Advancements in meat packaging

Accepted Manuscript Advancements in meat packaging

Kenneth W. McMillin PII: DOI: Reference:

S0309-1740(17)30212-7 doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2017.04.015 MESC 7229

To appear in:

Meat Science

Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:

16 February 2017 28 March 2017 19 April 2017

Please cite this article as: Kenneth W. McMillin , Advancements in meat packaging. The address for the corresponding author was captured as affiliation for all authors. Please check if appropriate. Mesc(2017), doi: 10.1016/j.meatsci.2017.04.015

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Advancements in Meat Packaging Kenneth W. McMillina* a

School of Animal Sciences, Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Baton Rouge,

Louisiana, USA 70803-4210

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*Corresponding author [email protected]

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Abstract

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Packaging of meat provides the same or similar benefits for raw chilled and processed meats as other types of food packaging. Although air-permeable packaging is most prevalent for

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raw chilled red meat, vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging offer longer shelf life. The

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major advancements in meat packaging have been in the widely used plastic polymers while biobased materials and their integration into composite packaging are receiving much attention

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for functionality and sustainability. At this time, active and intelligent packaging are not widely

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used for antioxidant, antimicrobial, and other functions to stabilize and enhance meat properties although many options are being developed and investigated. The advances being made in

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nanotechnology will be incorporated into food packaging and presumably into meat packaging

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when appropriate and useful. Intelligent packaging using sensors for transmission of desired information and prompting of subsequent changes in packaging materials, environments or the

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products to maintain safety and quality are still in developmental stages. Key words packaging; meat; active packaging; intelligent packaging Contents 1. Introduction to meat packaging 1.1

Reasons and historical basis of meat packaging

1.2

Purposes and types of meat packaging

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 2. Advances in meat packaging Packaging materials

2.2

Active packaging

2.2.2

Antimicrobial imbedding

2.2.3

Nanotechnology

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Antioxidant incorporation

Intelligent packaging concepts

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2.3

2.2.1

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2.1

3. Future packaging considerations

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4. Conclusions

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5. Acknowledgements

1.1

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1. Introduction to meat packaging

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6. References

Reasons and historical basis of meat packaging

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Packaging of food extends beyond the original function of product protection and

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provides many functions for and about the packaged product (Han, 2005a). Packaging and packaging-related product traits influence purchase intentions and decisions by consumers

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(Verbeke, De Smet, Vackier, Van Oeckel, Warnats, & Van Kenhove, 2005; Grobbel, Dikeman, Hunt, & Milliken, 2008) so appearance, water binding (or holding) capacity, color, microbial quality, lipid stability, nutritive value, and palatability (texture, flavor, aroma) are important meat properties (Taylor, 1985; Renerre & Labadie, 1993; Zhao et al., 1994; Singh and Singh, 2005). This requires design of packaging to maintain and inhibit deterioration of these attributes to provide consumer convenience and usability by the desired containment, product maintenance

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT and protection, and information about products of the packages (Yam, Takhistov, & Miltz, 2005). Packaging functions and features have been categorized in more detail into specific protection, preservation, handling facilitation, and communication roles (Lindh, Williams, Olsson, & Wikström. 2016).

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The cutting and wrapping of meat in paper or waxed paper by butchers upon demand

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were replaced by store cutting and display of the packages in refrigerated self-service display

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cases and now much meat is packaged in the processing plant and stored and displayed in caseready forms for both raw chilled and processed meat (McMillin, 2008). Cole (1986) described

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the general changes in meat packaging after retail meat began to be merchandised in self-service

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cases. As the need for packaging to provide more attributes than simply protection of the product

1.2

Types of meat packaging

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increased, materials and systems were developed to address those needs.

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There are many packaging options for raw chilled and processed meat to accentuate the desired properties for storage and display. Although all package types could be used for most

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meat products, the choices of packaging for specific cuts or products is usually dependent upon

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the characteristics desired for storage and display and the expectations of purchasers. Packaging types range from air-permeable (overwrap) packaging for short-term storage and retail display of

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raw chilled meat to the use of barrier materials in vacuum, bulk-gas flushing, and modified atmosphere packaging for longer term storage or display of raw chilled products and for processed or cooked meat items depending upon the specific desired attributes and applications (Kerry, O’Grady, & Hogan, 2006). Air-permeable packaging allows for myogolobin and O2 binding to form oxymyoglobin pigments, which are viewed as a red color, until the reducing capacity is exhausted and the pigments change to brown metmyoglobin pigments. Raw chilled

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT meat for long term storage and cooked or processed meats are usually packaged in materials providing for an anoxic environment, which causes formation of deoxymyoglobin pigments for raw meat and maintains the nitrosylhemochrome pigments in cured meat. The major packaging options were reviewed previously (McMillin, 2008) as air-

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permeable, vacuum, and modified atmosphere (MAP) with low levels of oxygen or high levels of

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oxygen. Air-permeable packaging has film with holes, pores, or perforations that allow oxygen

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to diffuse from the atmosphere to cause oxymyoglobin formation on the meat surface. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) films are shrunk around the meat on trays in

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conventional overwrap packages. Vacuum packaging relies upon negative pressure to remove

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ambient air with sealing of the pouches or rollstock formed packages while the vacuum state is maintained. MAP is the removal of the gaseous environment and replacing with a desired

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gaseous atmosphere, usually with blends rather than a single type of gas, in pouches, trays with

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lidding film, or formed rollstock film. Oxygen (O2) creates oxymyoglobin red pigments that eventually oxidize to a brown color. Nitrogen (N2) is relatively benign, used primarily either to

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flush air from vacuum packaging or as a filler gas to prevent pack collapse in MAP. Carbon

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dioxide (CO2) is used for microbial inhibition. Carbon monoxide (CO) creates a red pigment, carboxymyoglobin, that is highly stable for much longer periods of time than oxymyoglobin.

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Different gases at different concentrations are used to create the environment needed to impart the desired meat characteristics (McMillin, 2008). Different packaging systems allow for permutations of these options so that airpermeable packaging could be used within a master pack or tray-in-sleeve systems. Meat fabricated into primal cuts at the processing plant is often packaged into vacuum bags or pouches for transport to retail venues. If the primal cuts are to be separated into retail cuts for display,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT then air-permeable packaging is often used so meat is red during selection and purchase by consumers. Vacuum skin technologies provide anoxic or aerobic packages depending upon the type of forming film used, barrier or air-permeable, but the effect is to enhance the appearance and desired characteristics of the packaged product (McMillin, 2008).

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Overwrap packaging uses air-permeable and moisture-barrier film to stretch around the

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meat product. Because meat from domestic mammalian species turned red after exposure to

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oxygen in the air and oxymyoglobin pigments were maintained during short term storage and self-service case display, consumers associated the red color of meat with freshness (Jenkins &

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Harrington, 1991). Although vacuum packaging excludes air and prevents the brown

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discoloration associated with metmyoglobin pigments, the purple color of raw chilled meat in anoxic environments has not been widely accepted by consumers and is used for display of only

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a few forms of meat. Most processed, cured, and/or cooked meat is packaged in barrier materials

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either as vacuum packages or anoxic MAP. Conventional vacuum packaging is being replaced by vacuum skin packaging in some applications for smaller retail products. Specially formulated

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lidding films create a skin of film around the product without shape distortion (Anonymous,

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2016). Ground beef in the different packaging types are in Figure 1. Overwrap packaging continues to be the most common type of packaging for fresh meat

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in retail cases because red color is an important selling point for consumers. The decline in overwrap packaging with the advent of MAP was stabilized when overwrapped packages began to be distributed in mother bags that offered the needed color and desired extended shelf life. MAP is the third most common format for fresh meat after overwrap and vacuum packaging. MAP with hermetic seals overcome leaky overwrap packages avoided by consumers and reduce product volumes that must be marked down, reground or discarded, but overwrap packaging

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT provides the look to which consumers are accustomed (Bolton, 2013). However, now there are fewer foam trays with a shift to more plastic trays and to non-tray formats of flexible packaging, chub film, roll stock and semi-rigid so the variety of ground beef packaging appeals to a broad base of consumers (Petrak, 2016a).

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Bulk ground beef or individual cuts may be shrink wrapped on polystyrene trays or in

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easy to peel (open) and freezer ready packages (Salvage, 2014). Most consumers (88%)

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anticipate purchasing ground (minced) beef in overwrap packaging while chub packages of ground beef, the least expensive way to buy ground meat, was purchased by 54% of consumers.

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Of consumers who planned to make burgers, 39% purchased pre-formed patties. Refrigerated

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burgers may be packaged in multiple cavities in polypropylene ethylene vinyl alcohol MAP trays while frozen burgers may be in VP. However, only 12.5% of consumers purchased VP ground

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beef. Shoppers of ground beef are most influenced by meat color and date code on the package,

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with price per pound and leanness also considered, but of lesser importance (Salvage, 2014). In a study of European consumers, 73% accepted vacuum packaging and 54.7% accepted

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modified atmosphere packaging (Van Wezemael, Ueland, & Verbeke, 2011). Safety of beef is

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implicitly expected by European consumers so less familiar modifications to packaging were less easily accepted by European consumers. A majority of consumers disliked (41%) or had a

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neutral opinion (35.9%) on the concept of preservative food additives being released form packaging materials. Packaging with natural agents had 36.6% acceptance and 40.3% neutral opinion while packaging with protective bacteria had 30.4% acceptance and 35.5% neutral reactions (Van Wezemael, Ueland, & Verbeke, 2011). U.S. consumers prefer longer shelf life as long as they understand the technology. Consumers in Europe and the U.S. prefer ground beef that is cherry red in color. Levels of CO not to exceed 0.4% of the MAP gas mixture are allowed

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT to maintain wholesomeness of meat products in the U.S. (FSIS, 2017), but there are no reliable estimates on the types or quantities of meat that use CO in case-ready meat. Providing information on CO use in packaging decreased U.S. consumer willingness to pay while some German consumers’ willingness to pay was increased with information on CO even though CO

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is not allowed in Germany (Grebitus, Jensen, & Roosen, 2013).

Packaging materials

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2.1

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2. Advances in meat packaging

Plastic materials create attractive, hygienic and convenient materials that enhance

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consumer evaluation of meat products (Renerre & Labadie, 1993). Packaging material attributes

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and the food quality are directly related (Han, 2005a) so packaging materials have been developed to maintain the desired properties of meat during storage and display. Plastics have

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properties that are highly suitable for food packaging (Jenkins & Harrington, 1991). Common

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polymers for food packaging are low-density polyethylene (LDPE), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), and nylon (polyamide)(Han,

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Zhang, & Buffo, 2005) while polyesters, PVC, PVDC, polystyrene, polyamide, and ethylene

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vinyl acetate (EVA) are also used for food packaging (Marsh & Bugusu, 2007). Although glass containers are not commonly used for meat products due to the potential for breakage and

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subsequent product contamination, they are used for specialized products such as pickled pig feet, lips, and sausage. Lamb pâté had a shelf life of 3 months with no differences in texture or sensory traits when packaged in glass or polyamide casings (Amaral, Silva, Bezerra, Arcanjo, Guerra, Dalmás, & Madruga, 2015). Spreadable salami (‘Nduia) in natural casings packaged in PE for 3 months, and thereafter in different packaging materials had the lowest accumulation of biogenic amines after 15 months in Ovtene® (calcium carbonate, talc, and titanium dioxide

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT bound with HDPE resins), followed by aluminum tube, glass jar and vacuum packaging (Loizzo, Spizzirri, Bonesi, Tundis, Picci, & Restuccia, 2016). Some packaging composites that have been tested recently include poly(vinyl alcohol)-graphite oxide and poly(vinyl alcohol)-graphene oxide (Loryuenyong, Saewong, Aranchaiya, & Buasri, 2015).

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More recent focus has been placed on the biodegradation or recycling ability of materials

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with improved functional features for enhanced shelf life and convenience (Crews, 2016). Edible

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films and coatings address consumer concerns for more natural foods and environmental protection. Biopolymers are usually based upon hydrocolloids such as polysaccharides (e.g.

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cellulose, starch, alginates, chitosan, gums, pectins) or proteins from animal or plant sources to

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modify barriers to moisture and gases and to form films with the desired mechanical and functional properties (Buonocore and Iannace, 2013). Pullulan-alginate based films were highly

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water soluble, heat-sealable, and oxygen impermeable (Xiao, Lu, Tong, & Liu, 2014).

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The properties of biodegradable protein-based films (bovine gelatin, catfish skin gelatin, soy protein isolates, fish myofibrillar protein, and whey protein concentrate) were compared with

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commercial polyvinyl chloride films for mechanical, physical, chemical, thermal, and barrier

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properties (Kaewprachu, Osako, Benjakul, Tongdeesoontorn, & Rawdkuen, 2016). They concluded that these protein-based films could be used as an alternative for food packaging

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applications. However, the properties of biopolymers are usually deemed less desirable than conventional plastic materials so it is not likely that they will replace plastic materials. The current industrial production of proteins for films, including corn zein, wheat gluten, soy protein, sunflower protein, milk proteins, muscle proteins, collagen and gelatin, and feather keratin, has not yet been developed (Gómez-Estaca, Gavara, Catalá, & Hernández-Muñoz, 2016). Using essential oils from aromatic plants alleviate concerns about synthetic additives and their

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT inclusion in active food packaging has been described in Ribeiro-Santos, Andrade, de Melo, & Sanches-Silva (2017). Essential oils, however, may impart intense aroma when used with meat, prompting technologies such as encapsulation of essential oils into nanoemulsions and using essential oils in combination with other processes or ingredients (Fang, Zhao, Warner, &

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Johnson, 2017).

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Polylactic acid (PLA) films have brittleness and oxygen permeability that is not suited for

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some meat products. A corn-based polymer converted in a more straightforward manner from high-amylose corn provides low oxygen transmission that outperforms ethyl (vinyl alcohol)

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(EVOH) (Anonymous, 2012a). Thermoformable paper-based packages have been developed for

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refrigerated sliced meat. The paper-based forming web can be recycled, but maximum depth of draw is 12 mm (Reynolds, 2014), which limits use to thin meat portions.

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Opening of vacuum packaged boneless primal cuts in foodservice and processing

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operations has created challenges for plant and foodservice personnel that have now been addressed by vacuum bags that can be opened without a knife and have shrinkage of 65% for

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beef bags (20 to 25% more than previous bags) and 82% for pork bags, which help reduce purge

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and extend shelf life. Development of films for bone-in cuts that can withstand abrasion and still be opened without a cutting tool is in progress (Anonymous, 2012b) even though bones of bone-

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in cuts can be covered with clear bone shield materials or placed into high-abuse multilayer barrier bags with built-in bone guard protection to prevent package puncture (Petrak, 2014). The main attractiveness of ready-to-eat (RTE) food is convenience and extremely complex high performance ovenable transparent polymer films that allow viewing of the products, withstand refrigerated storage, and endure oven or microwave temperatures up to 200°C have been developed to improve food safety for consumers (Egan, 2013). Cook-in-bag

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT packaging is now available for retail cuts. Cast polyethylene terephthalate (PET) films are specially designed in monolayer or multilayer formats to vent on the side seal where the lidding material and thermoformed bottom web meet when a specific internal pressure is reached and then the meat is browned in the vented package. These films allow thermoforming from rollstock

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and can replace premade nylon cook-in bags (Reynolds, 2013).

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Innovations in pad, tray, and package design help their reliability and convenience with

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meat. Pads made of a non-permeable/non-stick polyethylene film and hydrophilic non-woven bottom layer filled with a combination of citric acid and sodium bicarbonate create CO2 when

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contacted by meat drip to create an unfavorable environment for bacterial growth (Larson, 2016).

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The blend of sodium bicarbonate and citric acid in a 60/40 ratio must not exceed 0.5 to 2 grams per pad when incorporated into the absorbent pad (FSIS, 2017). A blend of citric acid and sorbic

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acid in a 2:1 ratio can be incorporated into soaker pads at a level not to exceed 1 to 3 grams per

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pad to reduce microbial load of purge trapped inside of absorbent pads in raw meat and poultry muscle cut packages (FSIS, 2017). A vacuum sealed package for bulk ground beef has a tab that

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is easy to open to make the product more convenient for consumers (Petrak, 2016a).

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Nanocomposites are materials having the filler with at least one dimension smaller than 100 nm and promise stronger, more heat resistant and high barrier materials (Arora & Padua,

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2010), which would be useful in the abrasion encountered for meat packages and in packages used for heating of meat products. Nanocomposite formation often includes nanoclays, carbon nanotubes, or graphene nanosheets with bases of biomaterials, starch, cellulose, polylactic acid, or proteins (Arora & Padua, 2010). Inclusion of nanoparticles make production and use of biopolymers possible and more sustainable due to less demand for raw materials (Souza & Fernando, 2016). There are currently only a few nanocomposite materials being used for

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT packaging (Kuorwel, Cran, Orbell, Buddhadasa & Bigger, 2015), but this is an active area of development for food packaging with many different nanomaterial types being studied (Bumbudsanpharoke & Ko, 2015). Biocomposite films based on cellulose and alginate using unmodified birch pulp, microfibrillated cellulose, nanofibrillated cellulose, and birch pulp

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derivated, and nanofibrillated anionic dicarboxylic acid cellulose had increased tensile strength,

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excellent grease barrier properties and reduced water vapor permeability with addition of

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cellulose fibers except when unmodified birch pulp was used (Sirviö, Kolehmainen, Liimatainen, Niinimäki, & Hormi, 2014). Technology to coat a very thin layer of nanocellulose onto

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conventional plastic films has great potential for novel packaging materials, but the issue of

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adhesion of hydrophilic cellulose onto hydrophobic plastic substrates must be addressed (Li, Mascheroni, & Piergiovanni, 2015). The use of 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical

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(TEMPO) oxidation improved the antioxidant activity and barrier against O2, CO2, and water

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vapor of the biodegradable nanocomposite polypyrrole and TEMPO-oxidized nanofibrillated cellulose (Bideau, Bras, Adoi, Loranger, & Daneault, 2017). Although polymeric and structural

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properties of packaging materials may be improved, migration assays and risk assessment are

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still not conclusive (Souza & Fernando, 2016). There are concerns about risks of nanomaterials for use with food so many countries are examining regulatory parameters (Bumbudsanpharoke &

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Ko, 2015). However, particulate migration into foodstuffs does not occur in many applications so the potential risk of exposure to consumers of the nanoparticles is reduced (Wyser, Adams, Avella, Carlander, Garcia, Pieper, Rennen, Schuermans & Weiss, 2016). Reclosable packaging is becoming more commonplace to simplify storage and preparation while eliminating the transfer of multiple serving product quantities to other containers after package opening. There has been expansion of tubs, bowls, and clamshells that

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT have friction-fit lids, flexible packs with conventional or side closures, and pressure-sensitve adhesive based materials (Forcinio, 2013). Trays with peelable lidstock and overlid can replace primary pouches used with tubs for luncheon meats to allow consumers to remove the overlid, peel the lidstock, remove the desired product, and press the overlid to reclose the tray. Other

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resins may be used to replace normal PE trays and overlids and PET lidstock. Zipper designs

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have changed from single-track pressable to multi-track options and can be obtained on premade

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pouches or applied on form/fill/seal machines. Zipper apparatus may have a slider that opens and closes via a tab and pressure-sensitive adhesive reclosures often have a pull-strip that may be

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pressed against the package to reseal (Forcinio, 2013). Some reclosable packaging provide

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evidence of tampering. Reclosure options include press-to-close, slider zippers, pressuresensitive labels, pressure-sensitive flaps, and side seals that reveal a line of pressure-sensitive

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adhesive for reclosing of the package (Forcinio, 2016b). Peelable packaging is now available for

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chub packages of ground or minced products with a peelable strip along the side seam of the long dimension of the package (Anonymous, 2017).

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Bacon is the most popular breakfast protein and much of it is sold precooked for

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reheating. A resealable zipper package used by one company maintains convenience and freshness of product when stored after opening (Clyma, 2012). Uncooked bacon being sold by

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another company has two side by side perforated pouches each containing six slices of bacon with each pouch sealed with peelable film so only contents of one pouch need to be used at one time (Salvage, 2012). Development of susceptor technology allowing packaged bacon to be cooked in a microwave has evolved to include metals, metallized films, and ceramics that provide for crispness and browning lacking in previous packaging materials. The patterned susceptor is rollstock with dual polyethylene terephthalate lamination in a printed paperboard

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT sleeve that allows the bacon slices to be heated while being contacted by the susceptor. Flexible packaging made with a layer of fabric to absorb moisture and grease during cooking offers alternatives to rigid packaging while also providing product crispness and taste (Klingele, 2013). Coding technology and printing resolution have improved print quality and label

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application so more information can be printed faster from 100 to 500 packs per minute in

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addition to improved communication systems that support remote diagnostics and traceability

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functions (Forcinio, 2016a).

High pressure processing (HPP) is being used on some ready-to-eat packaged meats,

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requiring packaging materials and seals that can withstand pressurizing and depressurizing while

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maintaining the original properties and meeting U.S. Food and Drug Administration requirements for food contact materials. Packages must be flexible to withstand irreversible

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deformation during compression, maintain seal integrity, and have adequate barrier properties so

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PET, PE, PP, and EVOH and their combinations are common packaging materials. Intelligent packaging to control release of antimicrobial or antioxidant compounds from the packaging

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material to intact food is also being explored although nisin is currently the only bacteriocin

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allowed in the U.S. Antimicrobials are considered to be food additives. Antioxidant packaging has been tested to minimize lipid oxidation in HPP processed chicken patties. Other packaging

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concepts are moisture absorbers, CO2 emitters and oxygen scavengers (Koutchma, 2016). Incorporation of specific compounds in packaging systems to maintain or extend product quality is known as active packaging while intelligent or smart packaging is the sensing of food properties or package environment conditions to provide information about the product or environment, which may be used to initiate corrective or maintenance actions (Kerry, O’Grady, & Hogan, 2006). Some active and intelligent packaging forms are currently in use while others

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT are still in the development stage (Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson, 2017). Because the definitions of active and intelligent packaging are inconsistent and the two terms are often used interchangeably, it has been proposed that food packaging be classified based on functionality of ergonomic, informative, active, and responsible (or reactive) properties (Brockgreitens and

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Abbas, 2016). Because this concept is relatively recent, the more traditional categories of active

Active packaging

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2.2

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and intelligent packaging will be used for this review.

Active packaging is a system in which the product, package and package environment

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interact to provide a positive characteristic of the food. Often this is accomplished by

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incorporating active compounds into the packaging materials to absorb substances from the food or environment or to release agents from the packaging into the environment or food. The

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protection or shelf life of the product in response to interactions of the product, package and

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environment are often the functions of active packaging technologies, but other functions may also be employed (Yam Takhistov, & Miltz, 2005). Active packaging may have chemoactive

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and/or bioactive components. The basic forms of active packaging are in Table 1.

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EU regulations (1935/2004 and 450/2009/EC, EU, 2011) give specific rules on new types of materials and compounds to actively maintain or improve condition of the food, encompassing

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antioxidant, preservative, and flavor components. The approaches for active packaging are to incorporate the active compounds into a sachet for use with the packaging, to disperse active compounds, usually of nanometric size, into the polymer matrix or to imbed the inorganic particles into the package surface for controlled release. The EU guidance also includes the function of package absorption of chemicals from the food or package environment (Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson, 2017). Active packaging functions and technologies include control of

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT moisture, control of oxygen diffusion into packages, control of carbon dioxide and ethylene diffusion from packages, scavengers or absorbing of oxygen, generation of oxygen or carbon dioxide, control of odors, enhancing of flavors, antimicrobial agents, and microwave susceptors (Brody, 2005) in addition to indicators of specific compounds (de Kruijf, van Beest, Rijk,

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Sipiläinen-Malm, Losada, & De Meulenaer, 2002). The most common active packaging types

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are for antioxidant or antimicrobial purposes although other purposes may also be accomplished.

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Active packaging types and commercial applications for muscle foods were categorized into moisture absorbers, antimicrobial packaging, CO2 emitters, O2 scavengers, antioxidant, and other

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groups (Realini & Marcos, 2014).

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Emitting sachets or pads may generate and release the active agent or carry and release the active agent, such as antimicrobial ingredients or antioxidant compounds of essential oils,

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allyl isothiocyanate, chlorine dioxide, and ethanol. Absorbent pads may absorb liquids or gases

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and be impregnated with silver, copper, or copper oxide nanoparticles (Otoni, Espitia, AvenaBustillos, & McHugh, 2016). The MAP headspace is reduced with CO2 emitters by reducing the

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gas to product volume ratio while having direct antimicrobial effects on some microorganisms.

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Commercially available CO2 emitters that might be used in meat packaging are listed in Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson (2017).

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Sealant film extruded with nitrite crystals for vacuum packaging promotes a prolonged red color to meat and extends shelf life about 10 times longer than overwrapped products, or 21 days for refrigerated ground beef, providing an alternative to MAP using PVC film and expanded polystyrene tray resin technology in master bags for case-ready raw chilled meats (Reynolds, 2012a). Enzymatic reactions between the nitrite crystals and meat form nitric oxide to produce the red nitroxymyoglobin color (Higgins, 2012). In the U.S., red meat packaged in a

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT film containing sodium nitrite must be coded with a “Use or Freeze by” date not to exceed 34 days after packaging for ground red meat and 36 days for whole muscle cuts of red meat (FSIS, 2017). Fresh and frozen beef in nitrite-embedded film (~119 mg/m2 giving less than 2 ppm nitrite in the product) maintained acceptable red color through 19 and 39 days of retail display at

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2°C, respectively (Claus and Du, 2013).

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Oxygen in packages compromises the shelf life of meat and eventually causes quality

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deterioration due to oxidative processes so removal of O2 from vacuum or MAP packaging is highly desired. Oxygen scavengers are used to reduce O2 residuals to as low a level as possible

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since even 0.05% residual O2 may induce oxidation of pigments and lipids (McMillin, 2008).

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Oxygen scavengers are most commonly iron or ferrous oxide fine powders, although ascorbic acid, sulphites, catechol, ligands, and enzymes like glucose oxidase may also be used (Brody,

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Bugusu, Han, Sand, & McHugh, 2008). Available commercial oxygen scavengers are described

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in Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson (2017). Glucose oxidase and catalase enzymes from A. niger with a dextrose energy source and sodium bicarbonate buffer can be incorporated into absorbent

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pads for meat packaging or applied to the product surface at levels less than 0.03% by weight of

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the meat or poultry (FSIS, 2017). A cobalt (II) complex with ligand L-threonine was incorporated into organic polar polymer poly (vinyl alcohol) by casting and the oxygen

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consumption of the active film was equal to the complex alone (2.5 mg O2 per g) after water activation (Damaj, Joly, & Guillon, 2015). Film (LDPE) containing powdered activated carbon impregnated with sodium erythorbate enhanced the heat resistance of the sodium erythorbate at the temperatures typical for LDPE manufacture and these films absorbed 3.57 mg O2 in 11 days, about 80% of the O2 in the package headspace, but 20% of the absorbers by weight decreased the film tensile strength by 53% (Joven, Garcia, Arias, & Medina, 2015). The radical scavenging of

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT tyrosyl acetate, hydroxytrosyl acetate, poly(tyrosyl) acrylate and poly(hydroxytyrosyl) acetate were maintained in the corresponding monomers and polymers while polyacrylate films did not exhibit cytotoxic activities (Fazio, Caroleo, Cione, & Plastina, 2017). Capacity of O2-scavenging polymers, i.e. the amount of oxygen that can be scavenged, is a major consideration for

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scavenger use (Crews, 2016). Zero valent nanoscale iron particles blended with silicone matrix

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absorbed O2 in wet and dry conditions and the absorption rate was 10 times higher at 100%

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relative humidity compared to that of a commercially available iron-based O2 scavenger in a PE or PP polymer matrix (Foltynowicz, Bardenshtein, Sängerlaub, Antvorskov, & Kozak, 2017).

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Another use of scavengers in barrier packaging is removal of confinement odors created

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by normal meat respiration although care must be taken that spoilage odors are not also absorbed. This could be resolved by combining odor scavenging technologies with spoilage-

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sensing smart labels. A difficulty in using aroma-based sensors for indicating product freshness

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is identifying a single volatile component that is related to consumer perceptions of quality or spoilage or detecting multiple indicators of spoilage. Ethylene scavenging materials are being

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incorporated into the film used for fruit and vegetable packaging. Incorporating antioxidants of

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natural extracts such as rosemary and oregano into films are being examined because there are regulatory concerns with use of heavy metals as antioxidants in packaging materials. Self-

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heating packages are being used for beverages and foods like eggs with fluid properties, but have yet to be designed for meat (Crews, 2016). In addition to measuring conditions that might cause quality changes, processing and packaging attempt to inhibit or delay those factors. Shelf life of packaged fresh meats is often determined by microbiological activity or biochemical factors such as oxidation. There are many

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT strategies of using antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds to extend shelf life of meat (Sun and Holley, 2012). 2.2.1 Antioxidant packaging Antioxidants may be synthetic or naturally derived compounds to prevent lipid oxidation,

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retard off-flavor development, and improve color stability. Primary antioxidants scavenge free

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radicals by donating electrons or hydrogen ions while catalysts of oxidation are deactivated or

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chelated by secondary antioxidants (Labuza, 1971). There are many different antioxidants that have been used for meat and meat products, with recent trends for natural antioxidants that will

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alleviate concerns about safety of synthetic compounds, but there is limited data about their

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effects (Kumar, Yadav, Ahmad, & Narsaiah, 2015). The two modes of action for antioxidant packaging are the release of the agents to the food and the scavenging of undesirable components

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like oxygen, oxidative radical compounds, or metal ions from the food or the package headspace.

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A benefit of antioxidants in packaging materials compared to direct antioxidant addition to food is the release of the active compound at controlled rates. The two methodologies for producing

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antioxidant packaging are independent devices like sachets, pads or labels that contain the

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antioxidant separate from the food and incorporation of the antioxidant into the packaging material (Gómez-Estaca, López-de-Carballo, Hernández- Muñoz, Catalá, & Gravara, 2014).

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Ascorbyl palmitate and α-tocopherol added to PLA film increased film polarity and wettability while reducing Young’s modulus and tensile strength without effect on water vapor permeability (Jamshidian, Tehrany, Imran, Akhtar, Cleymand, & Desobry, 2012). The minimum effective concentrations of antioxidants (thymol, carvacrol, eugenol) were determined and laminated into corn-zein LLDPE films, which caused reduction in tensile strength and percentage elongation at break. However, ability to repel moisture was increased by adding the

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT hydrophobic antioxidant compounds into the corn-zein layer while lipid oxidation was inhibited and color stability was improved in ground beef patties during storage at 4°C through 14 days (Park, Kim, Kim, You, Kim, & Han, 2012). Thymol and modified montmorillonite were incorporated into PLA to create nano-biocomposite films with improved mechanical properties

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and reduced oxygen transmission rate by montmorillonite addition and thermal stability not

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influenced, but glass transition temperature decreased by thymol. Analysis of antioxidant activity

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suggested that this nano-biocomposite film could be a promising active packaging material (Ramos, Jiménez, Peltzer, & Garrigós, 2014).

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Tensile strength and elastic modulus of methylcellulose films with α–tocopherol

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nanocapsule suspension were decreased, but hydrophobicity, barrier properties and antioxidant activity were higher compared to control film (Noronha, de Carvalho, Lino, & Barreto, 2014).

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The addition of quercetin, a polyphenol antioxidant, into HDPE and EVA copolymers did not

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modify the thermal stability or oxygen barrier of the films, but weakened the water vapor barrier with the release of quercetin following Fick’s law for diffusion (Han, Lu, & Ge, 2015).

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Quercetin bioflavonoid incorporated with polylactide nanoparticles in a chitosan matrix

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increased the radical scavenging to 23.5% compared with 5.8% in control chitosan films (Basu, Kundu, Sana, Halder, Abdullah, Datta, & Mukherjee, 2017). Mangiferin incorporated into EVA

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with different vinyl acetate (VA) contents had 81.9% radical scavenging capacity with 84.7 μg/mL mangiferin release with a linear relationship between the antioxidant release and VA content (Boonnattakorn, Chonhenchob, Siddiq, & Singh, 2015). Rosemary containing 4.5% carnosic acid in ethanol was spread at 10% on LDPE to package pork patties for high pressure processing. Lipid oxidation was reduced by the packaging, but oxygen scavenger use was not effective due to residual oxygen in the package during initial storage periods (Bolumar, LaPeña,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Skibsted, & Orlien, 2016). Butter in hydrogels imprinted with ferulic acid had 25% less lipid oxidation during cold storage than with hydrogels without ferulic acid (Benito-Pená, GonzálezVallejo, Rico-Yuste, Barbosa-Pereira, Cruz, Bilbao, Alvarez-Lorenzo, & Moreno-Bondi, 2016). Propolis resin incorporated into paper at 0.4% provided similar antioxidant effects on ham slices

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as control packaging while surface spreading of the propolis increased radical scavenging and

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reducing compounds during storage and the changes in lipid and non-lipid oxidation products

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impacted the cooked ham sensory properties (Rizzolo, Bianchi, Povolo, Migliori, Contarini, Pelizzola, & Cattaneo, 2016). A non-migratory iron chelating active packaging material

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produced by covalent immobilization of polyhydroxamate onto PP film retained iron chelating

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capacity in presence of calcium, magnesium, and sodium, which indicated this might allow reduction of the use of synthetic chelator additives such as ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid

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(EDTA)(Ogiwara, Roman, Decker, & Goddard, 2016).

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Natural ingredients have been shown to be potential antioxidants in packaging materials, which would alleviate concerns with synthetic antioxidant compounds in polymers. Green tea

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extract in chitosan and gelatin films, pimento and oregano essential oils in milk protein films,

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marigold extract and barley husks in LDPE, mango and acerola pulps in starch films, palm fruit and cocoa/coffee in cassava starch films, and mustard meal in xanthan gum films showed

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antioxidant capabilities (de Souza, Veiga-Santos, & Druzian, 2013). Chitosan films incorporated with honeysuckle flower extract had darker appearance, higher water solubility, lower tensile strength, and improved moisture barrier properties with enhanced antioxidant and antimicrobial activities compared with chitosan film (Wang, Wang, Tong, & Zhou, 2015). Green tea extract, oolong tea extract, and black tea extract incorporated into protein films of distiller dried grains with solubles did not alter physical film properties while decreasing lipid oxidation of pork

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT wrapped in the films, with green tea extract films exhibiting the greatest antioxidant activity (Yang, Lee, Won, & Song, 2016). Heat treatment, casting, thermopressing, irradiation, and use of crosslinking compounds improve protein-based films, which offer advantages in the release of active agents due to their characteristic water sensitivity (Gómez-Estaca, Gavara, Catalá, &

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Hernández-Muñoz, 2016). Beef wrapped in rosemary essential oil sprayed onto the PE layer of

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metallized paper sheets had improved color in air, vacuum, or high oxygen (50% O2/30%

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CO2/20% N2) packaging compared with control packaging (Sirocchi, Devlieghere, Peelman, Sagratini, Maggi, Vittori, & Ragaert, 2016). Some ingredients have bioactive compounds that

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impart both antioxidant and antimicrobial properties (Sirocchi, Devlieghere, Peelman, Sagratini,

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Maggi, Vittori, & Ragaert, (2017). 2.2.2 Antimicrobial packaging

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The emphasis on food safety for prevention of foodborne illnesses has been addressed by

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processing and packaging technologies. Meat preservation technologies of vacuum packaging, MAP, active packaging, chemical interventions (chlorine, organic acids and their salts,

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peroxyacetic acid, acidified sodium chlorite, trisodium phosphate, ozone), biological agents

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(plant extracts and essential oils, bacteriocins, bacteriophages) and physical techniques (steam pasteurization, irradiation, high-frequency heating, high pressure processing, pulsed electric

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field, ultrasound, oscillating magnetic field) to ensure microbial safety of meat have been reviewed (Chen, Ren, Seow, Liu, Bang & Yuk, 2012.) Active packaging technologies may also provide antimicrobial effects through oxygen scavenging systems, moisture-absorbing and control systems, humidity buffering, carbon dioxide generation, ethanol generation, and migrating and nonmigrating substances (Suppakul, Miltz, Sonneveld, & Bigger, 2003). The potential and drawbacks of antimicrobial food packaging were reviewed by Malhotra, Keshwani,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT and Kharkwal (2015). Generally, a 50% increase in shelf life extension can be gained with active packaging containing antimicrobial agents (Zhang, Hortal, Dobon, Bermudez, & Lara-Lledo, 2015). They analyzed the incorporation of thymol/carvacrol into the EVOH layer of coextruded PP and EVOH for MAP and reported less food loss, less CO2 generation, and lower acidification

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and eutrophication potentials with the best-performance active packaging. Packaging with O2

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scavengers or CO2 generators effectively inhibited Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes)

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in RTE ham while an allyl isothiocyanate generator had limited microbial effects (Chen & Brody, 2013).

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Bioactive agents against microorganisms could be antimicrobial agents such as silver

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ions, triclosan, bacteriocins, spices, essential oils, enzymes, and other additives (Coma, 2008). There are many antimicrobial agents that have potential for use in food packaging systems,

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including organic acids, acid salts, acid anhydrides, parabenzoic acids, alcohol, bacteriocins,

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fatty acids, fatty acid esters, chelating agents, enzymes, metals, antioxidants, antibiotics, fungicides, sterilizing gases, sanitizing agents, polysaccharides, phenolics, plant volatiles, plant

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and spice extracts, and probiotics (Cutter, 2006; Han, 2005b). EU Directives define antimicrobial

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substances as biocidal products, which would be permitted in food packaging only if there was no direct impact on the packaged food quality, meaning the agent migration into food must be

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incidental rather than intentional, the agent could not provide preservative effect to the food, and the agent could not allow selection of biocide resistance in microorganisms (Quintavalla & Vicini, 2002). Natamycin incorporated into PLA using tetraethoxysilane and polyvinyl alcohol as dissolution phases showed antifungal properties without release of the polyene antibiotic in levels exceeding regulatory allowances (Lantano, Alfieri, Cavazza, Corradini, Lorenzi, Zucchetto, & Montenero, 2014). Ethyl-N-lauroyl-L-arginate HCl incorporated into barrier

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT packages did not reduce microbial activity on beef through 6 days at 2°C (Luzardo, Woerner, Geornaras, Hess, & Belk, 2016). Films that have been studied for antimicrobial activity include chitosan based films (Dutta, Tripathi, Mehrotra, & Dutta, 2009), biodegradable polysaccharide and protein-based

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films containing active agents (Kuorwel, Carn, Sonneveld, Miltz, & Bigger, 2011a), synthetic

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packaging films with the inclusion of essential oils (Kuorwel, Cran, Sonneveld, Miltz, & Bigger,

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2011b), and PLA-based materials and agents incorporated into PLA films (Tawakkal, Cran, Miltz, & Bigger, 2014).

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Antimicrobial peptides have found many applications for biomedical devices, food

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processing equipment, and food preservation and can be incorporated directly into polymers or coated on polymeric surfaces (Espitia, Soares, Coimbra, Andrade, Cruz, & Medeiros, 2012). The

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limitations on the clinical and commercial development of antimicrobial peptides, including

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potential toxicity, susceptibility to proteases, and high cost of peptide production, may be offset by synthetic peptides using unusual amino acids or peptide-mimetics (Seo, Won, Kim, Mishig-

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Ochir, & Lee, 2012). Composites of gelatinized cornstarch films and ε-poly-L-lysine showed

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higher tensile strength and elongation at break and effective inhibition against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Bacillus subtilis, but not Aspergillus niger, compared with starch films (Zhang, Li,

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Dong, Tian, Li, & Dai, 2015). Gelatin and silver nanoparticle composite films showed antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens (Kanmani & Rhim, 2014). Fresh and lyophilized olive leaf extract exhibited antioxidant and antimicrobial properties in vitro, but did not cause the same effects on Iberian pork loin steaks stored in film with the two types of extract spread onto the film (Delgado-Adámez, Bote, Parra-Testal, Martín, & Ramírez, 2016). Plasma-etched polyamide-polyethylene films coated with a mixture of argon and 1.4%

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT sulfur dioxide inhibited 86% of Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) growth and 82% of E. coli growth compared with lesser inhibition by argon and sodium oxide (Maćkiw, Maka, Ścieżyńska, Pawlicka, Dziadczyk, & Rżanek-Boroch, 2015). Natural ingredients (e.g. spice derivatives, lactic acid, nisin) incorporated into biopolymer

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carrier coatings (i.e. modified starch, soy protein isolate, carboxymethyl cellulose, chitosan, wax)

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on paper packaging materials showed potential for antimicrobial use in active packaging

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(Khwaldia, Arab-Tehrany, & Desobry, 2010). Maillard reaction products dispersed in EVA and spread onto LDPE film at 16 g/L concentrations resulted in 5 log reduction of E. coli (Hauser,

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Müller, Sauer, Augner, & Pischetsrieder, 2014). Incorporation of Lactobacillus sakei (L. sakei)

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cells into sodium caseinate edible films by either direct addition during casting or surface spraying on the preformed film caused rapid L. sakei growth after contact with the beef cuts and

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a log reduction of L. monocytogenes during 21 days at 4°C (Gialamas, Zinoviadou, Biliaderis, &

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Koutsoumanis, 2010). Rhubarb ethanolic extracts and cinnamon essential oil cast with PP/PVA inhibited bacterial growth, maintained pH and total volatile base nitrogen, and reduced color loss

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(Han, Wang, Li, Lu, & Cui, 2014). Beef wrapped in rosemary essential oil sprayed onto the PE

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layer of metallized paper sheets in air, vacuum, or high oxygen (50% O2/30% CO2/20% N2) packaging for 20 days at 4°C had decreased microbial growth compared with control packaging

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(Sirocchi, Devlieghere, Peelman, Sagratini, Maggi, Vittori, & Ragaert, 2016). Nisin in polyhydroxybutyrate/polycaprolatone biodegradable and organo-clays film inhibited Lactobacillus plantarum CRL691 used as a meat spoilage indicator on sliced ham to extend its shelf life to 28 days due to a 22.4 day lag time before microorganism growth (Correa, Molina, Sanchez, Kainz, Eisenberg, & Massani, 2017).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT As previously indicated, biodegradable materials have also been studied for antimicrobial potential. Lauric arginate-coated PLA films inhibited L. monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) on cooked sliced ham, but film transparency was reduced with 2.6% lauric arginate compared with 0.07% (Theinsathid, Visessanguan, Kruenate, Kingcha, &

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Keeratipibul, 2012). Chitosan films containing increased levels of cinnamon essential oil (0, 0.4,

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0.8, 1.5, 2%) showed increased microbial inhibition and low affinity for water (Ojagh, Rezaei,

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Razavi, & Hosseini, 2010). Soluble soybean polysaccharide with increased concentrations of Zataria multiflora Boiss and Mentha puledium essential oils (0, 1, 2, 3%) increased darkness of

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the films, increased antioxidant power, and inhibited S. aureus, Bacillus cereus, E. coli, S.

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typhimurium, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Salarbashi, Tajik, Shojaee-Aliabadi, Ghasemlou, Moayyed, Khaksar, & Noghabi, 2014). Composite starch-chitosan films impregnated with 0.5%

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cinnamaldehyde resulted in the lowest thiobarbituric acid values for chevon and chevon in those

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films and films impregnated with nisin (60,000 IU/g) had higher sensory attributes and almost 2 logs lower Staphylococcus counts than control films through day 7 of storage at 4°C (Chatli,

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Kaura, Jairath, Mehta, Kumar, & Sahoo, 2014). Soluble soybean polysaccharides with ZnO

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nanoparticles had increased tensile strength and decreased elongation at break with increased ZnO and had antibacterial, antifungal, and yeasticidal activities (Salarbashi, Mortazavi, Noghabi,

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Bazzaz, Sedaghat, Ramezani, Shahabi-Ghahfarrokhi, 2016). Mats of electrospun fibers of a few nanometers to micrometers loaded with gallic acid demonstrated antibacterial activity and properties acceptable for use as active food packaging materials (Neo, Swift, Ray, Gizdavic-Nikolaidis, Jin, & Perera, 2013). A cinnamon essential oilcyclodextrin inclusion complex incorporated into PLA nanofibers by electrospinning prolonged the shelf life of pork to 8 days compared with 4 days for controls ((Wen, Zhu, Feng, Liu, Lou,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Li, Zong, & Wu, 2016). Despite the research conducted, antimicrobial packaging has been used commercially on a limited basis except for silver based antimicrobial materials (Realini & Marcos, 2014). 2.3 Intelligent packaging concepts

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Intelligent packaging usually refers to sensors or indicators that then signal a needed

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change or actually initiate a needed change in the package environment or package. Although the

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EU legal definition is on materials and articles that monitor the condition of the food or its environment (EU, 2011), a more generally accepted characterization is a packaging system that

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can accomplish intelligent functions to enhance decisions concerning shelf life, safety, quality,

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and information about the food (Yam, Takhistov, & Miltz, 2005). The traceability, tracking, and recordkeeping of products through logistical chains could be improved through collection and

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integration of data obtained from identification and sensing devices such as barcode labels, radio

Takhistov, & Miltz, 2005).

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frequency identification tags, time-temperature indicators, gas indicators, and biosensors (Yam,

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Sensors and indicators are used in intelligent packaging systems, with examples being

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fluorescence-based O2 measuring, gas detection, temperature monitoring, toxic compounds, freshness by monitoring specific components, package integrity, and identification (de Kruijf,

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van Beest, Rijk, Sipiläinen-Malm Losada, & De Meulenaer, 2002; Kerry, O’Grady, & Hogan, 2006; Yam, Takhistov, & Miltz, 2005). Other technologies for intelligent packaging are remote measurement of headspace gases by fluorescent sensors for O2, microporous support materials to allow sensing of many different compounds using sensors that will function over wide temperature ranges, package leak or integrity loss through specialized indicators, sensing of target metabolites or indicator substances that indicate freshness, and time-temperature indicators

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (TTI) based upon diffusion-based or enzymatic platforms (Kerry, O’Grady, & Hogan, 2006). The devices used in intelligent packaging include barcodes, radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, time-temperature indicators (TTI), gas indicators, freshness or microbial growth indicators, and pathogen indicators. Each relies on different scientific and technological

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principles, giving information defined by the specific application (Fang, Zhao, Warner, &

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Johnson, 2017).

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Time-temperature indicators (TTI) have been developed to aid processors and consumers when there have been temperature conditions that reduce quality or may result in food safety

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concerns. There are many examples of commercially marketed TTIs (Fang, Zhao, Warner, &

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Johnson, 2017). The concepts of diffusion-based, polymeric, enzymatic, bio-based, and electronic technologies for TTI have been reviewed (Wang, Liu, Yang, Zhang, Xiang, & Tang

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(2015). They concluded that TTI cannot accurately reflect the food thermal history and forecast

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shelf life because food package temperature and not product temperature is measured, few TTI can fulfill expectations, a more applicable kinetic model of food quality should be used in TTI

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development, and the cost should be reduced to promote application with food packaging. The

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application of thermochromics materials like photonic crystals, nanomaterials, and other new materials would solve problems in safety, accuracy, and cost to ensure safe and reliable food

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(Wang, Liu, Yang, Zhang, Xiang, & Tang, 2015). European consumers appreciate and understand TTI technology and associate differing benefits with it, but the TTI concept and the commercial TTI based on pH decreases and structural changes of photochromic crystals did not meet all consumer expectations (Pennanen, Caralamp, Kumpusalo-Sanna, Keskitalo-Vuokko, Matullat, Ellouze, Pentikäinen, Smolander, Korhonen, & Ollila, 2015). Use of a consistent

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT temperature and continual monitoring of temperature and O2 in packages with built-in sensors can extend the shelf life of fresh pork longer than 56 days (Petrak, 2016b). Gas indicators, freshness indicators, and pathogenic microorganism indicators and biosensors have been described in numerous reports (Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson, 2017), but

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there are few being used commercially. The addition of alginate polymers to zein-based

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colorimetric oxygen indicator films prevented leaching of dye that usually occurred when water

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contacted the films (Vu and Won, 2013). This is only one of many difficulties in applying these technologies in practice and so research of the effects on sensory quality of packaged meat,

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integration of active and intelligent technologies for synergy, use of renewable resource

3. Future packaging considerations

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(Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson, 2017).

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materials, anti-counterfeit and tamperproof packaging, and multifunctional sensors is needed

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The food packaging of the future will be lighter with less materials, improved printing and graphics, higher barrier properties, new flexible materials, and larger formats for flexible

PT

packaging (Pierce, 2013). Near field communication (NFC) is short-range wireless technology

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that allows communication of information between two devices, such as a mobile phone and a package with an NFC tag. Packaging will be more interactive through intelligent packaging with

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controlled permeability through specialized film pores (Reynolds, 2012b). Packaging personnel responding in the Food Packaging Trends and Advances study indicated that recyclable packaging will grow, but consumers have concerns about their use in packaging that touches food (PMMI, 2016). Biodegradable packaging is also of interest, but is not ready for use with food due to cost and doubts about its ability to maintain sanitary barriers. Flexible packaging, mainly with plastics, will continue to be used due to lower material and

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT shipping costs and its ability to showcase products, offer freshness, and variable size, but considerations for crushability must be given. Packaging innovations in the U.S. usually follow those already developed in other countries so graphics, sealing options, and sizes are more desired for immediate changes. Different films to increase meat shelf life, active labels to

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indicate freshness, films that open to control meat browning during cooking, and packages that

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can be heated directly from the frozen state are being innovated. The most common active

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packaging labels have ink that fades when product is past its expiration date while information is being transmitted to consumers through use of bar codes, Quick Response Codes (QSR), and

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SnapTag mobile barcodes. These are in response to the five key trends of convenience,

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sustainability, recyclability and biodegradability, local production, and flexible packaging for the U.S. food industry. Food manufacturer equipment investments will be for improvements in

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machine flexibility and speed, automation of manual processes, and solutions to specific

requirements (PMMI, 2016).

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difficulties such as automation of reports for Food Safety Modernization Act traceability

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TTI indicators may not adequately reflect the quality status of the food. Computer chips

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embedded in food packaging can transmit messages to consumers via mobile phones that read Aztec or barcoding (UCP, RSS, PDF 417, GS1) on packages (Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson,

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2017). Visible color changes occur with polymeric sensors having selective binding affinity for biogenic amines that indicate protein breakdown, non-enzymatic amine detection chemistry, and photonic cells made of nanoscale layers of hydrophobic polystyrene and hydrophilic polyvinyl pyridine that detect spoilage compounds (Brody, 2014). Embedded gold antennae in film fabricated from a purified silk substrate detect substrate changes and generate an electromagnetic signal that can be read by a mobile phone. Quorum sensing reacts to the biochemical activity of

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT bacterial colonies that communicate with each other. Other sensitive packaging coatings alter refractive indices in response to volatiles for sensing by infrared devices. Electronics to detect volatile compounds, pH, acidity, and conductivity; polymeric sensors; and fluorescent responses due to ultraviolet excitation signals after sensing of bacterially produced volatiles are being

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developed (Brody, 2014). Interactive sensors that detect specific or multiple compounds and

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transmit this information to the package information coding would allow signals of impending

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spoilage or loss of quality to be more useful to processors, retailers, and consumers. There have been many recent patents filed for use of aromatic compounds and essential oils in packaging

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(Ribeiro-Santos, Andrade, de Melo, & Sanches-Silva, 2017) so it is anticipated that active

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ingredients and compounds from plants will be used in addition to the additives that are synthetically derived.

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Passive packaging will change to interactive packaging to provide means for intelligent

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systems to convey and respond, but signal generation requires a power source. Micro transfer printing of photovoltaic cells of micron dimensions or organic cells of a highly conductive

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polythiophene ionomer complex are some of the power sources being investigated. A plastic

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analog-to-digital converter to integrate multiple related relevant sensor signals into a single indication of quality may provide adequate information on product suitability and spoilage

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(Brody, 2013).

Challenges will continue to be efficiency of sensing mechanisms, safety of active and intelligent systems, costs and integration into existing packaging systems, and impact on the environment with sustainability and reduction of materials (Brockgreitens & Abbas, 2016). Development will continue on informative packaging that has potential to be used in responsive or intelligent packaging, on more accurate and multifunctional sensors, and on risk with different

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT packaging systems. Legislation and resulting regulations will continue to impact the types of materials, manufacturing and disposal of materials, and the types and amounts of information available to consumers, requiring diligence by industry to keep abreast of changes while supplying useful and cost-effective meat packaging.

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4. Conclusions

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With the advent of self-service meat cases for raw chilled and processed meats, the need

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for meat packaging to fulfill multiple functions has resulted in a variety of materials and systems that are available and each can be tailored to specific needs and applications. Changes in

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packaging for meat through composite materials, integrated systems, and functionality of

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components continues through research and development on different raw materials, active components for specific purposes, and in sensing of product characteristics for data retrieval and

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information communication. The movement from petroleum-based plastics to biopolymers will

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continue, albeit there are challenges in integrating those materials into current systems and in resolving manufacturing and functional difficulties. The sales of food packaging in all of its

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aspects will continue to grow in areas of packaging that provide safety, convenience, and quality

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of meat to consumers. Many active and intelligent packaging options will be useful for meat

effective. 5.

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package applications, but refinements are necessary before implementation is feasible and cost

Acknowledgements Approved for publication by the director of the Louisiana Agricultural Experiment

Station as manuscript no. 16-18-xxxx. 6.

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Figure legends

Figure 1. Different packaging types for ground beef are left to right, overwrap air-permeable,

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CE

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modified atmosphere, vacuum, and chub.

Table 1. Description and materials for some commercial antimicrobial, oxygen scavenging, and carbon dioxide-emitting package applications (Adapted from Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson, 2017). Package application

Description or active compound

Antimicrobial package type

Sachet, sheet, coating, film, tray, carton, label, wrap

Antimicrobial active compound

Silver, silver zeolite, glucose oxidase, ethanol vapor,

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT triclosan, chlorine dioxide, natamycin, wasabi extract in cyclodextrin, allyl isothyiocyanate Sachet, resin, barrier resin, film, label, cap, closure, sorbent

CO2-emitter package type

Sachet, pad, pad coupled with antimicrobial compound

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CE

PT

ED

M

AN

US

CR

IP

T

O2 scavenger package type