructose molecules. Glucose, the primary source of energy, is the most extensively used sweetener. Sucrose strengthens and conserves the flavor of beverages and provides

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   17

a delightful sensation. Thaumatin is the strongest natural sweetener used in food as a flavor modifier which is 2000 times sweeter than sugar. Trehalose, isomaltulose, and d-tagatose are also used as natural carbohydrates in the soft drink production (Kregiel, 2015). Sugar substitutes provide usually less energy, however, they duplicate the sugar taste. Some of these substitutes are natural and the others are synthetic. In general, synthetic ones are also referred to as artificial sweeteners. The beverage industry is replacing corn syrup or sugar with artificial sweeteners. >6000 food products contain artificial sweeteners and the number is increasing every year (Tandel, 2011; Sharma et al., 2014). Aspartame, acesulfame potassium (known as acesulfame K), sucralose, saccharin, and cyclamate are used as a sweetener in soft drinks. Aspartame and acesulfame potassium are 200-fold sweeter than sucrose. Aspartame is composed of l-phenylalanine and l-aspartic amino acids. Acesulfame potassium is readily soluble in water but it is neither metabolized nor stored in the body (Kregiel, 2015). Sucralose, a chlorinated carbohydrate, is 600 times sweeter than sucrose. The absorption of sucralose is low in the human body and most of it excretes in feces and urine. It has high level of sweetness, without having calorie. Sucralose consumption is safe for human and its acceptable daily intake is 5 mg/kg body weight (Sharma et al., 2014). Neotame, cyclamate, and erythritol are less used sweeteners in soft drinks. Pectin, guar, locust gum, and xanthan are hydrocolloids which are utilized as stabilizer and thickeners to improve mouthfeel (Kregiel, 2015). Common acids used in the drinks are citric, succinic, malic, and phosphoric acids. Carbonation process leads to make drinks more acidic and helps to give them tangy flavor and taste. Also, this process helps to extend shelf life of soft drinks. Carbon dioxide can be supplied to soft drinks in solid or liquid forms. The content of carbon dioxide differs from 1.5 to 5 g/L. Acidity regulators are essential agents to improve the taste of soft drinks. Their other vital role is to inhibit microbial growth. The widely used preservatives in soft drinks are sorbic and benzoic acids, and their calcium, potassium, and sodium salts (Kregiel, 2015; Azeredo et al., 2016). Energy Drinks Energy drinks are nonalcoholic drinks and are consumed to improve energy, weight loss, concentration, stamina, and athletic performance. The key ingredient of energy drinks is caffeine (360–630 mg/L) and other main active constituents are guarana extract, taurine (approximately 3180 mg/L), and ginseng. Also, carbohydrates, gluconolactone, inositol, niacin, panthenol, sugars, amino acids, herbs, B-complex vitamins, sodium, and potassium are added to energy drinks (Seifert et al., 2011; Jackson et al., 2013; Breda et al., 2014; Kregiel, 2015).

18  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

Guarana, also known as guaranine, is derived from the seeds of South American plant Paullinia cupana for its stimulant properties. The caffeine level of guarana ranges from 4% to 8%. Besides, guarana contains theophylline, theobromine, and high concentration of tannins. Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a well-known Chinese medicine herb that has been used for centuries to improve stamina, memory, and also enhance the capacity to cope with physical stress (Babu et al., 2008). Taurine is sulfur-containing essential amino acid but not utilized in protein synthesis. It is an abundant free amino acid extensively distributed throughout the body and found in foods of animal origin. It is involved in several metabolic activities such as bile acid conjugation, detoxification, membrane stability, and osmoregulation (Peacock et al., 2013; Ince et al., 2017).

1.2.2  Alcoholic Beverages Ingredients of alcoholic beverages are presented in Table 1.1 which have been summarized from USDA, National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 28. Also, nonnutritive compounds (flavanoids, lignans, phenolic acids, and stilbenes) of alcoholic beverages are presented in Tables 1.2. and 1.3. These data have been summarized from Phenol-Explorer Database (Rothwell et al., 2013). Also, some of their nutrients are illustrated in Fig. 1.2.

1.2.2.1 Beer Beer, an alcoholic beverage, has been part of the human diet since ancient time which is today the third most popular drink following water and tea. As the simplest definition, beer is a fermented and flavored drink (mostly by hop) produced from starch. Beer includes several nutrients such as carbonhydrates, amino acids, some vitamins, minerals, fiber, and antioxidants as well as ethanol (Cortacero-Ramirez et  al., 2003; Arranz et al., 2012; Cetó et al., 2013; Nogueira et al., 2017).

Alcoholic beverages

Beer

Alcohol, carbonhydrates minerals

Wine

Alcohol, minerals, polyphenolic compounds

Spirits

Alcohol, esters, fatty acids

Fig. 1.2  Alcoholic beverages and their nutrients.

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   19

Beer consumption can be defined as the intake of liquid calories. So, 330 mL beer gives approximately 140 kcal energy which corresponds to 7% of the daily energy demands in a diet of 2000 kcal. The alcohol provides high amount of energy in the human body after its metabolism. The alcohol content of various kinds of beer ranges roughly from 3.5% to 10% w/v. Ethanol is an extremely rich energy source. In other words, ethanol (7.1 kcal/g) gives almost twofold more energy than carbohydrate (3.75 kcal/g) (Yeo and Liu, 2014; de Gaetano et al., 2016). The carbohydrates of beer comprise dextrins, monosaccharides (l-arabinose, d-ribose, d-galactose, and d-xylose), oligosaccharides, and pentosans (Cortacero-Ramirez et al., 2003). Carbohydrates only contribute to a small part of the calories of beer. For instance, 330 mL beer contains roughly 12 g of carbohydrates (48 kcal) that may cover solely 2.4% of the daily energy needs in a diet. Beer does not include simple sugars. Subsequent to the production of traditional fermented beers (except light beers) some of the starch may be retained as nonfermented and/or partially degraded forms which provide calories (Bamforth, 2002; de Gaetano et  al., 2016). Wort comprises fermentable sugars (maltose, maltotriose, and glucose) and complex nonfermentable sugars (mainly, dextrins are responsible for 65%–70% of beer solids). As distinct from the simple sugars, the complex carbohydrates are not readily fermented, and they remain in the beer due to incomplete hydrolysis of the starch. Nevertheless, human body digests complex carbohydrates by hydrolizing into glucose and consequently providing calories. The caloric content of beer can be decreased by increasing the fermantability of wort must. Hence, malt or starch can be replaced with materials containing simple sugars (Stewart, 2013; Yeo and Liu, 2014). The protein content of beer originates from malted barley and 100 mL of the end product includes approximately 0.2–0.6 g of proteinderived material. Its protein content is relatively higher than other alcoholic beverages (i.e., wine) yet is lower than high-protein beverages (i.e., milk) (Cortacero-Ramirez et al., 2003). Beer is a rich source of minerals and B-group vitamins, however, thiamine is notably deficient in beer. Beer contains various minerals such as potassium, sodium, calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, manganese, copper, zinc, selenium, and fluoride. These minerals affect both clarity and taste of the end product. Beer also includes high amount of silicon which plays a pivotal role in the growth and development of bone and connective tissues (Bamforth, 2002; CortaceroRamirez et al., 2003; de Gaetano et al., 2016). Beer has a complex mixture of phenolic compounds which are derived from malt and hops (approximately 70% and 30%, respectively). The concentration of phenolic compounds range roughly from

20  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

150 to 350 mg/L (Cortacero-Ramirez et al., 2003; Arranz et al., 2012). Beer polyphenols such as phenolic acids and flavonoids promote various beer characteristics (i.e., flavor, haze) (de Gaetano et  al., 2016). Most beer is flavored with hops (Humulus lupulus L.), which gives bitter taste and acts as a natural preservative. Hop is a rich source of phenolic compounds mainly flavonoids, phenolic acids, prenylated chalcones, proanthocyanidins, and catechins. Moreover, hops contain monoacyl phloroglucinols such as isoα and α-acids which occur during beer production. Beer polyphenols include benzoic acid derivatives, coumarins, cinnamic acid, proanthocyanidins (di- and tri-oligomeric compounds), prenylated chalcones, and simple phenols. Furthermore, other flavorings such as fruits or herbs may occasionally be used instead of hops for beer production (Arranz et al., 2012; Cetó et al., 2013; Martínez et al., 2017).

1.2.2.2 Wine Wine is one of the most complex and popular alcoholic beverages worldwide which has unique and pleasing flavor (Robinson et  al., 2014; Baiano et al., 2016). Although there is no standard classification system for wines, they can be classified according to the color, geographic origin, alcohol, or carbon dioxide content. Table and fortified terms are used for the classification of wines depending on alcohol concentration. Alcohol contents of table and fortified wines are found to be between 9%–14% and 17%–22% (by volume), respectively. Table wines are divided into two categories as still and sparkling according to their carbon dioxide content (Jackson, 2008; Bamforth, 2008). The oldest division of wine was performed according to their color as white, red, and rosé. Also, nongrape fruit wines can be produced from almost any fruit (Johnson and Gonzalez de Mejia, 2012; Jackson, 2008). Wine has a complex mixture, however, its primary constituents are water and alcohol. Water has an important role in establishing the fundamental characteristics of wine. For example, the basic flow characteristics of wine are controlled by water. Also, it serves as an important solvent for water-soluble components (Jackson, 2008; Johnson and Gonzalez de Mejia, 2012). Ethanol, C2H5OH, is certainly the most important constituent of wine. Fresh grapes or grape must do not contain ethanol. It is produced from sugars during yeast fermentation process. Therefore, sugar content enables to predict the final ethanol concentration of wine (Clarke and Bakker, 2004). Under standard fermentation conditions, ethanol can be produced up to 14%–15%. Its concentration can be increased by adding sugar during fermentation. Ethanol acts as an important solvent to extract constituents from grapes. It is especially essential solvent for nonpolar aromatics. Methanol, primarily generated from pectins, is not essential constituent of wine. Usually, wine

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   21

has lower methanol content than any other fermented beverage due to low pectin content in grapes (Jackson, 2008; Johnson and Gonzalez de Mejia, 2012). Wine also contains other minor components such as sugars (glucose and fructose), fixed acids (i.e., malic, tartaric, and lactic acids), fatty acids, protein, minerals, and polyphenolic compounds. Amount of grape sugar is crucial to growth and metabolism of Saccharomyces cerevisiae which is the primary wine yeast. This yeast uses glucose and fructose for the production of its metabolic energy. Pectin and very small quantity of arabinose, d-xylose, and d-galactose are present in the grape. The polysaccharide level in wine is generally low. Proteins are insignificant constituents in wine. Yet, they influence the quality of end product by affecting haze formation (Clarke and Bakker, 2004; Jackson, 2008; Johnson and Gonzalez de Mejia, 2012). Organic acids, such as malic, tartaric, citric, lactic, and succinic acid may also be present in wine. Beside, sulfurous and carbonic acids are the principal inorganic acids in wine. Both these are found in wine as dissolved gases (SO2 and CO2) and do not significantly influence wine pH. The major volatile acid found in wine is acetic acid which is a by-product of yeast and bacterial metabolism (Clarke and Bakker, 2004; Jackson, 2008). Red wine is a rich source of polyphenolic substances and >200 phenolic compounds have been identified in it. Polyphenols in red wine are a complex mixture of flavonoids (such as anthocyanins and flavan-3-ols) and nonflavonoids (such as gallic acid and resveratrol). Phenolic compounds of wine influence sensorial properties such as color, astringency, bitterness, and mouthfeel (Ferruelo et  al., 2014; Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015; Bimpilas et  al., 2015). Tannins are important substances in red wines and depending on the chemical structures of tannins they are defined as hydrolyzable or condensed (proanthocyanidins). Proanthocyanidins are the most abundant polyphenols in red wines and are principally found in fruits and some beverages like wine, beer, and tea (Furlan et  al., 2014; Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015). Resveratrol (3,5,4′-trihydroxystilbene) is a polyphenolic antioxidant compound and its concentration in red wine ranges from 1 to 14 mg/L. The resveratrol level of wine is increased by various factors, such as increased temperature, decreased pH, and higher levels of SO2 during the wine-making process. The grape skins contains high amount of phenolic compounds, are incorporated to the red wines production process but not to white wine. Therefore, white wine contains less polyphenols than red wine (around 10-fold) (Neves et al., 2012; Arranz et al., 2012). Cider is possibly one of the oldest alcoholic beverages made from apple juice. Ciders are considered to include high amount of fusel alcohols, especially 2-phenyl ethanol, which is often attributed to their

22  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

low nutrient status (Lachenmeier et al., 2015). One of the significant quality parameters of cider is polyphenols (flavonols, flavan-3-ols, dihydrochalcones, procyanidins, and hydroxycinnamic acids and derivatives) since they considerably contribute to organoleptic quality, especially, color, bitterness, flavor, and astringency. Moreover, polyphenols can regulate fermentation processes by avoiding microbial spoilages and some faults of cider. Also, phenolic compounds together with proteins are involved in the colloidal stability of cider. Besides, during fermentation process, organic acids serve as indicators of cider quality (Ye et al., 2014). Lactic acid bacteria (especially Oenococcus oeni) are the most used bacterial species during the cider-making process. In addition, these bacteria may also produce biogenic amines by decarboxylation of amino acid precursors during fermentation. At the end of fermentation, most frequently encountered biogenic amines of wine and cider are histamine, tyramine, and putrescine, which are produced from histidine, tyrosine, and ornithine, respectively (Costantini et al., 2013). Mead is a traditional alcoholic beverage produced by yeast fermentation of diluted honey and its ethanol content ranges from 8 to 18% (v/v). The fermentation process of mead takes longer time than other alcoholic fermentations due to high sugar concentration of honey (especially, fructose). Also, honey type, honey-must composition, and yeast strain affect the fermentation period. In addition to traditional mead, there are many mead variations including fruit juices and spices such as melomel (mead with fruit juices), metheglin (mead containing herbs or spices), sack mead (produced with superior concentration of honey), and hippocras (pyment with spices and herbs) (Iglesias et al., 2014; Pereira et al., 2015).

1.2.2.3 Spirits Spirits are produced by the fermentation of fruits and grains (corn, rye, wheat, barley, beets, sugar cane, grapes, and so on), which are then distilled into alcohol. Liquors are unsweetened spirits whose flavors are determined solely by their base ingredients during the distillation and aging process. Whiskey, vodka, and rum are all liquors. Flavored vodkas, flavored rums, gins, and tequilas will be also considered as spirits. Liqueurs, also known as cordials, are sweetened or spiced spirits grouped by their flavor profile. Additionally, some liqueurs may have a slightly syrupy consistency compared to other spirits. Many liqueurs use finished spirits such as whiskey, cognac, and rum as their base, adding new ingredients, such as macerated fruit, to create a new profile. Spirits contain higher amount of ethyl-alcohol compared to other alcoholic beverages. They have higher average alcohol by volume (20%–90% alcohol by volume) (Guentert, 2007). During yeast fermentation, ethanol and several by-products (volatile and nonvolatile)

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   23

are formed and these compounds influence the quality of the spirit. Nonvolatile substances found in the drymash are cellulose, unfermented sugars, mineral salts, and nitrogen compounds containing substances. Also, some substances such as glycerin and lactic acid remain in the fermentation mixture during distillation. Nevertheless, a vast variety of by-products are found in the distillate as azeotropic mixtures resulting from mixing of alcohol with water. The following groups of compounds are cited as by-products: higher alcohols (isoamyl alcohols, isobutanol, n-propanol, etc.), methanol, esters (ethyl acetate), fatty acids (caproic, caprylic, miristic, lauric, palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids), and carbonyl compounds (ketones, aldehydes, acetals and others) (Wiśniewska et al., 2016; Aoshima, 2012).

1.3  Effect of Nutrients in Beverages on Human Health Nutrients in beverages are essential for human health and certain health effects of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages are shown in Fig. 1.3. In this section, health effects is presented in accordance with beverage types.

1.3.1  Health Effect of Water Water is an indispensable nutrient of human diet and its positive effects on human health are unquestionable. Most part of human body is composed of water and it is necessary for the maintenance of

Beverages

Nonalcoholic

Essential nutrients for human metabolism Protective effect on cells (anti oxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti inflammatory, antiapoptotic) Protective effect on tissues (cardiovascular diseases, neuroprotective, chemopreventive)

Alcoholic

Protective effect on cells (anti oxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti inflammatory) Protective effect on tissues (cardiovascular diseases, diuretic effect, neuroprotective)

Fig. 1.3  Certain effects of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages on human health.

24  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

cell viability. Therefore, insufficient intake of water or its components may cause adverse effects on human health. For instance, magnesium deficiency increases the risk of various pathological conditions in humans. These are eclampsia in pregnant women, acute myocardial infarction, vasoconstriction, hypertension, atherosclerotic vascular disease, cardiac arrhythmia, and osteoporosis. Sufficient magnesium is crucial in maintaining electrolyte balance, vascular tone, and preventing atherogenesis. Also, recent studies have confirmed that magnesium plays essential role in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. In worldwide, magnesium may yearly prevent 4.5 million deaths caused by stroke and heart disease (Rosanoff, 2013; de Baaij et al., 2015). Calcium plays a role in bone development and maintenance, vascular and muscle contraction, vasodilation, transmission of nerve impulses, blood clotting, and glandular secretion. Also, calcium may play a role in kidney stones, colon cancer, blood pressure, and body weight (Newberry et al., 2014; Rosborg, 2016).

1.3.2  Health Effect of Milk and Milk-Based Drinks Milk and its products take a relevant part in human life due to their valuable nutrients. Milk is a rich source of calcium which shows protective effects on bone density. In fact, calcium and certain minerals (copper, manganese, selenium, and zinc), vitamins (C, D, and K), and other components like peptides and conjugated linoleic acid could positively affect the production and maintenance of bone matrix and mass. They can lower the prevalence of fractures and protect from osteoporosis. The milk contains hydrosoluble (B complex and vitamin C) and liposoluble (A, D, E) vitamins. Vitamin A plays a major role in growth, immunity, and eye health. Vitamin D shows anticarcinogenic, cardioprotective, and immunomodulatory effects. B-complex vitamins participate in several metabolic pathways such as energy production from nutrients and neurotransmitter synthesis as important enzymatic cofactors (Huth et al., 2006; Cashman, 2006; Patel and Zhan, 2012; Mamede et al., 2011; Pereira, 2014). Milk whey proteins play a vital role as antimicrobial agents. Besides, lactoferrin, β-lactoglobulin, and α-lactalbumin exhibit antioxidant and antitumor activities. In addition, caseins show antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antihypertensive, and antithrombotic actions in organism. Some peptides derived from casein such as β-casomorphins have opioid-like actions, affecting central nervous system as an analgesic and tranquilizer. Calcium, folate, and whey proteins of milk prevent metabolic syndrome due to their effects in insulin sensitivity, weight gain, blood pressure control, appetite, and satiety (Pfeuffer and Schrezenmeir, 2007; Pereira, 2014; Zhang et al., 2014). Conjugated linoleic

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   25

acid can prevent weight gain and adiposity. It has positive effects on energy metabolism and the adipogenesis. So, it decreases adiposity by regulating lipid metabolism, inducing apoptosis, and reducing inflammation (Kennedy et al., 2011). Consumption of fermented milk products (i.e., kefir) may reduce the risk of breast cancer, which may be attributed to the presence of certain bioactive components in fermented milk (certain proteins and small peptides). Also, kefir exhibits antimicrobial properties due to its components such as hydrogen peroxide, bacteriocins, ethanol, carbon dioxide, diacetyl, lactic acid, and acetic acid. Besides, kefir and its extract possess antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antiallergic, hypocholesterolemic, antioxidative, antiapoptotic properties, and it influences blood pressure (Ahmed et al., 2013). Fruits and fruit-based products show health-promoting effects associated with their bioactive compounds. Beverages mixed with fruit juices are particularly interesting in terms of the synergistic antioxidant action of carotenoids, polyphenols, tocopherols, certain minerals (such as zinc), and vitamin C. They have scavenger activity against free radicals involved in oxidative damage. Therefore, they are thought to be preventative against cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, cancer, cataracts, and age-related macular degeneration. Also, milk-based beverages supplemented with fruits meaningfully decreased serum uric acid level, increased antioxidant potential and plasma vitamin C concentration compared to nonsupplemented milk (Hunter et al., 2012; Andres et al., 2014). Sometimes, milk consumption can have some adverse effects on human health although milk is undoubtedly healthy human diet. Lactose intolerance is caused due to the deficiency of β-galactosidase. Normally, lactose is hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose by lactase enzyme in small intestine. Then, they are absorbed in intestine and transported to the liver via the portal vein where galactose is transformed to glucose. Although β-galactosidase activity significantly decreases in mammals after weaning, this activity remains even during adulthood in humans. However, intolerance symptoms occur due to enzymatic deficiency. Lactose intolerance causes many gastrointestinal symptoms via lactose and sugar fermentation in colon. As a result, abdominal cramps, flatulence, bloating, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea are often observed (Lomer et al., 2008; Pereira, 2014). In some circumstances, allergy caused by cow milk protein can be observed in children on the first few weeks of milk consumption. This allergy may be related to IgE reactions and the adverse effects can occur immediately (IgE-mediated) or are delayed (non-IgE-mediated). The immediate reaction mediated clinical symptoms can be anaphylaxis, respiratory episodes, cutaneous reactions (edema and urticaria), and gastrointestinal (bloody stools, diarrhea, vomiting). Similarly, cutaneous,

26  Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages

respiratory, gastrointestinal symptoms are observed in the late-onset phenomenon (Caffarelli et al., 2010; Hochwallner et al., 2014). Saturated fat—approximately 70% of total milk fat content—has adverse effect on heart health. Saturated fat increases blood lipid levels, especially total cholesterol and low-density lipoproteins whereas it decreases high-density lipoproteins. In addition, excessive milk consumption can cause an increased risk for certain cancer types (i.e., colorectal, breast, prostate, and bladder) and this is attributed to insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1, and milk fat content. Milk consumption may exhibit toxic effect on ovaries and damage the gonadotropic secretion due to galactose resulting from lactose metabolism. In contrast, yogurt and cheese consumption have not been related to ovarian cancer risk (Pereira, 2014; Aune et al., 2015).

1.3.3  Health Effect of Tea Generally, tea and/or herbal tea have shown positive health effects on human and possess antioxidative, antiinflammatory, antimicrobial, anticarcinogenic, antihypertensive, antihypercholesterolemic, neuroprotective, and thermogenic properties. The compounds of black tea extract (including thearubigins and theabrownins) show an antioxidant role against oxidative stress. This effect is attributed to the suppressing the formation of reactive oxygen species and inhibiting copper-induced lipid peroxidation (Liu and Huang, 2015). Green tea polyphenols are potent antioxidants and have exhibited antiinflammatory effects in IL-2 deficient mice as well as exhibited inhibitory effects on NF-kB in  vitro intestinal epithelial cells (Oz et al., 2013; Reygaert, 2014). The catechins of tea have shown antimicrobial effects against several microorganisms by a variety of antimicrobial mechanisms. They show their antimicrobial activities by damaging bacterial cell membrane, inhibiting fatty acid synthesis, and by enzyme activity (Reygaert, 2014). To develop the nontoxic chemopreventive agents, natural products are considered as a major source. For example, tea catechins, especially epigallocatechin gallate, have improved the antiproliferative effect on breast and prostate cancer cells. This effect is related to increased modulations on various significant signaling pathways (NFkB and PI3K/Akt pathways) involved in carcinogenesis (Wang et al., 2014). Green tea catechins are considered to regulate appetite, thermogenesis as well as show a regulatory role in lipid metabolism. Green tea consumption reduces blood pressure through the inhibition of the NADPH oxidase activity and reactive oxygen species production in the vascular system. Also, green tea catechins stimulate cholesterol 7-α-hydroxylase gene expression in HepG2 cells which is considered

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   27

to decrease cholesterol level and increase bile acids. In addition, green tea extracts hinder lipid absorption in intestine and also elevate the number of receptors responsible for low-density lipoprotein in liver. Thus, blood lipid profile is improved (Onakpoya et al., 2014; Bogdanski et al., 2012). High-dose green tea consumption caused important weight loss, decreased total cholesterol, and reduced waist circumference in women with central obesity by the inhibition of ghrelin secretion (Chen et al., 2016). In a study, theaflavin (black tea polyphenol) showed neuroprotective effect against experimentally induced Parkinson disease using neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine/probenecid which induced apoptosis and neurodegeneration. Consequently, theaflavin protected brain damage by reducing the level of apoptotic markers (caspase-3, −8, −9), increasing dopamine transporter and expression of nigral tyrosine hydroxylase (Anandhan et al., 2012). When the effect of black and green tea on type 2 diabetes was evaluated, it was concluded that only black tea consumption potentially reduced the risk against this diabetes type. This effect may be attributed to reduced fasting blood glucose level. Also, l-theanine and flavan-3-ols from tea show positive effect on immunity. Additionally, l-theanine exhibits antiallergic effect by inhibiting histamine release from mast cells (da Silva Pinto, 2013). Recent studies showed that daily drinking of black tea reduces the risk of cardiovascular diseases which results from the presence of polyphenols, mainly tannins. Quercetin and theanine especially found in green tea reduce blood pressure and protect from cardiovascular diseases. Nevertheless, tannins in black tea may inhibit the absorption of iron and its deficiency can end up with anemia in human (Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010; Kumari and Jain, 2012; Wierzejska, 2014; Hayat et  al., 2015). The central nervous system and cardiac function are stimulated by caffeine, which may positively regulate the psychophysical conditions of human. By contrast, high consumption of caffeine may cause certain adverse effects such as tachycardia, arrhythmia, and convulsions. Hence, to overcome these adverse effects decaffeinated versions of beverages such as tea and coffee are preferred. Also, the maximum consumption of black tea should not exceed eight cups per day due to diuretic effect of caffeine (Vuong and Roach, 2014; Wierzejska, 2014).

1.3.4  Health Effect of Coffee The consumption coffee generally prevents from the risk of breast and oesophageal cancer, type 2 diabetes mellitus, obesity, and hypertension. Coffee consumption may also exhibit potential adverse effects on some physiological and biochemical parameters such as increased blood pressure, serum total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol,

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and plasma homocysteine concentrations. Moderate caffeine intakes show potential health benefits in adults. Caffeine usually acts as a central nervous system stimulant, reduces fatigue, and elevates mood. It is rapidly absorbed into the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system, where it acts as a smooth muscle relaxant, increases heart rate and gastric acid secretion (Fitt et al., 2013; Lee et al., 2014; Ranić et al., 2015). Also, caffeine is responsible for the metabolism of many drugs (such as clozapine used in the treatment of schizophrenia) by interacting with the CYP1A2 enzyme system. The higher doses of caffeine induce an acute diuretic effect, yet a low to moderate dose of caffeine does not elicit this effect. However, high caffeine content of coffee can result in bone loss, increased risk of fractures, and some acute clinical effects such as anxiety, palpitations, insomnia, and tremulousness (Wilson and Temple, 2003; Killer et al., 2014; Ranić et al., 2015). One of the polyphenolic compounds of coffee is which can directly interact with reactive oxygen species. It serves as an effective OH• scavenger. Although its exact molecular mechanism of antioxidant activity is unknown, it is mainly attributed to the double bond conjugated catechol structure of the phenyl ring. In addition, chlorogenic acid has numerous biological properties. It has antimicrobial, antiobese, antiinflammatory, neuroprotective, antidiabetic, antiviral, hepatoprotective, immunostimulatory, and radioprotective effects. Also, this compound prevents from diseases associated with oxidative stress (namely cardiovascular, cancer and neurodegenerative) (Aguiar et al., 2016). Diterpenes show antitumorigenic, chemopreventive, antioxidative, hepatoprotective, and antiinflammatory effects. Low concentrations of cafestol have shown a significant increase in insulin secretion and also in the glucose uptake, suggesting that cafestol may contribute to the preventive effects on type 2 diabetes. Besides, diterpenes modulate hepatocellular multiple enzymes which are involved in the detoxification process of carcinogens (Ranić et al., 2015; Santos and Lima, 2016). Chemoprotective effect of diterpenes is induced by different ways via induction of enzymes (i.e., glutathione and glucuronosyl S-transferases), inhibition of the cytochromes P450 activity (i.e., CYP3A2, CYP2C11), and by increasing the expression of proteins responsible for cellular antioxidant defense (i.e., heme oxygenase-1 and gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase). Also, diterpenes increase the expression level of a DNA repair protein for repairing DNA damage induced by alkylating agents (Kitzberger et al., 2013; Bøhn et al., 2014; Santos and Lima, 2016). Trigonelline has a proven antidiabetic effect by reducing blood glucose levels. It has also shown beneficial effects on peripheral neuropathy and inhibited transcription of Nrf2 gene (responsible for the growth of pancreatic cancer cells). Bioactive effects have been attributed to trigonelline such as memory improvement by regenerating

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   29

axons and dendrites in animal models and inhibition of cancer cells in  vitro. Additionally, melanoidins have several biological effects on human health and their primary effects are antioxidant, antimicrobial, antiinflammatory, anticariogenic, antihypertensive, and antiglycative activities (Moreira et al., 2012; Nuhu, 2014; Aguiar et al., 2016).

1.3.5  Health Effect of Fruit Juice Fruit juices are worldwide consumed for their flavor, taste, and freshness, as well as beneficial health effects. The awareness of people about the consumption of fruit juices in their daily diet is increasing because of the fact that fruit juices are suitable and relevant sources of polyphenolic compounds, carotenoids (β-carotene), vitamin E (tocopherols), and vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Almost all of the consumed fruit juices like fresh fruits enhance antioxidant capacity and lipid metabolism and also reduce inflammation in human. Some fruits (especially blueberries, blackberries, grapefruit, and kiwi) include high amount of biological active chemicals, such as terpenes, flavonoids, and anthocyanins which show more powerful antioxidant properties than well-known antioxidant vitamins. Also, some juices may inhibit risk factors for cardiovascular disease by regulating lipid metabolism, blood pressure, endothelial function, and platelet reactivity. At the same time, fruit juices may improve memory, cognitive decline related to aging, and neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer disease (Liu, 2013; Harasym and Oledzki, 2014; Zielinski et al., 2014; Schär et al., 2015; Hyson, 2015; Ashurst, 2016). Many fruit juices are rich in vitamin C, which is an essential nutrient for the biosynthesis of collagen and certain hormones. Its intake has been also associated with the reduced risk of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. On the other hand, diets rich in phenolic compounds correlate with the decrease in neurodegenerative disease and some cancer types. Fruit juices are a good source of potassium. Also, they contain potential pharmacological components used in practice. For instance, it is claimed that limonin and limonoid substances—available in citrus fruit—have potential to protect from certain types of cancer. Sorbitol is present in various fruits which shows a laxative effect. The level of minor elements in fruit juices can be changed by the unfavorable condition like high temperature, improper storage, and light (RodríguezRoque et al., 2015; Ashurst, 2016).

1.3.6  Health Effect of Soft and Energy Drinks Energy drinks contain a high amount of taurine which plays an important role in many metabolic reactions. Lack of taurine is linked to some pathological conditions such as retinal degeneration, cardiomyopathy,

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and growth retardation. It plays a crucial role in certain metabolic activities such as bile acid conjugation, detoxification, membrane stability, and osmoregulation. Also, it has been used in the treatment of diseases such as hypercholesterolemia, epilepsy, Alzheimer disease, cardiovascular, and hepatic disorders (Ince et al., 2017). Due to the caffeine content, energy drinks increase energy, promotes weight loss, improve athletic performance, and increase stamina. However, caffeine consumption can cause increased body temperature, gastric secretions, blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness. Also, some in vivo studies exhibited that aspartame has analgesic, antipyretic, and antiinflammatory actions (Tandel, 2011; Pomeranz et al., 2013).

1.3.7  Health Effect of Beer Beer has a number of biologically active compounds (both alcohol and polyphenols). It has been shown that certain phytochemical compounds from hops and malt may protect against cardiovascular diseases. Alcohol itself, considered as one of the main bioactive components of beer, has been associated with reduced coronary heart disease, due to its ability to increase the high-density lipoprotein levels. It is suggested that there is an inverse relationship between moderate alcoholic drink consumption and cardiovascular disease. Some of these beneficial effects have been attributed to an increase in high-density lipoprotein depending on the amount of alcohol consumed (Arranz et al., 2012; Rossi et al., 2014; Nogueira et al., 2017). Many studies have suggested that moderate alcohol consumption decreases the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Beer also contains bioactive compounds such as procyanidins, catechins, humulones, prenilchalcones, benzoic acid, and cinnamic acid which can enhance the antioxidant capacity. These compounds exert a protective role against cardiovascular diseases (Arranz et al., 2012; de Gaetano et al., 2016). Hops include xanthohumol which is a significant prenylated chalcone. Xanthohumol serves as the central core of various biologically substantial compounds. This chalcone exhibits anticarcinogenic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, antiproliferative, antiangiogenic as well as apoptotic effects. Nevertheless, most commercial beers may contain low level (below 0.1 mg/L) of xanthohumol. Therefore, many health-promoting effects of xanthohumol of beer can be considered as negligible (Yeo and Liu, 2014). Moderate beer consumption stimulates appetite and promotes gastrointestinal system function in adults. Beer has also enhanced diuretic effect based on its comparatively high potassium/sodium ratio (typically 4/1). Besides, beer has health-promoting phytoestrogens (isoflavanoids) such as 8-prenylnaringenin. Moderate alcohol consumption changes lipid profile, decreases inflammation associated with atherosclerosis, maintain endothelial integrity, and increases

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   31

insulin sensitivity and antioxidant capacity (Bamforth, 2002; Yeo and Liu, 2014; de Gaetano et al., 2016). On the other hand, heavy alcohol consumption raises the risk for stroke (both hemorrhagic and ischemic), and it is related to many cancer types such as esophagus, neck, liver, colorectal, breast, and pancreas. Beer is produced from cereals. Therefore, it may be contaminated with mycotoxins (especially ochratoxins), which show mutagenic, carcinogenic, immunotoxic, teratogenic, and genotoxic properties. Nevertheless, most beers are devoid of important levels of ochratoxin inasmuch as they are produced from uncontaminated grain. Also, the extensive consumption of beer may lead to general or abdominal obesity on the basis of increasing the risk for a positive energy balance (Bamforth, 2002; de Gaetano et al., 2016).

1.3.8  Health Effect of Wine Wine is particularly a rich source of phenolics, especially resveratrol. Moderate wine consumption has been attributed to decrease in atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease, hypertension, diabetes, and a lower incidence of certain types of cancer including colon, prostate, and ovarian carcinoma (Shahidi and Ambigaipalan, 2015). The health effects of resveratrol will be briefly summarized as follows: resveratrol shows chemopreventive effects based on its intrinsic antioxidant capacity, protects from several cardiovascular diseases (ischemic reperfusion injury, atherosclerosis, and ventricular arrhythmias) by inhibiting apoptotic cell death and regulating lipid metabolism (Fernández-Mar et al., 2012). The cardioprotective effects of red wine have been associated with both its alcohol and polyphenol (especially resveratrol) contents. In general, French diet contains high fat, but incidence of cardiovascular diseases is relatively low among French people compared to the rest of the Western countries. This is attributed to red wine consumption and this phenomenon is described as French paradox (Lassaletta et  al., 2012). Additionally, resveratrol causes vasodilatation by the stimulation of calcium-activated potassium channels and increasing nitric oxide levels. Moreover, resveratrol exhibits antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects by enhancing downregulation of cell cycle proteins and apoptosis in tumor cells. Due to the direct insulin-suppressive action of resveratrol, it shows antidiabetic effects. In addition, resveratrol can penetrate the blood–brain barrier and exhibits neuroprotective effects in Parkinson disease (by scavenging mechanism), Huntington disease, and Alzheimer disease (by the SIRT-1 pathway) (Fernández-Mar et al., 2012). However, undesirable metabolites such as biogenic amines can also exist in wine and cider. These metabolites are produced by certain strains of lactic acid bacteria. Some biogenic amines found in wine and cider are histamine, tyramine, β-phenylethyl-amine, and

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tryptamine which act in the central nervous system or vascular system. High concentrations of biogenic amines may cause allergic reactions, headaches, respiratory distress, hypotension, and hypertension (Costantini et al., 2013).

1.3.9  Health Effect of Spirits Spirits are alcoholic beverages which contain the highest alcohol concentration but the lowest polyphenolic level compared to other alcoholic beverages. Spirits have less beneficial effects on cardiovascular health than wine which includes a majority of polyphenolic constituents. Oak barrels are used for the aging of some spirits (especially whisky). As a result, pigments and aromas migrate into the liquors from oak wood during the long storage time. Due to their aromatic compounds, they induce mental relaxation through both olfactory stimulation and potentiation of the response of GABAA receptors, which causes a tranquilizing effect on human (Arranz et al., 2012; Aoshima, 2012; Natella et al., 2014; Zhang et al., 2015; de Gaetano et al., 2016). Moderate alcohol consumption is usually considered cardioprotective. For instance, one to three drinks of alcohol consumption a day is associated with a decreased cardiovascular mortality compared to both heavy alcohol consumption and abstinence from alcohol. Alcohol is considered to increase high-density lipoprotein, inhibit oxidation of lipids, and reduce inflammatory factors. It is clinically associated with a lower prevalence of coronary artery disease and a reduced risk of death from it. In accordance with this implication, some studies suggest that both red wine and vodka decreased oxidative stress in swine fed with high-fat/cholesterol diets. Consequently, both red wine and vodka reduced oxidative stress in the myocardium by implicating the effects of ethanol, and decreasing cardiovascular risk by improving collateraldependent perfusion (Lassaletta et  al., 2012; Chu et  al., 2012). Nevertheless, some consumers prefer to drink alcoholic beverages having considerably higher ethanol content (vodka, tequila, whisky, gin, and rum) than present in red wine. Ethanol is biotransformated to acetaldehyde in the liver by alcohol dehydrogenase. Then it is converted to acetic acid by aldehyde dehydrogenase and thus it is excreted from the human body. If acetaldehyde is not fully metabolized, it accumulates in the body. Thus, it causes a sick feeling, flushing, nausea, headache, and other hangover symptoms (Lachenmeier et al., 2015).

1.4  Conclusion and Future Aspects In this chapter, nutrients in beverages and their features were presented in line with the developed beverage technology. Also, their effect on human health was evaluated in the light of new information

Chapter 1  A Wide Perspective on Nutrients in Beverages   33

obtained. In general, nonalcoholic beverages provide the basic needs of human diet while alcoholic beverages are preferred for pleasure. Other nonnutritive components different than essential nutrients contribute to the overall beverage characteristics. Furthermore, some biochemical and pharmacological activities of these nonnutritive components have been determined in many literature and it is reported that these nonnutritive substances play a major role in the characteristics of beverages and their health effects on human. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to better understand the role of nutrients on beverage production and potential health effects of nutrients should be investigated in detail with their mechanism.

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