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Addressing GIS personnel requirements: A model for education and training
Comput.,Environ.and Man Systems,Vol. 17, pp. 4Q-59,1993 Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.
0196-9715193 $6.@l + .OO Copyright 0 1993 Pergamon Press Ltd.
ADDRESSING GIS PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS: A MODEL FOR EDUCATION AND TRAINING Konrad Dramowicz,
John E Wightman and John S. Crant
College of Geographic Sciences (COGS), Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Canada
ABSTRACT. The proliferation of geographic information systems (GIS) in the public and private sectors has been restricted by a shortage of trained personnel, the requirements for which vary from system to system; from application to application. Based on a classification of GIS-related jobs, a need for a variety of curricula has been identified While GIS courses must be offered broadly to sensitizerelated disciplines to the potential of this technology, full and comprehensive programs cannot be offered everywhere and specialty schools, colleges and universities must be available to provide this in-depth exposure. Throughout North America ana' Europe, a number of centtes, institutes and laboratories have been established with this objective in mind Since 198.5, an intensive training program in GIS has been offered at the graduate level by the College of Geographic Sciences in Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Canada. Emphasis is placed on practical aspects of GIS which facilitates the transition from classroom to workplace. Supported by state-of-the-art GIS hardware and software, this program is a very effective model for GIS education and training.
INTRODUCTION
Geographic information systems (GIS) technology has as many definitions as applications. In spite of this apparent obscurity, there are fundamental activities common to most GIS projects: data acquisition, data storage, data manipulation, data analysis and modelling, and output of results. Each of these activities involves the contribution of different sciences and technologies. Therefore, GIS also reflects historical and technological trends within related disciplines. As we approach the end of the 20th century, we can expect the rapid diffusion of this relatively new technology. Although still in the pioneer stages (the number of users being not greater than a few thousand), within the next decade a million people are expected to be using GIS (Dangermond, 1990). In North America alone there are many potential users. In thousands of towns and cities, GIS can be used effectively right now. This technology can also be applied in thousands of additional urban and rural municipalities. Consequently, the demand for GIS products is growing rapidly, and more GIS personnel are needed. Konrad Dramowicz is a GIS instructor at COGS, J. F. Wightman is the principal, and J. S. Cram is the extension services coordinator. Reprint requests should be sent to Konrad Dramowicz, College of Geographic Sciences (COGS), P.0. Box 10, Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Canada BOS 1MO. 49
50
K. Dramowicz et al. HUMAN RESOURCE
REQUIREMENTS
FOR GIS
For many years the shortage of trained GIS personnel has been clearly articulated. This human resource shortfall is a major bottleneck of any successful GIS implementation and impedes the further diffusion of this technology. Learning by mistakes is very costly and may discourage potential GIS users. There are many misleading or illusory opinions that GIS is so easy to use that no new technical or managerial skills are required, that it is so well designed that no support staff are needed (Goodbrand. 1991). In fact, there is a high demand for properly educated and trained GIS specialists and application users, and for academic specialists to teach and train these users. GIS courses will soon be offered in departments of geography, engineering, forestry, geology, environmental sciences, agriculture, planning, etc. at most Canadian and American universities. Although this increase in education of GIS professionals contrasts with the present downtrend in the economy, employment prospects are still good. This market can accommodate a large number of individuals. Tomlinson (1989) estimates an annual requirement of over 1.000 GIS technicians and professionals in North America alone. In order to evaluate the possible places for GIS specialists in the job market, their skills and knowledge should be determined first. This can be done by classifying GIS-related jobs. Marble (1979) distinguishes two major classes of people obtaining education and/or training in GIS: user/analyzer and developer/programmer. McGrath (1986) lists more generally three levels - management, operation, and technical support - considering rather practical aspects of jobs. Parent (1988) recognizes the presence of four classes of such individuals: casual user, user specialist, developer, and system manager. Wightman (1990) distinguishes the following levels of employment in GIS-related technology (referred to as “geomatics” in Canada): technician, technologist, system manager/applications manager, research scientist/policy officer. ministry/senior level policy officer. Each of these levels is characterized by different skills, professional backgrounds, and length of education and/or training in GIS. The National Center of Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) Core Curriculum (1990) defines three simple classes: GIS operator, GIS manager, and planner/analyst using GIS. Keller (1991) lists four classes: technician/operator, system developer/programmer, analyst/planner, and manager/program coordinator. A more detailed classification of GIS jobs was recently presented by Toppen (1991). This author not only clearly describes each class, but also defines required knowledge and elements incorporated in the recommended GIS curriculum. There are three types of managers according to this classification. The general manager does not work directly with GIS, has neither education nor training in GIS, but deals with GIS problems in general. The information manager may have a background in a variety of disciplines plus a deep knowledge and experience with computer science. The GIS system manager has an extensive knowledge of computer science (undergraduate level) and GIS (graduate level). This person is responsible for the implementation of GIS and then works on a daily basis maintaining the system. The GIS ad hoc user has no extensive knowledge of this technology and applies GIS (generally user-friendly systems) sporadically, treating it as a tool for solving a particular problem. Also in this classification, the specialized GIS user, who works with the system every day and should demonstrate a firm understanding of many GIS operations, as well as the ability to properly use spatial analysis tools. Finally, there are three types of jobs related to the position of GIS developer: GIS system analyst, GIS system designer, and GIS programmer. All three of these jobs deal with the information models; the programmer is further concerned with user interface, algorithms, etc. This complexity of specialized personnel required for GIS operations dictates a variety of training programs at various levels within the education system.
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements GIS EDUCATION
AND TRAINING
51
PROGRAMS
Throughout the 1980s. a number of GIS training programs were established world-wide. In the 1990 Directory of Colleges and Universities Offering Geographical Information Systems Courses (current or likely), there were 1447 listings, mostly in the USA and Canada (Morgan, III, & Bennett, 1990). The most frequent representatives in this directory were departments of geography (54%). urban and regional planning (12%), geosciences (8%). environmental sciences (7%). and landscape architecture (6%). Thirty-four university departments and three colleges were from Canada. Between 1988 and 1990, the number of departments offering a GIS specialization grew 43% in the USA and 50% in Canada. Another directory (Geomatics Industry Association of Canada, 1990) lists 18 companies in Canada providing training in GISrelated technologies. There are many places where GIS programs have been offered for many years. Many American universities (for example, Harvard) were not only pioneers in teaching GIS, but also developed some early GIS. In Great Britain, the pioneer in GIS education and training was Edinburgh University; in Canada, the Department of Geography at the University of Western Ontario; in London, the School of Applied Geography at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute in Toronto, and the Department of Survey Engineering at the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton, NB (LIS and CARIS). Among Canadian colleges, GIS courses were offered at Sir Sandford Fleming College in Lindsay, Ontario and at the College of Geographic Sciences (COGS) in Lawrencetown, NS. Almost 10 years ago, Dahlberg (1983) described cartographic education in USA as a “pancake with bubble” model, where the pancake represents the introductory level courses offered in many universities and colleges, and surface bubbles represent the few places where the advanced courses are delivered. He later proposed a pyramid structure with more intermediate courses. The situation in GIS is very similar. The best courses cannot be offered everywhere, but there should be places providing the full range of courses resulting in a comprehensive GIS program. In Canada there are the: Canadian Centre for GIS in Education in Ottawa; the Center of Expertise in Land Information Systems at the University of Calgary; the Centre for Geomatics at Universite Laval in Quebec City; the Canadian Laboratory for Integrated Spatial Information Research at the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton; the Institute for Land Information Management at the University of Toronto; the Centre for Advanced Numerical Mapping Applications (CANMAP) Research Institute; and the proposed Canadian Institute for Earth Observation Training (CIEOT) at COGS, Lawrencetown, NS. METHODOLOGY
OF TEACHING
GIS
A great deal of time and research has been devoted to the search for a model for GIS instruction. A series of conferences on education in GIS were held at Ohio State University and, in the mid-eighties, two volumes of The Operational Geographer were devoted to this problem (Goodchild, 1985; Maher & Wightman, 1985; Poiker, 1985). In the summer of 1991, the GIS industry sponsored the international GIS Higher Education Symposium at the university of South Florida in Tampa (Aangeenbrug, 1992). Also in 1991, a special autumn issue of Cartographica was published with papers from an international conference of GIS Education and Training. Gold (1989) discusses the strength and weakness of GIS programs in colleges, at the university undergraduate level and at different graduate levels (in applications versus engineering). According to Gold, the college style program can be characterized by well defined objectives, good equipment, and an appropriate staff/student ratio. He explains the weakness of the GIS program at the university level at the beginning of the 1990s by the fact that “the academic GIS
52
K. Dramowicz
et al.
‘expert’ is a rare species, especially in Canada... At the research level, these academics are few; at the teaching level, there may be more, but they are not necessarily very experienced in the field.” (pp. 8874388). GIS AT THE COLLEGE
LEVEL
The GIS program at the college level should be oriented toward the education level of the students. There are colleges where the majority of students are high school graduates, whereas other colleges cater to university graduates, some with related practical experience. In 1989, there were four colleges in Canada offering a comprehensive program in GIS (Gracie, 1989). At two of these, the College of Geographic Sciences in Lawrencetown, NS (diploma in GIS), and Sir Sandford Fleming College in Lindsay, Ontario (diploma in GIST), the programs are well established and have been operating successfully for a number of years. At that time, a program at the British Columbia Institute of Technology in Burnaby, BC (Advanced Diploma Program in GIS), and the Algonquin College of Applied Arts and Technology in Ottawa, Ontario (GIS Technician or Technologist diploma), were in the planning or early development stage. Several other colleges offered separate GIS courses in such programs as: resources management technology, engineering technology, technology of geodesy, and surveying and mapping technology. Each of these college programs represents a different orientation and approach to teaching GIS. Some of these colleges also provide continuing education and special training. The content of college level GIS programs is generally identified by the different proportion between two components: education and training. Wightman (1990) states that through education we learn to think, appreciate, and analyze. Through training we learn to do, compute, and operate. Wikle (1991) believes that GIS training involves “hands-on” experience with the operation of hardware and software and is usually focused on a single GIS hardware manufacturer and software system. In contrast, GIS education refers to comprehensive exljerience with, or background relating to, GIS theory and allied disciplines. Marble (1979) emphasizes that GIS training develops skills in using particular tools, whereas GIS education deals with the principles related to tools and with the application of these tools in different situations. GIS education can be a prerequisite to training and is especially needed at the initial stage of working with GIS. Courses in GIS fundamentals, or such teaching materials as the NCGIA Core Curriculum (1990). support the education phase. Many universities, due to a lack of necessary equipment and specialized teaching staff, concentrate only on this phase, and students are expected to receive their postgraduate training in specialized schools, colleges, or universities. An example of training materials for teaching GIS may include Understanding GIS published by ESRI (1992) or technical manuals or tutorials for specific systems. There are examples of the education phase being completely omitted in GIS programs. Sullivan and Miller (1991. p. 66) describe how six regional offices in the British Columbia Ministry of Forests were introduced to GIS in 1985. “The implementation strategy was simple; hardware, software, and user manuals were sent to 6 locations across the province.” Anyone familiar with GIS in the mid-eighties will recall that the systems were definitely not designed for self-teaching. Probably the best approach is to combine both aspects of teaching GIS, education, and training at the same time. Many universities with adequate lab facilities and sufficient staff are able to organize lectures and lab exercises on the same topics. Colleges and specialized schools can also follow this approach because of the favourable teacher/student ratio. However, in these types of schools the teaching staff is usually better prepared for training than for teaching theory. The preferred approach to obtain a high level capability in GIS would include completing university fast, acquiring related experience (including some GIS education and a sampling of
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements
53
GIS training), and then completing a graduate program at a college, combining both substantial GIS education and comprehensive GIS training. BUILDING
A GIS CURRICULUM
There are various possible approaches to building a general outline for teaching GIS. One of them is to use one of the many existing curricula. The NCGIA Core Curriculum consists of 75 units divided into three groups: introduction, technical issues, and application issues. Other examples include Curriculum Development in Cartography and Geographic Information Systems from the University of Washington (Nyerges & Chrisman, 1989). the University of Victoria Curriculum (Keller, 1991), or the Autocarro GIS Syllabus from United Kingdom (Unwin et al., 1990). The recently published monumental Geographic Information Systems: Principles and Applications (Maguire, Goodchild, & Rhind, 1991) consists of 56 units in two volumes that can also serve as a comprehensive GIS curriculum. Generally, there are two common approaches to implementation of a GIS curriculum in educational institutions. The typical one is to offer a linear sequence of courses building and refining professional skills. A second approach, proposed by the committe for Curriculum Development in Cartography and GIS (CAGIS) at the University of Washington, substitutes a matrix approach with different roles of different courses. In the later approach each of the GIS topics is associated with one or more courses; therefore, the matrix can be constructed with topics (rows) and courses (columns). GIS curricula not being a problem, is it then possible to formulate an optimal model for teaching GIS? The diversity of GIS jobs - each requiring a unique combination of skills cast doubt on the likelihood of developing a GIS program to satisfy all requirements. In spite of this, the College of Geographic Sciences in Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, has established its own very effective model of GIS education/training. THE COLLEGE
OF GEOGRAPHIC
SCIENCES
COGS was built on the foundation of a technical training institute which has been in Lawrencetown since 1946. Originally a training facility for land survey technology from 1958 to 1986, this school was known as the Nova Scotia Land Survey Institute. Later, other technology programs were introduced: photogrammetry (1960), cartography (1961), planning (1976), remote sensing (1977). scientific computer programming (1980), and most recently, GIS (1985). Presently, there are three departments in the College - Computer Applications and Programming, Mapping, and Survey - providing a variety of programs: Computer Programming Technician, Scientific Computer Programming, Geographic Information Systems, Remote Sensing, Cartography, Planning, Survey Assistant, Survey Technician, and Survey Technologist. There are approximately 200 students enrolled annually and more than 20 instructors on faculty. The GIS program at COGS is primarily oriented for students having at least completed a university degree in a related field. Many have had pertinent work experience. Although GIS has only been an official program for the past 7 years, GIS training at COGS began in 1980. when the twelve-month Scientific Computer Programming Diploma Program was established. A core course of this program was application programming using existing GIS. The first GIS used at COGS was POLYGRID. Shortly thereafter, software was purchased from Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI) in California. GRID and PIOS were installed on the PRIME minicomputer in 1982, followed in 1983 by ARC/INFO on the same platform. In 1985, the separate GIS diploma program was founded. Since the inception of this program, three major aspects have been present in teaching GIS at COGS: programming languages skills, theoretical
54
K. Dramowicz et al.
concerns, and applications (Maher, 1987). These aspects, representing both education and training, are still present in the GIS curriculum. This dual approach makes COGS a unique center for graduate level GIS education not only in Canada, but also internationally. The spatial distribution of origin of students in the GIS program, and its sister Remote Sensing (RS) program, is indicative of the status of COGS both in Canada and abroad. Enrollment has included students from Poland, USA, China, India, Zimbabwe, Argentina, Greece, Peru, Trinidad, Ethiopia, Thailand and Indonesia. The majority of GIS students in the past 4 years have come from Ontario (33%). then Nova Scotia (23%) and New Brunswick (16%). The student’s academic background included geography (44%). geology (19%). and forestry (14%) (Figure 1). The decision for selecting this particular college was based on its reputation, tuition costs, the length of the program, and the proximity for the students from the Canadian Maritimes. THE GIS CURRICULUM
AT COGS
At COGS, a combined model of linear and matrix systems has been applied. The same topics are present in many different courses; for example, digital data standards and data transfer, topological properties of data structures, etc. The program is intensive and presently is based on 48 weeks (2400 hours) of classes and supervised labs. Forty-six additional hours are available weekly for unsupervised lab use. The average student spends approximately 70 hours weekly in the college. When working on their cooperative research projects, students have 24hour access to the computer facilities daily. Because COGS GIS students have degrees at the undergraduate, masters, or doctorate levels, and often possess a significant professional background, they are usually well prepared for such a rigorous schedule.
FIGURE 1. Background
of GIS Students.
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements
55
The GIS program at COGS is now in a transition phase. The existing three-semester, twelvemonth program will be expanded to four semesters over two academic years. There will also be a closer integration with the sister program in Remote Sensing. This new program will represent the contemporary trends in integration of GIS and Remote Sensing technology (Davis & Simonett, 1991). This parallels the initiative of Dahlberg and Jensen (1986) who presented the idea of the Integrated Spatial Information Systems Model for education in GIS, remote sensing, and cartography. The new format of the GIWRemote Sensing program will provide the flexibility for those who wish a program in a shorter format and the ability to receive a certificate in either of GIS or Remote Sensing at the end of two-semesters (37 weeks). Students who qualify may wish to proceed to an advanced year of studies in an integrated GIS/Remote Sensing program with graduation at the diploma level. In the first year, GIS/Remote Sensing fundamentals will be offered, stressing the role of concepts and tools in the first semester, and basic application tools in the second semester. The second year will be devoted to spatial resource information management. In the third semester, advanced GIWRemote Sensing applications will be taught, and in the fourth semester, the focus will be on a major cooperative research project. This strategy is based on the concept of a knowledge decay rate; the tendancy of information to depreciate over time (Nyerges 8z Chrisman, 1989). In GIS. fundamental concepts are more resistant to such a decay whereas hardware and software specific information is quickly forgotten or rendered obsolete. This ensures that the student is equally strong in both fundamentals and current applications at the time of graduation. Over the 2 years the following courses are planned: l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
Fundamentals of GIS Fundamentals of Remote Sensing/Digital Image Processing Introduction to Programming Introduction to Computers Advanced GIS Advanced Image Processing Spatial Modelling and Analysis Information Systems Remote Sensing Systems and Applications Advanced Applications of GIS Integrated GIS/RS Algorithms and C Spatial Statistics (Spatial Analysis Algorithms) Radar Remote Sensing Resource Information Management Directed Studies
Time is also reserved for the cooperative research project. The courses will be complemented by assignments, practical applications of the learned theory. Most of these assignments will be major projects requiring weeks of intensive work and computer-generated products, programs, and user’s and technical documentation. Students in the first semester will be instructed in GIS data entry how to build a database, perform basic analysis and modelling, transfer digital data, and produce a cartographic output. In the programming course, they learn Fortran 77 through such practical applications as projection transformations, raster overlay, neighbourhood modelling, data transfer, and image handling. They also learn remote sensing technology, including elements of photogrammetry and environmental monitoring techniques.
K. Dramowicz
56
et al.
In the second semester, activities include digital elevation modelling and three-dimensional display, network analysis methods, raster data modelling, coordinate geometry, and large data base management. Students are also instructed in fourth generation programming languages for custom application development. They learn analytical and modelling aspects of GIS and are able to apply a variety of spatial analysis techniques. In addition, other courses ensure proficiency in standard image processing concepts, advanced enhancement techniques, noise reduction and filtering, and principal component analysis. The remote sensing program, integrated with GIS, contributes to the students’ knowledge of airborne and spaceborne systems: meteorological satellites, ocean dynamics measuring satellites, space shuttles, space stations, and applications of different satellites in various disciplines. In the third semester, programming skills are refined and C is taught through practical GIS assignments; raster/vector conversions, TIN, image manipulation, and network modelling. Many other methods useful in GIS including analysis of spatial patterns and processes, spatial variation, network analysis, and cluster analysis are dealt with, not only in the context of spatial analysis and spatial statistical methods, but also, in a more general sense, spatial reasoning. In the last semester, students work mostly on the cooperative research project. Additionally, they study the theory and applications of imaging radar systems, with special emphasis on environmental monitoring. Students are introduced to requirements analysis, land information management requirements, decision theory, and a variety of resource and land information management environments. Also, various directed studies are offered at that time in which student are permitted to select a subject closest to their individual directions or interests. Some have included the study of GIS systems to which the student has not already been introduced, and specialized programming projects. This GIS curriculum reflects a diversity of theoretical topics and applications, a necessary consideration in light of the variations in GIS use today. Maher (1987) notes that for every ten GIS installations, one will be in a significantly new field. Wikle (1991) discusses a survey conducted amongs 175 users representing private business, government agencies, colleges and universities on the identification of the most important topics in GIS. Every topic is covered in the COGS GIS program. Finis coronat opus, the cooperative research project is the final and integral part of the GIS diploma. This project represents the application of existing GIS technology or the development of new software to enhance GIS tools. The project is undertaken in cooperation with outside agencies and solution design and implementation are performed with continual faculty assistance. Apart from its being an opportunity for the student to acquire “on-the-job” experience, the cooperative project is also a means of keeping the College up to date on market requirements and workplace hardware and software demands (Colville & Mosher, 1991). Some examples of cooperative projects from the last year are presented in Table 1.
TABLE 1. GIS Cooperative
Research
Projects and Sponsors,
1990/1991
Enhanced Buffering Algorithms (Lakehead University) Ski Slope Profile Classification (Lakehead University) Annual Harvest Distribution Model 9University of New Brunswick Classifying Polygons Based on Similarity (COGS) Bore Hole Query Syustem (Canadian Seabed Research) Ground Water Modelling (EMlUNoranda) Base Metal Mineral Prediction (New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources) Mountain Pine Back Beetle Impact Assesment (Waterton Lakes National Park) Comparison of Network Analysis Environments (Storington Township) Wetland Acidification Monitoring (Water Planning and Management, N.S. Dept. Env.) Land Use Inventory Database (Agriculture Canada) Geophysical Database in Spans (Intern Kenting)
57
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements
Since the first GIS courses were offered at COGS, more than 100 students have graduated in GIS. Usually there are many more job offers than the number of available graduates. Most of the GIS graduates work in: computer science (25.9%), in forestry and related industries (19.4%). and in parks and natural resources (14.3%) (Figure 2). COGS TECHNICAL
FACILITIES
Based on the premise that hardware should reflect contemporary trends in GIS technology (Dangermond, 1990), and should represent the most commonly used standards, systems, and environments on the market, a program such as the COGS GIS program requires state-of-theart computing facilities. Students are exposed to a variety of operating systems, data base management systems, and GIS hardware and software. They have access to a SUN MP670 server/Workstation. networked to IBM RISC/6000 and IBM X-Station workstations, PRIME 4050 and VAX 1l/785 minicomputers and over 60 IBM compatible microcomputers. Many of these micro-systems are high end 486s with advanced graphics. These systems are supported by a wide variety of industry standard peripherals and are linked by an Ethernet Local area network (LAN), supporting TCP/IP, NFS, TELNET and Novell netware, so the students can share data or programs on various platforms. A variety of software runs on this hardware configuration; ARC/INFO (on PRIMOS, AIX, SUNOS or DOS) with all available modules, SPANS (on OS/2, AIX or DOS), CARIS (on UNIX), and many DOS-based systems such as PAMAP, GEO/SQL, IDRISI, ATLAS GIS, MAPINFO, INFOCUS, OSU MAP, and some MAP derivatives. ARIES, EAWPACE and ERDAS image analysis software is also supported. In GIS World magazine’s most recent annual GIS survey of the most important systems on the market, the most popular operating systems
Legend Computer Science Natural lllilm! % Pulp Industry 0
Mapping & Surveying
q Education & Trainiig corlsulting Mu&pal
q Administration WI communication oceanography 0
FIGURE 2. Caraers of COGS Graduates.
58
K. Dramowicz et al.
were: DOS, UNIX, VMS, and the standard support: SQL, X-Windows, and TCP/IP. COGS students have access to the latest releases of all these standards, operating systems, and a library of other applications software. This comprehensive combination of hardware and software provides students with knowledge of similarities and differences between different GIS configurations, and unique considerations when transferring data between systems. Working with a variety of data structures, students develop the ability to adapt to new systems very quickly. NEW INITiATlVES
AT COGS
The integrated GIS/Remote Sensing program will support a new COGS initiative - the Canadian Institute for Earth Observation Training - proposed to the Canadian Space Agency in December 1991 fight, 1991). The demand for training in geomatics in Canada has been expressed by many ~temation~ sources; Canadian industry is a major world exporter in such technology. In 1989, COGS was asked by the Inter-provincial and Territorial Advisory Committee on Remote Sensing to take the leadership of a consortium of many Canadian colleges and universities. The alliances between COGS and other institutions have been established in the form of one-on-one agreements or ~mor~da of underst~ding. The list of agreements, established or in negotiation, consists of approximately 12 Canadian universities and colleges and an equal number of companies and organizations (Wightman, 1990). The Canadian Institute for Earth Observation Training would provide a two-year, integrated, graduate level GIS/Remote Sensing diploma program for 24 students per year. Of this number, half will come from Canada, and half from developing countries. The international students will return to their countries with state-of-the-art ~owl~ge of GIS/Remote Sensing technology, whereas the Canadian students will gain international experience working with them on cooperative research projects. There are many possibilities to use the COGS GIS training center as the location for activities like: The Questions to Ask Workshop Series, The Managing GIS Hands-on Training Program, GIS Distance Learning Program, and The Continuing Professional Development Program. Heywood and Petch (1991) discuss all of these options relative to the GIS program at the University of Salford in the UK. COGS offers extension and special training programs in fundamentals of GIS, remote sensing, image analysis, DBMS, microcomputing, and in related software applications. COGS also has the potential to be the testing, proving, and development grounds for many vendor and consumer companies and organizations. CONCLUSION
While the demand for GIS training in North America has been rapidly increasing, future requirements for the use of this technology in the developing world, and in a restructured Europe, will create increasing pressures on the education/training system. Institutions who accept this challenge must exhibit flexibility and industry level response time to changing requirements. Continuing education and special training programs, which include the flexibility for international programs delivered on site or by distance education, will become a major trend of the 1990s. REFERENCES Aangeenbrug, R. T. (1992). GIS higher education symposium pmdwtive. GfS World, 5(l), 40. Colvti, D. L., & Mosbex, R. S. (1991). Nova Scotia school stresses GIS progmmming.GIS World, 4(7), 120.
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Dahlberg, R E. (1983). Structure and context of cartographic education in the mappmg sciences in the United States. Intemational Yearbook of Cartography, 20.151-159. Dahlberg, R. E., & Jensen, J. R. (1986). Education for cartography and remote sensing in the service of an htformation society: The USA case.. The American Cartographer, 13(l), 51-71. Dangermond, J. (1990). The future of GIS technology. In J. Stutheit (Ed.), The 1990 GIS sourcebook (pp. 7-11). Fort Collins, Co: GIS World Inc. Davis, F. W., & Simonett, D. S. (1991). GIS and remote sensing. In D. J. Maguhe, M. F. Goodchild, & D. W. Rhind (Eds.), Geographical information systems: Principles and applications (vol. 1: Principles, pp. 191-213). Burnt Mill, Essex, UK: Longman Scientific & Technical. Environmental Systems Research Institute @SRI). (1992). Understanding GIS. Redlands, CA: Author. Geomatics Industry Association of Canada. (1990). Geontatics industry association of Canaaix Directory of member firms, I990 (2 volumes). Ottawa: Author. Gold, C. (1989). Breadth versus depth: The dilemma of GIS education. In Proceedings of the National Conference: Challenge for the 1990s GIS, Offawa (pp. 886-891). Ottawa: The Canadian Institute of Surveying and Mapping. Goodbrand, C. (1991). Educational and geographical information systems. In M. Heit & A. Shortreid (Eds.), GIS applications in natural resources (pp. 61-63). Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Inc. Goodchild, M. F. (1985). Geographic Information Systems in undergraduate geography. 7’he Operational Geographer, 8,34-38. Gracie, G. (1989). GIS in surveying and mapping education in Canada. CISM Journal ACSGC, 43(3), 259-264. Heywcod, D. I., & Petch, J. R. (1991). GIS education: A business perspective. Cartographica, 28(3), 17-21.
Keller, C. P. (1991). Issues to consider when developing cx selecting a GIS curriculum. In M. Heit & A. Shortreid (Eds.), GIS applications in natural resources (pp. 53-59). Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Inc. Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M., 8c Rhind D. W. @is.). (1991). Geographical information systems: Principles and applications (vol. 1: principles, vol. 2: applications). Burnt Mill, Essex, UK: Longman Scientitlc & Technical. Maher, R. V. (1987). GIS training and evolving marketplace. In Proceedings [of the] International Geographic Information Systems Symposiunu The Research Agenda, Arlington, VA - Vol. 1: Overview of research needs and the research agenda (pp. I-285-1-292). Arlington, VA: National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Maher, R. V., & Wightman, J. F. (1985). A design for geographic information systems training. The Operational Geographer. 8.43-46.
Marble, D. F. (1979). Integrating cartographic and geographic information systems education (Technical Papers). 39th Annual Meeting of the American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, Washington, DC. McGrath, G. (1986). The challenge to educational establishments: Preparing students for a future in LIS/GIS. In M. Blakemore (Ed.), Proceedings Auto-Carto London (vol. 2, pp. 2%-305). London: Auto-Carto London Ltd. Morgan, J. M. III. & G. R. Bennett (1990). Directory of colleges and universiries ofiring geographical information syslems courses. Bethesda, MD: American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. National Center of Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA). (1990). NCGIA core curriculum - vol. 1: introduction to GIS, vol. 2: technical issues in GIS, vol. 3: application issues in GIS. Santa Barbara, CA: Author. Nyerges, T. L., & Chrisman, N. R. (1989). A framework for model curricula development in cartography and geographic information systems. The Professional Geographer, 41(3), 283-293. Parent, P. (1988). Universities and geographic information systems: Background, constraints and prospects. Proceedings of URISA ‘88, Los Angeles. Los Angeles, CA: Urban and Regional Infcnmation Systems Association. Poilcer, T. K. (1985). Geographic information systems in the geographic curriculum. The Operational Geographer, 8, 38-41.
Sullivan, S. A., & Miller, C. R (1991). GIS fraining and education - The need for a new approach. In M. Heit & A. Shortreid (Eds.), GIS applications in natural resources (pp. 65-68). Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Inc. Tomlinson, R. F. (1989). Geographic information systems: Challenge for the 90s. The Canadian Geographer, 33, 34-38.
Toppen, F. J. (1991). GIS education in the Netherlands: A bit of everything and everything about a bit? Cartographica, 28(3), l-9.
Unwin, D. J., Blakemore, M. J., Dale, P., Healy, R. G., Jackson, M., Maguire, D. J., Martin, D., Mounsey, H., & Wallii, J. (1990). A syllabus for teaching geographical information systems. Inremarional Journal of Geographical Information Systems, 4(4), 457-465.
Wightman, J. F. (1990). Canadian training capabilities in geomatics - A consortium. In GIS for the 1990s Conference Proceedings, Ottawa (pp. 850862). Ottawa: The Canadian Institute of Surveying and Mapping. Wightman, J. F. (1991). The Canadian institute for earth observation training. In Proceedings of Canadian Space Agency Regional Conference, Halifax, NS. Wikle, T. A. (1991). College courses for a specialization in GIS. In The X991-92 Intemafional GIS sourcebook (pp. 307-309). Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Inc.
0196-9715193 $6.@l + .OO Copyright 0 1993 Pergamon Press Ltd.
ADDRESSING GIS PERSONNEL REQUIREMENTS: A MODEL FOR EDUCATION AND TRAINING Konrad Dramowicz,
John E Wightman and John S. Crant
College of Geographic Sciences (COGS), Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Canada
ABSTRACT. The proliferation of geographic information systems (GIS) in the public and private sectors has been restricted by a shortage of trained personnel, the requirements for which vary from system to system; from application to application. Based on a classification of GIS-related jobs, a need for a variety of curricula has been identified While GIS courses must be offered broadly to sensitizerelated disciplines to the potential of this technology, full and comprehensive programs cannot be offered everywhere and specialty schools, colleges and universities must be available to provide this in-depth exposure. Throughout North America ana' Europe, a number of centtes, institutes and laboratories have been established with this objective in mind Since 198.5, an intensive training program in GIS has been offered at the graduate level by the College of Geographic Sciences in Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Canada. Emphasis is placed on practical aspects of GIS which facilitates the transition from classroom to workplace. Supported by state-of-the-art GIS hardware and software, this program is a very effective model for GIS education and training.
INTRODUCTION
Geographic information systems (GIS) technology has as many definitions as applications. In spite of this apparent obscurity, there are fundamental activities common to most GIS projects: data acquisition, data storage, data manipulation, data analysis and modelling, and output of results. Each of these activities involves the contribution of different sciences and technologies. Therefore, GIS also reflects historical and technological trends within related disciplines. As we approach the end of the 20th century, we can expect the rapid diffusion of this relatively new technology. Although still in the pioneer stages (the number of users being not greater than a few thousand), within the next decade a million people are expected to be using GIS (Dangermond, 1990). In North America alone there are many potential users. In thousands of towns and cities, GIS can be used effectively right now. This technology can also be applied in thousands of additional urban and rural municipalities. Consequently, the demand for GIS products is growing rapidly, and more GIS personnel are needed. Konrad Dramowicz is a GIS instructor at COGS, J. F. Wightman is the principal, and J. S. Cram is the extension services coordinator. Reprint requests should be sent to Konrad Dramowicz, College of Geographic Sciences (COGS), P.0. Box 10, Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, Canada BOS 1MO. 49
50
K. Dramowicz et al. HUMAN RESOURCE
REQUIREMENTS
FOR GIS
For many years the shortage of trained GIS personnel has been clearly articulated. This human resource shortfall is a major bottleneck of any successful GIS implementation and impedes the further diffusion of this technology. Learning by mistakes is very costly and may discourage potential GIS users. There are many misleading or illusory opinions that GIS is so easy to use that no new technical or managerial skills are required, that it is so well designed that no support staff are needed (Goodbrand. 1991). In fact, there is a high demand for properly educated and trained GIS specialists and application users, and for academic specialists to teach and train these users. GIS courses will soon be offered in departments of geography, engineering, forestry, geology, environmental sciences, agriculture, planning, etc. at most Canadian and American universities. Although this increase in education of GIS professionals contrasts with the present downtrend in the economy, employment prospects are still good. This market can accommodate a large number of individuals. Tomlinson (1989) estimates an annual requirement of over 1.000 GIS technicians and professionals in North America alone. In order to evaluate the possible places for GIS specialists in the job market, their skills and knowledge should be determined first. This can be done by classifying GIS-related jobs. Marble (1979) distinguishes two major classes of people obtaining education and/or training in GIS: user/analyzer and developer/programmer. McGrath (1986) lists more generally three levels - management, operation, and technical support - considering rather practical aspects of jobs. Parent (1988) recognizes the presence of four classes of such individuals: casual user, user specialist, developer, and system manager. Wightman (1990) distinguishes the following levels of employment in GIS-related technology (referred to as “geomatics” in Canada): technician, technologist, system manager/applications manager, research scientist/policy officer. ministry/senior level policy officer. Each of these levels is characterized by different skills, professional backgrounds, and length of education and/or training in GIS. The National Center of Geographic Information and Analysis (NCGIA) Core Curriculum (1990) defines three simple classes: GIS operator, GIS manager, and planner/analyst using GIS. Keller (1991) lists four classes: technician/operator, system developer/programmer, analyst/planner, and manager/program coordinator. A more detailed classification of GIS jobs was recently presented by Toppen (1991). This author not only clearly describes each class, but also defines required knowledge and elements incorporated in the recommended GIS curriculum. There are three types of managers according to this classification. The general manager does not work directly with GIS, has neither education nor training in GIS, but deals with GIS problems in general. The information manager may have a background in a variety of disciplines plus a deep knowledge and experience with computer science. The GIS system manager has an extensive knowledge of computer science (undergraduate level) and GIS (graduate level). This person is responsible for the implementation of GIS and then works on a daily basis maintaining the system. The GIS ad hoc user has no extensive knowledge of this technology and applies GIS (generally user-friendly systems) sporadically, treating it as a tool for solving a particular problem. Also in this classification, the specialized GIS user, who works with the system every day and should demonstrate a firm understanding of many GIS operations, as well as the ability to properly use spatial analysis tools. Finally, there are three types of jobs related to the position of GIS developer: GIS system analyst, GIS system designer, and GIS programmer. All three of these jobs deal with the information models; the programmer is further concerned with user interface, algorithms, etc. This complexity of specialized personnel required for GIS operations dictates a variety of training programs at various levels within the education system.
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements GIS EDUCATION
AND TRAINING
51
PROGRAMS
Throughout the 1980s. a number of GIS training programs were established world-wide. In the 1990 Directory of Colleges and Universities Offering Geographical Information Systems Courses (current or likely), there were 1447 listings, mostly in the USA and Canada (Morgan, III, & Bennett, 1990). The most frequent representatives in this directory were departments of geography (54%). urban and regional planning (12%), geosciences (8%). environmental sciences (7%). and landscape architecture (6%). Thirty-four university departments and three colleges were from Canada. Between 1988 and 1990, the number of departments offering a GIS specialization grew 43% in the USA and 50% in Canada. Another directory (Geomatics Industry Association of Canada, 1990) lists 18 companies in Canada providing training in GISrelated technologies. There are many places where GIS programs have been offered for many years. Many American universities (for example, Harvard) were not only pioneers in teaching GIS, but also developed some early GIS. In Great Britain, the pioneer in GIS education and training was Edinburgh University; in Canada, the Department of Geography at the University of Western Ontario; in London, the School of Applied Geography at Ryerson Polytechnical Institute in Toronto, and the Department of Survey Engineering at the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton, NB (LIS and CARIS). Among Canadian colleges, GIS courses were offered at Sir Sandford Fleming College in Lindsay, Ontario and at the College of Geographic Sciences (COGS) in Lawrencetown, NS. Almost 10 years ago, Dahlberg (1983) described cartographic education in USA as a “pancake with bubble” model, where the pancake represents the introductory level courses offered in many universities and colleges, and surface bubbles represent the few places where the advanced courses are delivered. He later proposed a pyramid structure with more intermediate courses. The situation in GIS is very similar. The best courses cannot be offered everywhere, but there should be places providing the full range of courses resulting in a comprehensive GIS program. In Canada there are the: Canadian Centre for GIS in Education in Ottawa; the Center of Expertise in Land Information Systems at the University of Calgary; the Centre for Geomatics at Universite Laval in Quebec City; the Canadian Laboratory for Integrated Spatial Information Research at the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton; the Institute for Land Information Management at the University of Toronto; the Centre for Advanced Numerical Mapping Applications (CANMAP) Research Institute; and the proposed Canadian Institute for Earth Observation Training (CIEOT) at COGS, Lawrencetown, NS. METHODOLOGY
OF TEACHING
GIS
A great deal of time and research has been devoted to the search for a model for GIS instruction. A series of conferences on education in GIS were held at Ohio State University and, in the mid-eighties, two volumes of The Operational Geographer were devoted to this problem (Goodchild, 1985; Maher & Wightman, 1985; Poiker, 1985). In the summer of 1991, the GIS industry sponsored the international GIS Higher Education Symposium at the university of South Florida in Tampa (Aangeenbrug, 1992). Also in 1991, a special autumn issue of Cartographica was published with papers from an international conference of GIS Education and Training. Gold (1989) discusses the strength and weakness of GIS programs in colleges, at the university undergraduate level and at different graduate levels (in applications versus engineering). According to Gold, the college style program can be characterized by well defined objectives, good equipment, and an appropriate staff/student ratio. He explains the weakness of the GIS program at the university level at the beginning of the 1990s by the fact that “the academic GIS
52
K. Dramowicz
et al.
‘expert’ is a rare species, especially in Canada... At the research level, these academics are few; at the teaching level, there may be more, but they are not necessarily very experienced in the field.” (pp. 8874388). GIS AT THE COLLEGE
LEVEL
The GIS program at the college level should be oriented toward the education level of the students. There are colleges where the majority of students are high school graduates, whereas other colleges cater to university graduates, some with related practical experience. In 1989, there were four colleges in Canada offering a comprehensive program in GIS (Gracie, 1989). At two of these, the College of Geographic Sciences in Lawrencetown, NS (diploma in GIS), and Sir Sandford Fleming College in Lindsay, Ontario (diploma in GIST), the programs are well established and have been operating successfully for a number of years. At that time, a program at the British Columbia Institute of Technology in Burnaby, BC (Advanced Diploma Program in GIS), and the Algonquin College of Applied Arts and Technology in Ottawa, Ontario (GIS Technician or Technologist diploma), were in the planning or early development stage. Several other colleges offered separate GIS courses in such programs as: resources management technology, engineering technology, technology of geodesy, and surveying and mapping technology. Each of these college programs represents a different orientation and approach to teaching GIS. Some of these colleges also provide continuing education and special training. The content of college level GIS programs is generally identified by the different proportion between two components: education and training. Wightman (1990) states that through education we learn to think, appreciate, and analyze. Through training we learn to do, compute, and operate. Wikle (1991) believes that GIS training involves “hands-on” experience with the operation of hardware and software and is usually focused on a single GIS hardware manufacturer and software system. In contrast, GIS education refers to comprehensive exljerience with, or background relating to, GIS theory and allied disciplines. Marble (1979) emphasizes that GIS training develops skills in using particular tools, whereas GIS education deals with the principles related to tools and with the application of these tools in different situations. GIS education can be a prerequisite to training and is especially needed at the initial stage of working with GIS. Courses in GIS fundamentals, or such teaching materials as the NCGIA Core Curriculum (1990). support the education phase. Many universities, due to a lack of necessary equipment and specialized teaching staff, concentrate only on this phase, and students are expected to receive their postgraduate training in specialized schools, colleges, or universities. An example of training materials for teaching GIS may include Understanding GIS published by ESRI (1992) or technical manuals or tutorials for specific systems. There are examples of the education phase being completely omitted in GIS programs. Sullivan and Miller (1991. p. 66) describe how six regional offices in the British Columbia Ministry of Forests were introduced to GIS in 1985. “The implementation strategy was simple; hardware, software, and user manuals were sent to 6 locations across the province.” Anyone familiar with GIS in the mid-eighties will recall that the systems were definitely not designed for self-teaching. Probably the best approach is to combine both aspects of teaching GIS, education, and training at the same time. Many universities with adequate lab facilities and sufficient staff are able to organize lectures and lab exercises on the same topics. Colleges and specialized schools can also follow this approach because of the favourable teacher/student ratio. However, in these types of schools the teaching staff is usually better prepared for training than for teaching theory. The preferred approach to obtain a high level capability in GIS would include completing university fast, acquiring related experience (including some GIS education and a sampling of
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements
53
GIS training), and then completing a graduate program at a college, combining both substantial GIS education and comprehensive GIS training. BUILDING
A GIS CURRICULUM
There are various possible approaches to building a general outline for teaching GIS. One of them is to use one of the many existing curricula. The NCGIA Core Curriculum consists of 75 units divided into three groups: introduction, technical issues, and application issues. Other examples include Curriculum Development in Cartography and Geographic Information Systems from the University of Washington (Nyerges & Chrisman, 1989). the University of Victoria Curriculum (Keller, 1991), or the Autocarro GIS Syllabus from United Kingdom (Unwin et al., 1990). The recently published monumental Geographic Information Systems: Principles and Applications (Maguire, Goodchild, & Rhind, 1991) consists of 56 units in two volumes that can also serve as a comprehensive GIS curriculum. Generally, there are two common approaches to implementation of a GIS curriculum in educational institutions. The typical one is to offer a linear sequence of courses building and refining professional skills. A second approach, proposed by the committe for Curriculum Development in Cartography and GIS (CAGIS) at the University of Washington, substitutes a matrix approach with different roles of different courses. In the later approach each of the GIS topics is associated with one or more courses; therefore, the matrix can be constructed with topics (rows) and courses (columns). GIS curricula not being a problem, is it then possible to formulate an optimal model for teaching GIS? The diversity of GIS jobs - each requiring a unique combination of skills cast doubt on the likelihood of developing a GIS program to satisfy all requirements. In spite of this, the College of Geographic Sciences in Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia, has established its own very effective model of GIS education/training. THE COLLEGE
OF GEOGRAPHIC
SCIENCES
COGS was built on the foundation of a technical training institute which has been in Lawrencetown since 1946. Originally a training facility for land survey technology from 1958 to 1986, this school was known as the Nova Scotia Land Survey Institute. Later, other technology programs were introduced: photogrammetry (1960), cartography (1961), planning (1976), remote sensing (1977). scientific computer programming (1980), and most recently, GIS (1985). Presently, there are three departments in the College - Computer Applications and Programming, Mapping, and Survey - providing a variety of programs: Computer Programming Technician, Scientific Computer Programming, Geographic Information Systems, Remote Sensing, Cartography, Planning, Survey Assistant, Survey Technician, and Survey Technologist. There are approximately 200 students enrolled annually and more than 20 instructors on faculty. The GIS program at COGS is primarily oriented for students having at least completed a university degree in a related field. Many have had pertinent work experience. Although GIS has only been an official program for the past 7 years, GIS training at COGS began in 1980. when the twelve-month Scientific Computer Programming Diploma Program was established. A core course of this program was application programming using existing GIS. The first GIS used at COGS was POLYGRID. Shortly thereafter, software was purchased from Environmental System Research Institute (ESRI) in California. GRID and PIOS were installed on the PRIME minicomputer in 1982, followed in 1983 by ARC/INFO on the same platform. In 1985, the separate GIS diploma program was founded. Since the inception of this program, three major aspects have been present in teaching GIS at COGS: programming languages skills, theoretical
54
K. Dramowicz et al.
concerns, and applications (Maher, 1987). These aspects, representing both education and training, are still present in the GIS curriculum. This dual approach makes COGS a unique center for graduate level GIS education not only in Canada, but also internationally. The spatial distribution of origin of students in the GIS program, and its sister Remote Sensing (RS) program, is indicative of the status of COGS both in Canada and abroad. Enrollment has included students from Poland, USA, China, India, Zimbabwe, Argentina, Greece, Peru, Trinidad, Ethiopia, Thailand and Indonesia. The majority of GIS students in the past 4 years have come from Ontario (33%). then Nova Scotia (23%) and New Brunswick (16%). The student’s academic background included geography (44%). geology (19%). and forestry (14%) (Figure 1). The decision for selecting this particular college was based on its reputation, tuition costs, the length of the program, and the proximity for the students from the Canadian Maritimes. THE GIS CURRICULUM
AT COGS
At COGS, a combined model of linear and matrix systems has been applied. The same topics are present in many different courses; for example, digital data standards and data transfer, topological properties of data structures, etc. The program is intensive and presently is based on 48 weeks (2400 hours) of classes and supervised labs. Forty-six additional hours are available weekly for unsupervised lab use. The average student spends approximately 70 hours weekly in the college. When working on their cooperative research projects, students have 24hour access to the computer facilities daily. Because COGS GIS students have degrees at the undergraduate, masters, or doctorate levels, and often possess a significant professional background, they are usually well prepared for such a rigorous schedule.
FIGURE 1. Background
of GIS Students.
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements
55
The GIS program at COGS is now in a transition phase. The existing three-semester, twelvemonth program will be expanded to four semesters over two academic years. There will also be a closer integration with the sister program in Remote Sensing. This new program will represent the contemporary trends in integration of GIS and Remote Sensing technology (Davis & Simonett, 1991). This parallels the initiative of Dahlberg and Jensen (1986) who presented the idea of the Integrated Spatial Information Systems Model for education in GIS, remote sensing, and cartography. The new format of the GIWRemote Sensing program will provide the flexibility for those who wish a program in a shorter format and the ability to receive a certificate in either of GIS or Remote Sensing at the end of two-semesters (37 weeks). Students who qualify may wish to proceed to an advanced year of studies in an integrated GIS/Remote Sensing program with graduation at the diploma level. In the first year, GIS/Remote Sensing fundamentals will be offered, stressing the role of concepts and tools in the first semester, and basic application tools in the second semester. The second year will be devoted to spatial resource information management. In the third semester, advanced GIWRemote Sensing applications will be taught, and in the fourth semester, the focus will be on a major cooperative research project. This strategy is based on the concept of a knowledge decay rate; the tendancy of information to depreciate over time (Nyerges 8z Chrisman, 1989). In GIS. fundamental concepts are more resistant to such a decay whereas hardware and software specific information is quickly forgotten or rendered obsolete. This ensures that the student is equally strong in both fundamentals and current applications at the time of graduation. Over the 2 years the following courses are planned: l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l l
Fundamentals of GIS Fundamentals of Remote Sensing/Digital Image Processing Introduction to Programming Introduction to Computers Advanced GIS Advanced Image Processing Spatial Modelling and Analysis Information Systems Remote Sensing Systems and Applications Advanced Applications of GIS Integrated GIS/RS Algorithms and C Spatial Statistics (Spatial Analysis Algorithms) Radar Remote Sensing Resource Information Management Directed Studies
Time is also reserved for the cooperative research project. The courses will be complemented by assignments, practical applications of the learned theory. Most of these assignments will be major projects requiring weeks of intensive work and computer-generated products, programs, and user’s and technical documentation. Students in the first semester will be instructed in GIS data entry how to build a database, perform basic analysis and modelling, transfer digital data, and produce a cartographic output. In the programming course, they learn Fortran 77 through such practical applications as projection transformations, raster overlay, neighbourhood modelling, data transfer, and image handling. They also learn remote sensing technology, including elements of photogrammetry and environmental monitoring techniques.
K. Dramowicz
56
et al.
In the second semester, activities include digital elevation modelling and three-dimensional display, network analysis methods, raster data modelling, coordinate geometry, and large data base management. Students are also instructed in fourth generation programming languages for custom application development. They learn analytical and modelling aspects of GIS and are able to apply a variety of spatial analysis techniques. In addition, other courses ensure proficiency in standard image processing concepts, advanced enhancement techniques, noise reduction and filtering, and principal component analysis. The remote sensing program, integrated with GIS, contributes to the students’ knowledge of airborne and spaceborne systems: meteorological satellites, ocean dynamics measuring satellites, space shuttles, space stations, and applications of different satellites in various disciplines. In the third semester, programming skills are refined and C is taught through practical GIS assignments; raster/vector conversions, TIN, image manipulation, and network modelling. Many other methods useful in GIS including analysis of spatial patterns and processes, spatial variation, network analysis, and cluster analysis are dealt with, not only in the context of spatial analysis and spatial statistical methods, but also, in a more general sense, spatial reasoning. In the last semester, students work mostly on the cooperative research project. Additionally, they study the theory and applications of imaging radar systems, with special emphasis on environmental monitoring. Students are introduced to requirements analysis, land information management requirements, decision theory, and a variety of resource and land information management environments. Also, various directed studies are offered at that time in which student are permitted to select a subject closest to their individual directions or interests. Some have included the study of GIS systems to which the student has not already been introduced, and specialized programming projects. This GIS curriculum reflects a diversity of theoretical topics and applications, a necessary consideration in light of the variations in GIS use today. Maher (1987) notes that for every ten GIS installations, one will be in a significantly new field. Wikle (1991) discusses a survey conducted amongs 175 users representing private business, government agencies, colleges and universities on the identification of the most important topics in GIS. Every topic is covered in the COGS GIS program. Finis coronat opus, the cooperative research project is the final and integral part of the GIS diploma. This project represents the application of existing GIS technology or the development of new software to enhance GIS tools. The project is undertaken in cooperation with outside agencies and solution design and implementation are performed with continual faculty assistance. Apart from its being an opportunity for the student to acquire “on-the-job” experience, the cooperative project is also a means of keeping the College up to date on market requirements and workplace hardware and software demands (Colville & Mosher, 1991). Some examples of cooperative projects from the last year are presented in Table 1.
TABLE 1. GIS Cooperative
Research
Projects and Sponsors,
1990/1991
Enhanced Buffering Algorithms (Lakehead University) Ski Slope Profile Classification (Lakehead University) Annual Harvest Distribution Model 9University of New Brunswick Classifying Polygons Based on Similarity (COGS) Bore Hole Query Syustem (Canadian Seabed Research) Ground Water Modelling (EMlUNoranda) Base Metal Mineral Prediction (New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources) Mountain Pine Back Beetle Impact Assesment (Waterton Lakes National Park) Comparison of Network Analysis Environments (Storington Township) Wetland Acidification Monitoring (Water Planning and Management, N.S. Dept. Env.) Land Use Inventory Database (Agriculture Canada) Geophysical Database in Spans (Intern Kenting)
57
Addressing GIS Personnel Requirements
Since the first GIS courses were offered at COGS, more than 100 students have graduated in GIS. Usually there are many more job offers than the number of available graduates. Most of the GIS graduates work in: computer science (25.9%), in forestry and related industries (19.4%). and in parks and natural resources (14.3%) (Figure 2). COGS TECHNICAL
FACILITIES
Based on the premise that hardware should reflect contemporary trends in GIS technology (Dangermond, 1990), and should represent the most commonly used standards, systems, and environments on the market, a program such as the COGS GIS program requires state-of-theart computing facilities. Students are exposed to a variety of operating systems, data base management systems, and GIS hardware and software. They have access to a SUN MP670 server/Workstation. networked to IBM RISC/6000 and IBM X-Station workstations, PRIME 4050 and VAX 1l/785 minicomputers and over 60 IBM compatible microcomputers. Many of these micro-systems are high end 486s with advanced graphics. These systems are supported by a wide variety of industry standard peripherals and are linked by an Ethernet Local area network (LAN), supporting TCP/IP, NFS, TELNET and Novell netware, so the students can share data or programs on various platforms. A variety of software runs on this hardware configuration; ARC/INFO (on PRIMOS, AIX, SUNOS or DOS) with all available modules, SPANS (on OS/2, AIX or DOS), CARIS (on UNIX), and many DOS-based systems such as PAMAP, GEO/SQL, IDRISI, ATLAS GIS, MAPINFO, INFOCUS, OSU MAP, and some MAP derivatives. ARIES, EAWPACE and ERDAS image analysis software is also supported. In GIS World magazine’s most recent annual GIS survey of the most important systems on the market, the most popular operating systems
Legend Computer Science Natural lllilm! % Pulp Industry 0
Mapping & Surveying
q Education & Trainiig corlsulting Mu&pal
q Administration WI communication oceanography 0
FIGURE 2. Caraers of COGS Graduates.
58
K. Dramowicz et al.
were: DOS, UNIX, VMS, and the standard support: SQL, X-Windows, and TCP/IP. COGS students have access to the latest releases of all these standards, operating systems, and a library of other applications software. This comprehensive combination of hardware and software provides students with knowledge of similarities and differences between different GIS configurations, and unique considerations when transferring data between systems. Working with a variety of data structures, students develop the ability to adapt to new systems very quickly. NEW INITiATlVES
AT COGS
The integrated GIS/Remote Sensing program will support a new COGS initiative - the Canadian Institute for Earth Observation Training - proposed to the Canadian Space Agency in December 1991 fight, 1991). The demand for training in geomatics in Canada has been expressed by many ~temation~ sources; Canadian industry is a major world exporter in such technology. In 1989, COGS was asked by the Inter-provincial and Territorial Advisory Committee on Remote Sensing to take the leadership of a consortium of many Canadian colleges and universities. The alliances between COGS and other institutions have been established in the form of one-on-one agreements or ~mor~da of underst~ding. The list of agreements, established or in negotiation, consists of approximately 12 Canadian universities and colleges and an equal number of companies and organizations (Wightman, 1990). The Canadian Institute for Earth Observation Training would provide a two-year, integrated, graduate level GIS/Remote Sensing diploma program for 24 students per year. Of this number, half will come from Canada, and half from developing countries. The international students will return to their countries with state-of-the-art ~owl~ge of GIS/Remote Sensing technology, whereas the Canadian students will gain international experience working with them on cooperative research projects. There are many possibilities to use the COGS GIS training center as the location for activities like: The Questions to Ask Workshop Series, The Managing GIS Hands-on Training Program, GIS Distance Learning Program, and The Continuing Professional Development Program. Heywood and Petch (1991) discuss all of these options relative to the GIS program at the University of Salford in the UK. COGS offers extension and special training programs in fundamentals of GIS, remote sensing, image analysis, DBMS, microcomputing, and in related software applications. COGS also has the potential to be the testing, proving, and development grounds for many vendor and consumer companies and organizations. CONCLUSION
While the demand for GIS training in North America has been rapidly increasing, future requirements for the use of this technology in the developing world, and in a restructured Europe, will create increasing pressures on the education/training system. Institutions who accept this challenge must exhibit flexibility and industry level response time to changing requirements. Continuing education and special training programs, which include the flexibility for international programs delivered on site or by distance education, will become a major trend of the 1990s. REFERENCES Aangeenbrug, R. T. (1992). GIS higher education symposium pmdwtive. GfS World, 5(l), 40. Colvti, D. L., & Mosbex, R. S. (1991). Nova Scotia school stresses GIS progmmming.GIS World, 4(7), 120.
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