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African aromatherapy: past, present and future applications
Stephanie Rose Bird 1007 South Humphrey Avenue, Oak Park, IL 60304-2221, USA; E-mail: [email protected]
African aromatherapy: past, present and future applications Stephanie Rose Bird
Introduction
M
ost of what we regard as new discoveries have an-
cient roots, including aromatherapy. Within some of the earliest civilizations in Africa, there were vibrant cultures that revered aromatic plants. ‘‘Since the most ancient of times, African priests and priestesses and the common people believed in and used magic, medicine and religions to protect themselves from evil forces and to attract good ones.’’ Camille Yarbrough (Sertima, 1984).
Early Egyptian priests practiced enfleurage, an extraction process for obtaining aromatic oils from flowers and Hippocrates, known as the Father of modern medicine, acquired most of his knowledge from the Egyptians (Manniche, 1999). Dioscorides, the Greek physician who created De Materia Medica, a document that set the standard for herbal knowledge, transcribed numerous African remedies and formulae (Edwards, 1999). The ancient Greco-Romans Pliny and Galens were fascinated by healing techniques utilizing fragrant plants practiced by Egyptians and other early African cultures. These three, as well
as lesser-known physicians, archived, experimented with and most importantly, passed down, African aromatic
and it is of further interest that Manniche cites Coptic Africans as also using this practice (Manniche,
healing formulas that were later developed in Europe (Manniche, 1999). In this way, African plant wisdom influenced Western herbalism and aro-
1999). Copts are concentrated in Ethiopia not Egypt, attesting to a collective knowledge, rather than herbalism as an isolated Ancient
matherapy as they exist today. Fragrance historian Lise Manniche’s interpretation of aromatherapy is less fixated on the use of essential
Egyptian phenomenon. Africa’s aromatic past is intriguing, so is the continued engagement and unique applications of aroma-
oils as the primary aromatherapy tools and employs a more broad definition that is shared by many African people.
therapy on the continent and within the African diaspora. In some cases engagement with aromatherapy is through the commonly accepted
‘‘In order to define the area as far as ancient Egypt is concerned we shall here loosely classify aromatherapeutic remedies as substances applied as treatment where the scent of the remedy is emphasized by its being used in massage and other external applications such as poultices, by it being inhaled, or similar, and in particular such substances which are endowed with a pronounced scent.’’ (Manniche, 1999).
form, essential oils, yet other parts of my discussion encompass the use of aromatic herbs in incense, rubs, pomades, solid perfumes, washes, baths, scented waters and spirituality,
Manniche also states that Egyptians noticed that acacia possessed aromatherapeutic benefits because of its penetrating affect even though its aroma was faint. Acacia oil mas-
references, the Kebra Negast or the Koran. The romance between Makeda and Solomon, the third king of Israel, is legendary. Their romance
sage was used to help heal heart ailments as an infused oil and poultice
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as these are common African aromatherapy applications.
Our lady of fragrance: Makeda, Queen of Sheba You may have heard of the Makeda, Queen of Sheba through biblical
provides a view of early African traditions, rituals, ceremonies and even geographic boundaries.
0962-4562/$ - See Front Matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved DOI:10.1016/S0962-4562(03)00117-6
Sheba was an empire centred in Ethiopia; the word ‘Ethiopia’ in early Greek means ‘land of the sunburnt faces.’ The term Ethiopia then is quite generic; it refers to Brown
mon to enter a trade agreement. Solomon became smitten with Makeda and had a crystal palace built for her visits; washed down completely in fragrant floral waters (probably rose
dicinally and spiritually. Fumigation (smudging) with smoldering herbs, was used during prayer, meditation, clearing and healing, particularly in the treatment of women’s reproduc-
and Black people. In ancient times, Ethiopia referred to a wide geographical area, encompassing Upper Egypt and the African continent
water, as it was commonly used). Various sources list the gifts given for Makeda and Solomon’s weddings as: cinnamon, cassia, attar
tive ailments. Many of the botanical oils aromatherapists use today continue to come from Egypt and nearby countries.
generally. Current day southern Saudi Arabia, Yemen, southern Iran (Persia) and parts of India where considered Ethiopia (William and
of roses and neroli (orange blossom oil or water), sandalwood, aloe vera, olive oil, sweet almond oil and fragrant trees – an array of fragrant
Plant essences were released into fixed oils through maceration, pulverization, soaking, burning, fermentation, water based infusion, de-
Finch, 1988). Some scholars draw tighter boundaries. In ‘The Great Queen of Ethiopia’ (William and Finch, 1988),
healing gifts. The gifts demonstrate international trade and cooperation. Persian, Indian, Arabian and West African botanicals used by Shabaeans
coction and unguents. Applications used by Ancient Egyptians are still popular today, including baths, rubs, massage, tinctures, poultices, body
Ethiopia is defined as below Aswan, Egypt, the Sudan and present day Ethiopia. The Queen of Sheba’s empire included parts of Upper Egypt, all of Ethiopia, segments of
are enjoyed in contemporary Africa and the international community. The marriage between Makeda and Solomon was one of many for the king – he is thought to have had
wraps, teas and what I would venture to call hot toddy’s (alcoholic herbal drinks).
Arabia, Syria, Armenia, India and the region between the Mediterranean and the Erythraean Sea. The Kebra Negast (The Glory
over 100 wives. In the end Makeda left Israel, pregnant with their only son. Makeda raised their son, Menelik, alone. Imagining how the
of Kings), a holy book written in Ge’ez language, says that the Queen of Sheba’s empire was established in 1370 BC and lasted 350 years.
Shabaeans looked is not difficult. Menelik was the first king of the Solomonid line in Ethiopia; a line that ended with the deposition of Haille
This book also demonstrates a relationship between southern Arabia and Abyssinia (which it calls Ethiopia) in language, religion and racial
Selasie in 1974. Carthage was another Ancient African empire involved with fragrant botanicals (Rashidi, 2002) and
composition. This is supported by writings in Latin by Strabo and Pliny, as well as a host of Egyptian hieroglyphics (William and Finch, 1988).
included present day Ghana, Mali, Songhay and Kanem-Bornu. Punt, also called Pwenet (sacred land or incense land) was prized for both incense and ebony. Punt was on
The merchants of Sheba and Raamah were they merchants; they traded in thy fairs with the best of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold. Ezekiel 27: 22–24.
the coast of Eritrea and Somalia (Montet). Due to its geography and climate, Somalia remains the primary producer of quality frankincense and myrrh.
Ancient Egypt The relationship between Solomon and Makeda was one of power and perhaps of love. Makeda brought gifts to persuade King Solo-
Egypt (Khamet) remains the most renowned ancient African culture. Egyptians used fragrant plants me-
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‘‘In the black seeds (cumin) is the medicine for every disease except death.’’ – Arab proverb. Papyrus Ebers lists over 800 herbal remedies. A few aromatic herbs used in Africa and the diaspora are mentioned below. Acacia (Acacia arabica) It was used to treat wounds, as a chest rub and in ninth century AD as an internal treatment of the uterus. Angelica root (Angelica archangelica) Cited in the bible, its botanical name bears Christian overtones. Angelica root, also called archangel root, is thought to be a gift from Archangel Michael to empower women and protect children (Illes, 2001). Called the root of the Holy Ghost, angelica is chewed in North America, to keep evil away and to prolong life (Riva, 1974). Author Judika Illes lists angelica in a spiritual floor wash recipe (Illes, 2001). Women and children carry the root as a protection amulet in mojo bags (Bird, 2004).
Asafoetida (Ferula foetida) As it is so acrid, Asafoetida is thought of as an aid to dark forces in the Americas. Castor bean (Ricinus communis) It was used in oil lamps, for headaches and hair conditioning by Egyptians 6000 years ago. African Americans use castor oil as a laxative, emollient, lotion and hair growth aid. This sacred ceremonial oil is called ewe lara by Yoruban Ifa and Afro-Brazilian Candomble devotees
an ancient text from about 1500 BC that cites arakhou as having analgesic qualities. Fir (Abies spp.) According to the Papyrus Eber, fir (sefet) was used as a hair growth unguent (pomade). Henna (Lawsonia inermis) Cyprinum has very fragrant flowers
(Voeks, 1997).
with a sweet perfume. The seeds and flowers were macerated in olive oil. The plant treated nervous conditions, broken bones, improved cir-
Chamomile (Matricaria or Anthemis spp.) In 1976, Chamomile was discovered
culation and was a general tonic. Use of henna continues, particularly in the Sudan and Northern Africa as a hair treatment, perfume, beauty aid
through scientific analysis as an anointing ingredient and embalming substance for the body of King Ramesses II. In Hoodoo, chamomile tea is a lucky hand wash (Riva, 1974).
and tattoo. Reseda, the name for henna in Haiti’s ‘Medsin fey’ (Botanical medicine), is used medicinally (Beauvoir, 2003). Orrisroot (Iris spp.)
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) Cinnamon was used as a preservative with moringa oil in embalming techniques, to soothe the living and
The oil was used to anoint the nostrils, as a styptic and near the heart for murmurs and other ailments. Perfume from the flowers (Irenium)
souls of the departed. It is added to magical powders and incense throughout the diaspora and it continues to be used as a preservative.
was an unguent and medicine base. Orrisroot powder continues to function in African American healing medicine, enhancing the powers
Cumin oil (Nigella sativa) Called tepenen, cumin is believed to have been an indigenous Egyptian herb used for a host of ailments and applied as a lotion or unguent. Ethiopians mix black cumin seeds with butter and apply to the body, then wrap in cloth or they sniff for headaches. Strewn among linens, it
of other herbs and stones (the same ability recognized is in Egypt). Called Queen Elizabeth root colloquially, orrisroot enhances physical and psychological comfort (Bird, 2004). Lemon verbena (Aloysia triphylla) The dried leaves are burned during invocations to attract good influ-
serves as a moth repellent. Cumin remains an important African herb.
ences and assist divination (Riva, 1974).
Dill (Anethum graveolens) Known as arakhou by the Egyptians,
Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) Lotus was used in perfumery, for fu-
this herb was found posthumously on Amenhotep II. Dill was mentioned in
neral rites as an unguent and as an anointment for fever, as it was be-
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lieved to have a cooling effect. Carrying a lotus amulet encourages focus and good spirits (Riva, 1974). Today, lotus is used as an aphrodisiac associated with the angelic loving spirit, orisha Oshun.
Mandrake oil (Mandragora officinarum) This was used to anoint the Maya, treasurer of Tutankhamun, as it was found in her tomb. A cooling ointment was made as an analgesic, to induce sleep or act as a narcotic.
Myrtle (Myrtus communis) Khet-des was used for skin disorders and sinus infections in early Egypt. Myrtle is used to inspire peace, invite blessings and generosity. Grown since early times for the fragrant flowers and leaves as well as the aromatic bark, myrtle contains antibacterial phenols. Spiritually, myrtle symbolizes Venus and other love goddesses. It has been used medicinally to treat tumours, breasts and genitals. Iranians make a hot poultice for boils. Algerians use it to relieve asthma whilst the North Africans use the dry flowers to treat small pox (Duke, 1999). The Gullah people use an indigenous form of myrtle (Myrica cerifera), an aromatic evergreen that grows in wet, sandy, pinelands and bogs in the Carolina Lowlands and Sea Coast Islands, for diarrhoea, dysentery, uterine haemorrhage and as a gargle (Mitchell, 1999). African Americans use myrtle by inhaling warm vapours from the tea or a poultice, to relieve head pains caused by a severe cold or flu (Riva, 1974). Rose (Rosa spp.) Rose has been used for headache, toothache, and as an ointment for diseases of the uterus. It has been used since ancient times as a nervine,
systemic tonic, refrigerant and aphrodisiac. African Americans (among others) burn dried petals alone or in an incense blend to attract good luck (Riva, 1974). Roses are associated
cense (Northern Somalia, gained significance through incense trade). Beyo, referred to as olibanum, is the classical frankincense distilled into essential oil. Beyo is used locally as a
frankincense; the highest grades still come from the area known as ancient Punt, modern day Somalia. Myrrh foretold the passion and suffering of Jesus Christ. A salve made from it was a
with the Queen of Sheba, Neferteti and Cleopatra.
fire starter, to deter snakes and scorpions, for purification, to perfume hair and clothing, as incense, in holy ointments and even as a cola
stimulant. Heliopolis myrrh was burned at noon as incense for the ancient Egyptian sun god, Ra. Myrrh is widely enjoyed. It is a
soft drink. Beyo is still imported primarily from Somalia (Ancient Punt) and East Africa (Duke, 1999). It also grows around the horn of Africa, the
dentifrice; Africans chew myrrh stems to clean their teeth and Kenyans chew myrrh as gum. Ghanaians fumigate clothing with fragrant
Hadhramaut region of Yemen and Oman (Celestial Tides, 2003). Maydi is the top grade medicinal frankincense. Used as a chewing
smoke of burning myrrh wood. Nigerians decoct myrrh and give as a drink for mental illness and tapeworm. A mouthwash is made from it
product in Saudi Arabia, maydi comes in seven grades. The highest two are preferred: Mushaad and Mujaarwal, numbers one and two, respectively, are close to transparent and
to help topical ulcers and it is also used for bronchial inflammations and vaginal infections. It is astringent and fixative, and may be found in lotions, potpourri, perfumery, soap
are sold as quite large, unbroken pieces. The Maydi that survives shipment abroad is usually the smaller, opaque, lower grade types.
and food (approved by FDA). Today modern Egyptian women carry pearls (small chunks) of myrrh in their purse for perfume and status
Swahili speakers use frankincense as a diuretic. East Africans use it to treat syphilis and the bark of the resin is used as a tonic. Tanzanians
(Duke, 1999). Practitioners of Hoodoo, Ifa and Santeria, Moslems, Catholics, Jews and Christians, all use myrrh spiritually. African Americans
boil frankincense with sesame oil to treat a parasitic disease called schistosomiasis (Duke, 1999). It is heavily used in the African diaspora, particu-
use myrrh blessing and anointment oils (Riva, 1974). Myrrh is burned to honour the Egyptian moon goddess Isis (Illes, 2001). The corresponding
larly in the United States, as an incense and anointment oil. British herbalist Anne McIntyre suggests that frankincense heals many conditions including, respiratory infections, ca-
ewe (herb) of the angelic spirit Oshun of the Ifa tradition from Nigeria is myrrh. Ann McIntyre recommends it medicinally in her ‘Women’s Herbal,’ citing it as a
tarrh, laryngitis, asthma, fevers, scars, sores and wounds (McIntyre, 1994).
stimulant, carminative, vulnerary, expectorant, antiseptic, antiviral, detoxifying and useful for bronchitis, asthma, colds, indigestion and in-
Rue (Ruta graveolens) Rue was massaged directly on the body to reduce fever. Practitioners of Candomble in Brazil and Lucumi in Cuba, wear rue in their hair with other herbs to deter negative spirits (Voeks, 1997). Sage (Salvia spp.) Sage (probably clary sage) was found on the body of Ramesses II and the incense smoke was inhaled sometimes through a straw called profomo. Sage was used for magico-spiritual benefits in Ancient Egypt, a belief that persists today with smudge sticks in the diaspora.
Frankincense and myrrh Frankincense and myrrh have been revered for their healing properties from ancient times to the present. These resins are extracted from sap of members of the Burseraceae family; each has a distinct aroma, colour, medicine and spiritual attribute. Frankincense (Boswellia spp.) Called Beyo locally, frankincense is used for dysentery, gonorrhoea, fever and polyps. The three Wisemen honoured the divinity of Jesus Christ with frankincense, at a time when it was more valuable than gold. Frank means free, incense means lightning. The Arabic word for frankincense, luban, means milk of the Arabs and its earliest use was inscribed on the tomb of Queen Hatsheput in the 15th century BC (Celestial Tides, 2003). Somalia’s commercial history began with in-
Myrrh (Commiphora spp.) Myrrh is a hard resin and is used by preparing infusions or tinctures of the finely ground powder. It is used as an analgesic, astringent, for bronchitis and as an expectorant. There are 135 species of myrrh growing in Africa and the Middle East and just as with
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flammation (McIntyre, 1994).
The Yoruba of Nigeria The Yoruba are an additional culture of interest to this conversation, as they are a link from our past to
present day herbal practices. Yoruban history begins with the migration of an East African population across the trans-African route leading from the mid-Nile river area to the mid-
closer to the deity as do oils. Incense is used for invocation and prayer. Shango (Ifa) Heru (Khametic) are gods of action and will. Baths: geranium, bay leaf; oils olibanum
demonstrates a different cultural perception in some cases and suggests that alternative approaches in processing and application render them useful.
Niger. Migrating peoples undoubtedly used this route from times that were exceeding remote. Michael Omoleya takes us back further, ‘‘The
(frankincense) and geranium. Incense is olibanum. Shango is also associated with cayenne, sarsaparilla, cedar and lightning (Karade and
Harold Courlander cites remedies collected from Trinidad (Simpson, 1962) in ‘A Treasury of AfroAmerican Folklore’:
Nigerian region was inhabited more than 40,000 years ago or as far back as 65,000 BC’’ (Omoleya, 1986). Olumede Luceus illustrates the point
Baldwin, 1994). Oshun (Ifa) Het-Heru (Khametic) the goddesses (orisha) of life and sexuality. Baths: yellow roses, honey-
of connection between Egypt and sub-Saharan Nigeria; ‘‘The Yoruba lived in ancient Egypt during antiquity before migrating to the
suckle, vetiver, spearmint and sandalwood. Oils: rose, sandalwood, honeysuckle and cinnamon. Oshun is associated with lotus, chamomile and
Atlantic coast.’’ Luceus cites, ‘‘similar languages, religions, beliefs, customs, names of persons, places and things.’’ This is of interest to the discussion of African diasporic
myrrh (Karade and Baldwin, 1994). Elegba (Ifa) Sebek (Khametic) gods of wisdom and divinity; human and godly. Baths: lavender, oregano, larkspur. Oils and incense: lavender and
aromatic traditions since the greatest percentage of Africans enslaved in the new world came from the Yoruba nation (Karade and Baldwin,
lily of the valley (Karade and Baldwin, 1994). Yemaya (Ifa) Auset (Khametic) goddesses of humanities, creation
1994). In the Metu Neter Vol. 1 by Ra Un Nefer Amen (1990), clear correlations are drawn between the Yoruba
and nurturing. Baths: spearmint. Oils and incense: jasmine and spearmint. (Karade and Baldwin, 1994). Ogun (Ifa) Herukhuti (Kahametic)
traditional practice called Ifa and Khametic (Egyptian) spirituality. For example, Ra Un Nefer connects Ifa gods and goddess (orisha) and
gods of war, justice and metal. Bath: pine. Oils: pine and cedarwood. Incense: pine, tobacco and cedarwood. Ogun is associated with eucalyptus
Khametian beings with the same attributes. Each deity has spiritual baths, incenses and herbal medicines that are used to both pay spiritual homage and for healing. In Ifa, each
(Karade and Baldwin, 1994). As we travel to the diaspora it is interesting to keep in mind the creator and elder orisha, Obatala, as he is associated with kola nut, basil,
orisha has a corresponding herb called ewe. This unique application of aromatic healing is not limited to the Yoruban-based Ifa faith; it is prevalent
sage, hyssop and tobacco.
in most African diasporic practices. Below are a few examples of the Khametic and Ifa continuum. Numerous herbs are associated with each deity.
Aromatic herbs thought of as irritants, skin sensitizers, photosensitizers and even toxic because of high concentrations of ketones, phenols
This is an abbreviated listing highlighting fragrant herbs used magically and spiritually. Baths brings devotees
and other constituents, are used traditionally in African cultures. Successful use of strong herbs
Fragrant cures from Trinidad
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Head cold Make paste of soft candle (wax), mustard powder and black pepper. Cut (part) the hair in the middle of the head, apply the paste and cover the spot with thyme leaves. This preparation breaks fever by causing perspiration (Courlander, 1996). Stomach ache, stomach gas, dyspepsia (1) Chew guinea pepper (cayenne) with obi seed (Cola acuminate)1 and swallow. (2) Boil together some guava leaf and black sage leaves, add spirits of asafoetida (presumably tincture of asafoetida). (3) Make a bush tea of lemongrass, guava, soursop2 and avocado (Courlander, 1996). Cuts Put ground balsam leaves and young coca pods on the cut and place a piece of rotten banana stump on top
1 Kola Nut is a sacred African plant employed in divination, traded as early as 12th–16th century by African–Arabian routes. Kola is revered as a stimulant, native to West Africa and is used today in African American hair products (Voeks, 1997). 2 Wild Soursop (A. muricata L.) is an aromatic, acidic fruit sold in open-air markets in Africa. Most people consider soursop too acidic to eat fresh. The fruit contains a variety of constituents, aliphatic ketone, alkanes, alkaloids, fatty acids, flavonoids, sterols, monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids The constituents aporphine and ())-roemerine possess cytotoxic activity.
Table 1
Some Jamaican herbal remedies
Headache Soak white cloth in bay rum – affix to forehead with safety pin, facing each side of head (Copney, 1998). The white is symbolic of purity and cleansing; the silver-coloured pin is believed to have magical protective abilities. The aroma calms the nerves, thereby relieving the headache (Bird, 2004). Flu Rub down the client with bay rum to draw out the fever and put under a cover. For headache, pour bay rum onto a face cloth and inhale. For nose bleeds Soak cloth in bay rum, pin around head and inhale the vapours. Heart Burn Dampen chest with rum Tone Internal Organs (cure-all) Add one shot of bay rum to coffee or tea. (do not wash cut first). The banana stump will drop off within 2–3 days. The mixture stays on until the cut heals (Courlander, 1996).
Jamaican folk medicine
Asthma
In ‘Jamaican Culture and International Folklore,’ Claudette Copney shares a variety of herbal remedies from her culture featuring bay rum.
(a) Put yon tasso root, sarsaparilla root, young calabash3 (Crescentia cujete), wild thyme, petit baume leaves, mango bark, guava bark, cedar bark,
Bay rum is created from Jamaican Pimento (Pimenta dioica), a tree in the family of Myrtaceae, closely related to bay trees and cloves. Jamai-
coconut roots, coconut bark, green lime, lemon glassia leaves and lemongrass in a large jar. Cover the jar and bury underground. After two
can pimento contains about 4% volatile oil and the eugenol content varies from 30% to 90% (Lancashire, 2003). Bayberry5 (Myrica cerifera),
weeks, unearth and strain the bottle. Use as needed (Courlander, 1996). (b) Boil Bahama grass4 (Cynodon dactylon) and coconut fibre; infuse
another Myrtaceae, is also included in Bay Rum. Myrica cerifera is also beloved in the United States by Gullah healers. Some remedies are listed in Table 1.
with green rock sage and set aside. Roast rosemary bush and wild okra seeds; grind into powder and put in corked bottle and add menthol – inhale this brew between sips of the Bahama grass/coconut (Courlander, 1996).
fibre
tea
often give aromatic herbal treatments for ailments. The statistics attest to the need for better healthcare for people of colour. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General (SAMHSA): •
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African American remedies • It is no wonder that African descended people keep close ties to root doctors or bush doctors who
A few statements from Healthy Americans.org: •
5
3 Calabash are containers of herbal wisdom and strong medicine. 4 Bahama grass is a tenacious perennial grass used for astringent, styptic and healing properties.
Bay berries contain essential oils, triterpenes, flavonoids, (myricitrin) phenols, myrica wax and tannins. Used as an astringent and antibiotic, also for dystentery; to build immunity, drain lymphatic system and heal mucus membranes (Viable Herbal Solutions, 2003).
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Over 25% of African American youth exposed to violence met the diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder, especially those in high-need populations. Sixty percent of African American elders who need mental health care do not receive it. African Americans use alternative therapies more often than White (nonhispanic) Americans. African Americans respond favourably to treatment.
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Diabetes is 70% higher in African Americans than in White American populations. African American children are five times more likely to die from asthma than White American children.
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Puerto Ricans had an ageadjusted annual asthma rate of 40.9 per million – the highest of all American ethnic groups. Diabetes affects more than 1.2 million Hispanics/Latinos living in the United States, double the rate of White Americans. Most African Americans have Type II, non-insulin-dependent diabetes (National Health Interview Surveys (NHIS)). For African American women, regardless of age, Type II diabetes is the third leading cause of death (Blackhealthcare.com, 1999– 2000). Bantu people who hunt and gather wild foods enjoy good health.
Fragrant baths, floor washes, powders, bath crystals, incense, anointing and blessing oils, as well as fresh aromatic flowers are employed in our folk medicines and magic. (a) Pomades Unguents, which we now call pomades, were used approximately 5000 years ago according to cave walls on the Tassili plateau, in the Sahara and Algiers; women, with what appears to be corn-rowed hair, are having a substance (assumed to be unguent) applied to their braids and scalp. Women had their hair and bodies anointed with fragrant pomades and botanical oils, assured of the oils medicinal powers. Women perfumed themselves by sitting over or near burning pots of sandalwood or aromatic substances (similar to smudging or smoke bath). Fragrant flowers, among other natural objects worn on the body, served as protection amulets (Yarbrough, 2002). In Ancient Egypt, women are depicted wearing cone-shaped unguents on their heads. These cones were either representative of all of
the pomade previously applied or actual cones that melted from body heat, perfuming and conditioning the hair (illustrated in stele, papyri and cave art from various civiliza-
•
tions) (Jeffries, 1988). Madame C.J. Walker became the first Black millionaire in the United States in the early twentieth century from her miraculous, herbal hair growth pomades and other botanical formulas. Afro Sheen, Dixie Peace, Dax, Bergamot, as well as tallow and lanolin and herbal blends, have been used for decades by African Americans to treat scalp disorders and encourage hair growth. Over the years, synthetic and petroleum products dominated the formulae and their use dwindled. Today, there is a virtual pomade renaissance sparked by Black-owned and other corporations. African Pride and African Root Stimulator, prominently feature aromatic herbs like sage, rosemary, lemon verbena, neroli, patchouli, lemongrass and kola nuts, in a shea butter or olive oil base. Pomade has regained popularity, unrestricted by ethnicity or race. (b) Stress, anxiety and depression While aromatherapy may not always cure disease, it enhances lifestyle, making it an effective preventive. Traditional African American formulae feature aromas that address the body, mind and spirit. •
Kananga water: Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) is an uplifting nervine used in African American folk medicine. The sweet, floral scent of ylang ylang helps ease transitions by reducing anxious feelings, inhibitions and stress. Kananga water is a specific treatment for bereavement, separation, longing and may have applications for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
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Kananga water is a readymade product that contains low-grade ylang ylang. Chinese wash: This contains broom straw, lemongrass and citronella essential oils in a soapy solution. Chinese wash cleanses the home or business. Lemongrass has a pleasant, energizing citrus aroma. Van van: A preferred spiritual oil, it is used environmentally as a perfume and bath and is made from African ingredients; lemongrass, vetiver, castor oil and jojoba oil with magnetic stones. Florida water: This contains bergamot (Citrus bergamia), lavender (Lavandula augustifolia), lemon (Citrus limonum), jasmine (Jasminium spp.), attar of roses (Rosa spp.) and neroli (Citrus aurantium ssp. aurantium). Florida water is used for blessings and spiritual cleansing; placed on altars, in baths and as cologne.
(c) Flowers Fresh flowers considered hypnotic or narcotic, as essential oils or absolutes, are used in traditional African spiritual traditions and American folk cultures. Flowers create a pleasant environment by inspiring a positive atmosphere. Narcissus (paper white lily) and hyacinth, gardenia, jasmine, old-fashioned roses, orange trees, magnolias and carnations are featured and many cultivars can be grown indoors. African American singer Billy Holiday’s trademark was a fresh gardenia worn in the hair. Holiday battled depression and addiction most of her life. (d) Lemon Lemons (Citrus limonum) were brought to Africa and the diaspora from Southeast Asia. They serve in both places as a medicine and food (Grime, 1979). Lemons are highly
touted by the Gullah and Hoodoos. The Gullah use lemon in herbal teas as a natural remedy. Admired in the Black community for some of the same qualities that attract mainstream aromatherapists, lemons are thought to detoxify and be astringent, antifungal, antiseptic, insect repelling, refrigerant and are high in citrofl-
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Pine products used in the Black community:
avonoids, a source of vitamin C. Lemons are a useful treatment for fever, high blood pressure, cold and flu symptoms, sinusitis and lethargy
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(Purchon, 1998). Associated with positive energy, good spirits and luck, lemons can be grown indoors.
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(e) Pine Pine and other conifers have been used historically, particularly in the United States, to treat a variety of ailments that African Americans have struggled with. Pine is easy to obtain as it grows well in most places and the essential oil is one of the most inexpensive. Ethnobotanist Dr. Faith Mitchell lists a variety of conditions pine treated in ‘Hoodoo Medicine – Gullah Herbal Remedies’: stuffy nose, fever, stomach ache, whooping cough, bacteria, parasites and fatigue. The Native Americans of the Southeast coast used pine tar for swelling, burns, itching, sore, throat, colds and consumption. These applications influenced African American medicine. It is interesting to note African uses of conifers as well. Pine kernel oil (Pinus pinea L.) may have been an ingredient in the complex incense kyphi, referred to in the Papyrus Ebers as ked. Juniper unguent was used for headache in Egypt according to medical papyri. Infused juniper oil was used to treat tapeworm (Papyrus Ebers, 85) Juniper was used heavily for embalming. •
Infusion of pine needles alleviates cold symptoms.
Pine infusion makes a conditioning hair rinse; mouthwash for sore throat; treatment for laryngitis. Chewing white pine needles releases immunity-boosting vitamin C.
•
Grandpa’s pine tar shampoo treats scalp disorders. Grandpa’s pine soap for dry, itchy, flaky skin. Many people use Pinsol but since it is largely synthetic, adding pine, cedar or fir essential oil to a wash bucket is a healthy aromatic alternative.
Other coniferous herbs of interest include white spruce (Picea glauca), balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Fresh, infused in water or distilled as essential oils, these evergreens are useful for house cleansing or hydrotherapy. (f) Cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum annuum) African pepper is used to treat stomach ache, sore throat, rheumatism, poor circulation, body aches, sluggish metabolism and lack of motivation. It is also used spiritually by most African people. (g) Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Brewed, served hot, as iced tea with lemon or cooked with a main meal, ginger is said to be warming, anticatarrhal, tonic, detoxifying, digestive, eliminating and lowers cholesterol and blood pressure. Ginger has been used for more than 25 centuries; major producers include Kenya, Nigeria and Jamaica.
(h) Wild camphor tree (Tarchonanthus camphorates) The wild camphor tree offers many benefits. Khoisan people use wild
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camphor for its soothing qualities. Dried leaves are used in ceremonies to anoint the body during rituals. The leaves and seeds are used to fumigate. Camphor smoke treats rheumatism, headache and insomnia. The tea relieves stomach ailments, asthma, anxiety and heartburn. The leaves contain an insecticide used to deter lice and external parasites. (Several South African companies sell bush teas internationally. Bush teas are wildcrafted, organic indigenous herbs, steeped in the ethnobotanical history of their perspective regions.)
African carrier oils In addition to shea and cocoa butter, neem, coconut, sweet almond and avocado oils, promising carrier oils that are organic and wildcrafted by women, are becoming available: Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is light with a faint aroma and is nutritious and has a long shelf life. It is available from various African countries. Cape Chestnut Oil (Calodendrum capense (L.F.) Thunb) is grown in Mt. Kenya’s forests. It has a mild smell and offers natural ultra violet protection, contains essential fatty acids, antioxidants and is an ideal base for creams. Foraha (Calophyllum inophyllum) is dark green, waxy, rich, and thick, with a delicate smell. It is used to treat wounds, eczema, burns, insect bites, herpes, varicose veins, scars and as a useful face oil. Kweme or Oyster nut (Telfairea pedata) from Tanzania is used locally as a breast massage to encourage milk flow. It contains essential fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, iodine and has a long shelf life. Moringa oil (Moringa stenopetala) from Egypt, the Sudan and Arabian
Peninsula is a woman’s pregnant belly rub, called ben; it contains 73% oleic acid and other nutrients. It is also used for soap, lamps, perfume and general skincare.
International cooperation: the future of aromatherapy •
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Morocco is brimming with wild, fragrant sage brush, rosemary, thyme, verbena, henna and roses. Technically not chamomile, Chamomile Maroc (Ormensis multicaulis) offers similar comfort to the nervous system and is sold as an alternative to the pricier Roman and German Chamomile. Essential oil production has been a Moroccan cottage industry since the seventh century AD (Lachance, 1993). However, equipment and technology has grown obsolete and Canadian researchers, supported by the International Development Research Centre, are working to develop new stills. Dr. Bachir Benjilali of the Aromatic Plants and Essential Oil Laboratory has observed progress, as currently hundred of thousands of Moroccan people are employed through the essential oil industry. Plantes Aromatiques (Maroc), a project directed by Prof. Benjilali and Dr. Belanger of Canada, includes research on the chemical composition, chemotaxonomy and optimal growth conditions for the exploitation of artemisia, verbena, rosemary, Thymus satureoides, Tanacetum annuum, Ammi visnaga, Inula graveolens, Cistus ladaniferus and Cedrus libani. UNIFEM brokered a deal between the women shea butter manufacturers of Burkina Faso and the international natural cosmetic company L’Occitane.
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STIFE (Students in Free Enterprise), a US led not-forprofit organisation, is working in various West African countries teaching rural villagers to make soap and botanical cosmetics. Rural Togo, Benin and Ghana have established distillation technology to extract lemongrass oil, under the direction of Vegetal Extracts and Natural Aromas Laboratory et al. Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products helps rural African communities manufacture natural products for the international market. Zambian farmers in concert with Ecocert in Malawi have certified organic essential oils of melissa, jasmine, lemon verbena, rosemary, lemongrass and citronella. Wildcrafted and organic bee products are also being exported. Zambili d’Afrique is developing crafts and agricultural products including essential oils, herbs and spices. As of 2000, they have been members of IFAT (International Federation of Alternative Trade). Zambili products have been inspected by the Fair Trade Labelling Organization and the Ethical Trading Initiative. Women in Zambia and Zimbabwe have organized their own lemongrass essential oil co-ops. The African Shea Butter Company is the first (hopefully of many companies) buying directly from such co-ops, directly affecting rural economies. This same company also sells bourbon geranium, quality shea butter and oils from rural communities. The African Shea Butter Company plans to add African natural fabrics and locally made paper to their packaging.
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In current Incense land (Somali, 2003), trade groups wade through politics and tradition to establish the fair trade of frankincense and myrrh. An exquisite vetiver essential oil sold internationally comes from Haiti. An innovative phytotherapy school featuring non-western approaches has been established. 6 Traditional distilleries still manufacture bay rum in Jamaica. There is a growing grass roots movement within the US to obtain sufficient medical care for African Americans and to utilize complimentary care more. Gullah herbal traditions are being preserved and disseminated. 7 A growing number of Black people are embracing traditional African religions (which feature herbalism) and reconnecting to Egyptian spiritually.
Conclusion As we embark on a new millennium, I hope to see an increase in the use of aromatherapy to address the health crisis facing the Black community worldwide, including our high incidence of diabetes, asthma, high blood pressure, cancer and mental illness. Accomplishing this goal is complex. We need more aromatherapists of African descent; people knowledgeable of African healing traditions capable of adapting it to today’s needs. Moreover, practitioners from the global community, regardless of nationality or ethnicity, need to be willing to reach out practically, politi6 The Temple of Yehwe, Vodou Medicine, Max-G Beauvoir, www.vodou.org; seminars and workshops. 7 Gullah/Geechee Sea Island Coalition, P.O. Box 1207, St. Helena Island, SC 29920, (843) 838–1171.
cally, economically or socially and this will undoubtedly bring about healing. Overall, the future looks bright for the conservation of indigenous aromatic plant knowledge of Africa. I
10017 USA; West African Contact: Florence Butegwa, 11 Oyinkan Abayomi Drive, Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria. Zambili d’Afrique, PO Box 38540, Lusaka, Zambia email: [email protected]
7.
hope that the intense concentration of international energies towards African ecology, sustainability, development of non-timber related forest products, fair trade, new technologies and creative entrepreneurial schemes built around aromatic plants continues to flourish.
Contacts 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Africa Recovery, Room S-931, United Nations, New York, NY 10017, USA. To support A-SNAPP (Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products, 2003): c/o Herb Research Foundation, 1007 Pearl St. Suite 200, Boulder, CO, USA 80302. African Shea Butter Company. To purchase fixed oils and essential oils from African cooperatives contact Tammie Umbel url: www. africansheabuttercompany. com IDRC International Development Research Centre resource person Dr. Honore Kossi Koumaglo, Vegetal Extracts and Natural Aromas Laboratory, (LEVAN) Department of Sciences, University of Benin, P.O. Box 1515, Lome Togo; email: [email protected]. Institut agronomique et veterinaire Hassan II, Professor Bachir Benjilali, P.O. Box 6202, Rabat-Instituts, Morocco; Agriculture Canada Research Centre, Andre Belanger, 430 Gouin Blvd., StJean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec J3B 6Z8, Canada. UNIFEM, 304 E. 45th Street, 15th Floor, New York, NY,
References African Shea Butter. www. Africansheabuttercompany.com (accessed 7/29/03). Amen, R. U. N. (1990). Metu Neter (Vol. 1), Kamit Publications, Brooklyn. Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products (2003). Beauvoir, M.G. (2003). A Medical System. www.vodou.org (accessed 7/29/03). Bird, S.R. (2004). Sticks, Stones, Roots and Bones. Llewellyn Worldwide. Blackhealthcare.com (1999–2000). Fact Sheet: Chronic diseases affect minorities disproportionately. www.BHC.com. Blackhealthcare.com (1999–2000). Diabetes in African Americans? www.BHC.com. Celestial Tides (1990–2003). History and Use of Frankincense. www.celestialtides.com (accessed 8/03/ 03). Copney, C. V. (1998). Jamaican Culture and International Folklore, Superstitions, Beliefs, Dreams, Proverbs and Remedies, Pentland Press, Raleigh. Courlander, H. (1996). A Treasury of Afro-American Folklore, Marlowe and Co, New York. Duke, J. A. (1999). Herbs of the Bible: 2000 Years of Plant Medicine, Interweave Press, Loveland. Edwards, V. H. (1999). The Aromatherapy Companion, Storey Books, Pownal. Grime, W.E., 1979. Ethno-botany of the Black Americans. Reference Publications. Illes, J. (2001). Earth Mother Magic, Fairwinds Press, Gloucester.
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Karade, B.I., Baldwin, J.D. (1994). Pre-historic Nations. p. 61. Lancashire, R.J. (1994–2003). Jamaican Pimento. Department of Chemistry: University of the West Indies Indies (Messrs. Schimmel and Co., of Leipzig). Lachance, A. (1993). The Sweet Smell of Success: IDRC 21(2): 1–3. Manniche, L. (1999). Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt, Cornell University Press, Ithaca. McIntyre, A. (1994). The Complete Woman’s Herbal, Henry Holt Books, New York. Mitchell, F. (1999). Hoodoo Medicine, Summerhouse Press, Columbia. Omoleya, M. (1986). Certificate History of Nigeria, Longman Group, London, Lagos. Purchon, N. (1998). Handbook of Natural Healing, Allen and Unwin, St. Leonards, NSW. Riva, A. (1974). The Modern Spellbook: the Magical Uses of Herbs, International Imports, Las Vegas. Simpson, G. E. (1962). Folk medicine in Trinidad. Journal of American Folklore, 75: 298. Voeks, R. A. (1997). Sacred Leaves of Candomble: African Magic, Medicine, and Religion in Brazil, University of Texas Press, Austin. www.Buysomali.com. Somali Frankincense; Somali Myrrh. Progressive Interventions (accessed 7/22/03). Viable Herbal Company. Bayberry Root (Myrica certifera) pp. 1–6 (accessed 07/22/03). Jeffries, R. (1988). The image of woman in African cave art. Journal of African Civilizations, 6: 1. In: Black Women in Antiquity. Sertima IV, (Ed.). (1984). Transaction Pub- lishers, New Brunswick, London. Rashidi, R. (2002). African Goddesses, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, London.
Yarbrough, C. (2002). Female Style and Beauty in Ancient Africa, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, London. William, L. and Finch, C. S. (1988).
Cordeiro Roca, M.C., de Queiroz, A.C., Soursop Taxonomy, Properties, Uses. 61, 6. Davidson, B. (1959). The Lost Cities of Africa, Little, Brown and Co, New
Olumide, L. and Karade, B. I. (1994). Yoruba Religious Concepts, Weiser, York Beach, p. 2. US Surgeon General, Mental Health: Culture, Race and Ethnicity Re-
The Great Queens of Ethiopia, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, London.
York, p. 60. Harsch, E. (2001). Making trade work for poor women. African Recovery, 15(4): 1–16.
port 2002. Riva, A. (1985). Magic with Incense and Powders, International Imports, Las Vegas.
Irfan, H. (04/06/2003). It all Makes Good Scents. www. islamonline.net (accessed 07/30/ 03).
Stoller, P. and Olkes, C. (1987). In Sorcery’s Shadow, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, London. Thomas, C. (2003). Ginger Oil Data
The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts. Weiser Books, York Beach.
Sheet. Sniffing Moose Aromatherapy, Birmingham (accessed 8/6/ 2003).
Further reading Blao, H. (2003). Producing Essential Oils in West Africa: Series (IDRC publications).
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African aromatherapy: past, present and future applications Stephanie Rose Bird
Introduction
M
ost of what we regard as new discoveries have an-
cient roots, including aromatherapy. Within some of the earliest civilizations in Africa, there were vibrant cultures that revered aromatic plants. ‘‘Since the most ancient of times, African priests and priestesses and the common people believed in and used magic, medicine and religions to protect themselves from evil forces and to attract good ones.’’ Camille Yarbrough (Sertima, 1984).
Early Egyptian priests practiced enfleurage, an extraction process for obtaining aromatic oils from flowers and Hippocrates, known as the Father of modern medicine, acquired most of his knowledge from the Egyptians (Manniche, 1999). Dioscorides, the Greek physician who created De Materia Medica, a document that set the standard for herbal knowledge, transcribed numerous African remedies and formulae (Edwards, 1999). The ancient Greco-Romans Pliny and Galens were fascinated by healing techniques utilizing fragrant plants practiced by Egyptians and other early African cultures. These three, as well
as lesser-known physicians, archived, experimented with and most importantly, passed down, African aromatic
and it is of further interest that Manniche cites Coptic Africans as also using this practice (Manniche,
healing formulas that were later developed in Europe (Manniche, 1999). In this way, African plant wisdom influenced Western herbalism and aro-
1999). Copts are concentrated in Ethiopia not Egypt, attesting to a collective knowledge, rather than herbalism as an isolated Ancient
matherapy as they exist today. Fragrance historian Lise Manniche’s interpretation of aromatherapy is less fixated on the use of essential
Egyptian phenomenon. Africa’s aromatic past is intriguing, so is the continued engagement and unique applications of aroma-
oils as the primary aromatherapy tools and employs a more broad definition that is shared by many African people.
therapy on the continent and within the African diaspora. In some cases engagement with aromatherapy is through the commonly accepted
‘‘In order to define the area as far as ancient Egypt is concerned we shall here loosely classify aromatherapeutic remedies as substances applied as treatment where the scent of the remedy is emphasized by its being used in massage and other external applications such as poultices, by it being inhaled, or similar, and in particular such substances which are endowed with a pronounced scent.’’ (Manniche, 1999).
form, essential oils, yet other parts of my discussion encompass the use of aromatic herbs in incense, rubs, pomades, solid perfumes, washes, baths, scented waters and spirituality,
Manniche also states that Egyptians noticed that acacia possessed aromatherapeutic benefits because of its penetrating affect even though its aroma was faint. Acacia oil mas-
references, the Kebra Negast or the Koran. The romance between Makeda and Solomon, the third king of Israel, is legendary. Their romance
sage was used to help heal heart ailments as an infused oil and poultice
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as these are common African aromatherapy applications.
Our lady of fragrance: Makeda, Queen of Sheba You may have heard of the Makeda, Queen of Sheba through biblical
provides a view of early African traditions, rituals, ceremonies and even geographic boundaries.
0962-4562/$ - See Front Matter 2003 Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved DOI:10.1016/S0962-4562(03)00117-6
Sheba was an empire centred in Ethiopia; the word ‘Ethiopia’ in early Greek means ‘land of the sunburnt faces.’ The term Ethiopia then is quite generic; it refers to Brown
mon to enter a trade agreement. Solomon became smitten with Makeda and had a crystal palace built for her visits; washed down completely in fragrant floral waters (probably rose
dicinally and spiritually. Fumigation (smudging) with smoldering herbs, was used during prayer, meditation, clearing and healing, particularly in the treatment of women’s reproduc-
and Black people. In ancient times, Ethiopia referred to a wide geographical area, encompassing Upper Egypt and the African continent
water, as it was commonly used). Various sources list the gifts given for Makeda and Solomon’s weddings as: cinnamon, cassia, attar
tive ailments. Many of the botanical oils aromatherapists use today continue to come from Egypt and nearby countries.
generally. Current day southern Saudi Arabia, Yemen, southern Iran (Persia) and parts of India where considered Ethiopia (William and
of roses and neroli (orange blossom oil or water), sandalwood, aloe vera, olive oil, sweet almond oil and fragrant trees – an array of fragrant
Plant essences were released into fixed oils through maceration, pulverization, soaking, burning, fermentation, water based infusion, de-
Finch, 1988). Some scholars draw tighter boundaries. In ‘The Great Queen of Ethiopia’ (William and Finch, 1988),
healing gifts. The gifts demonstrate international trade and cooperation. Persian, Indian, Arabian and West African botanicals used by Shabaeans
coction and unguents. Applications used by Ancient Egyptians are still popular today, including baths, rubs, massage, tinctures, poultices, body
Ethiopia is defined as below Aswan, Egypt, the Sudan and present day Ethiopia. The Queen of Sheba’s empire included parts of Upper Egypt, all of Ethiopia, segments of
are enjoyed in contemporary Africa and the international community. The marriage between Makeda and Solomon was one of many for the king – he is thought to have had
wraps, teas and what I would venture to call hot toddy’s (alcoholic herbal drinks).
Arabia, Syria, Armenia, India and the region between the Mediterranean and the Erythraean Sea. The Kebra Negast (The Glory
over 100 wives. In the end Makeda left Israel, pregnant with their only son. Makeda raised their son, Menelik, alone. Imagining how the
of Kings), a holy book written in Ge’ez language, says that the Queen of Sheba’s empire was established in 1370 BC and lasted 350 years.
Shabaeans looked is not difficult. Menelik was the first king of the Solomonid line in Ethiopia; a line that ended with the deposition of Haille
This book also demonstrates a relationship between southern Arabia and Abyssinia (which it calls Ethiopia) in language, religion and racial
Selasie in 1974. Carthage was another Ancient African empire involved with fragrant botanicals (Rashidi, 2002) and
composition. This is supported by writings in Latin by Strabo and Pliny, as well as a host of Egyptian hieroglyphics (William and Finch, 1988).
included present day Ghana, Mali, Songhay and Kanem-Bornu. Punt, also called Pwenet (sacred land or incense land) was prized for both incense and ebony. Punt was on
The merchants of Sheba and Raamah were they merchants; they traded in thy fairs with the best of all spices, and with all precious stones and gold. Ezekiel 27: 22–24.
the coast of Eritrea and Somalia (Montet). Due to its geography and climate, Somalia remains the primary producer of quality frankincense and myrrh.
Ancient Egypt The relationship between Solomon and Makeda was one of power and perhaps of love. Makeda brought gifts to persuade King Solo-
Egypt (Khamet) remains the most renowned ancient African culture. Egyptians used fragrant plants me-
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‘‘In the black seeds (cumin) is the medicine for every disease except death.’’ – Arab proverb. Papyrus Ebers lists over 800 herbal remedies. A few aromatic herbs used in Africa and the diaspora are mentioned below. Acacia (Acacia arabica) It was used to treat wounds, as a chest rub and in ninth century AD as an internal treatment of the uterus. Angelica root (Angelica archangelica) Cited in the bible, its botanical name bears Christian overtones. Angelica root, also called archangel root, is thought to be a gift from Archangel Michael to empower women and protect children (Illes, 2001). Called the root of the Holy Ghost, angelica is chewed in North America, to keep evil away and to prolong life (Riva, 1974). Author Judika Illes lists angelica in a spiritual floor wash recipe (Illes, 2001). Women and children carry the root as a protection amulet in mojo bags (Bird, 2004).
Asafoetida (Ferula foetida) As it is so acrid, Asafoetida is thought of as an aid to dark forces in the Americas. Castor bean (Ricinus communis) It was used in oil lamps, for headaches and hair conditioning by Egyptians 6000 years ago. African Americans use castor oil as a laxative, emollient, lotion and hair growth aid. This sacred ceremonial oil is called ewe lara by Yoruban Ifa and Afro-Brazilian Candomble devotees
an ancient text from about 1500 BC that cites arakhou as having analgesic qualities. Fir (Abies spp.) According to the Papyrus Eber, fir (sefet) was used as a hair growth unguent (pomade). Henna (Lawsonia inermis) Cyprinum has very fragrant flowers
(Voeks, 1997).
with a sweet perfume. The seeds and flowers were macerated in olive oil. The plant treated nervous conditions, broken bones, improved cir-
Chamomile (Matricaria or Anthemis spp.) In 1976, Chamomile was discovered
culation and was a general tonic. Use of henna continues, particularly in the Sudan and Northern Africa as a hair treatment, perfume, beauty aid
through scientific analysis as an anointing ingredient and embalming substance for the body of King Ramesses II. In Hoodoo, chamomile tea is a lucky hand wash (Riva, 1974).
and tattoo. Reseda, the name for henna in Haiti’s ‘Medsin fey’ (Botanical medicine), is used medicinally (Beauvoir, 2003). Orrisroot (Iris spp.)
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) Cinnamon was used as a preservative with moringa oil in embalming techniques, to soothe the living and
The oil was used to anoint the nostrils, as a styptic and near the heart for murmurs and other ailments. Perfume from the flowers (Irenium)
souls of the departed. It is added to magical powders and incense throughout the diaspora and it continues to be used as a preservative.
was an unguent and medicine base. Orrisroot powder continues to function in African American healing medicine, enhancing the powers
Cumin oil (Nigella sativa) Called tepenen, cumin is believed to have been an indigenous Egyptian herb used for a host of ailments and applied as a lotion or unguent. Ethiopians mix black cumin seeds with butter and apply to the body, then wrap in cloth or they sniff for headaches. Strewn among linens, it
of other herbs and stones (the same ability recognized is in Egypt). Called Queen Elizabeth root colloquially, orrisroot enhances physical and psychological comfort (Bird, 2004). Lemon verbena (Aloysia triphylla) The dried leaves are burned during invocations to attract good influ-
serves as a moth repellent. Cumin remains an important African herb.
ences and assist divination (Riva, 1974).
Dill (Anethum graveolens) Known as arakhou by the Egyptians,
Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) Lotus was used in perfumery, for fu-
this herb was found posthumously on Amenhotep II. Dill was mentioned in
neral rites as an unguent and as an anointment for fever, as it was be-
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lieved to have a cooling effect. Carrying a lotus amulet encourages focus and good spirits (Riva, 1974). Today, lotus is used as an aphrodisiac associated with the angelic loving spirit, orisha Oshun.
Mandrake oil (Mandragora officinarum) This was used to anoint the Maya, treasurer of Tutankhamun, as it was found in her tomb. A cooling ointment was made as an analgesic, to induce sleep or act as a narcotic.
Myrtle (Myrtus communis) Khet-des was used for skin disorders and sinus infections in early Egypt. Myrtle is used to inspire peace, invite blessings and generosity. Grown since early times for the fragrant flowers and leaves as well as the aromatic bark, myrtle contains antibacterial phenols. Spiritually, myrtle symbolizes Venus and other love goddesses. It has been used medicinally to treat tumours, breasts and genitals. Iranians make a hot poultice for boils. Algerians use it to relieve asthma whilst the North Africans use the dry flowers to treat small pox (Duke, 1999). The Gullah people use an indigenous form of myrtle (Myrica cerifera), an aromatic evergreen that grows in wet, sandy, pinelands and bogs in the Carolina Lowlands and Sea Coast Islands, for diarrhoea, dysentery, uterine haemorrhage and as a gargle (Mitchell, 1999). African Americans use myrtle by inhaling warm vapours from the tea or a poultice, to relieve head pains caused by a severe cold or flu (Riva, 1974). Rose (Rosa spp.) Rose has been used for headache, toothache, and as an ointment for diseases of the uterus. It has been used since ancient times as a nervine,
systemic tonic, refrigerant and aphrodisiac. African Americans (among others) burn dried petals alone or in an incense blend to attract good luck (Riva, 1974). Roses are associated
cense (Northern Somalia, gained significance through incense trade). Beyo, referred to as olibanum, is the classical frankincense distilled into essential oil. Beyo is used locally as a
frankincense; the highest grades still come from the area known as ancient Punt, modern day Somalia. Myrrh foretold the passion and suffering of Jesus Christ. A salve made from it was a
with the Queen of Sheba, Neferteti and Cleopatra.
fire starter, to deter snakes and scorpions, for purification, to perfume hair and clothing, as incense, in holy ointments and even as a cola
stimulant. Heliopolis myrrh was burned at noon as incense for the ancient Egyptian sun god, Ra. Myrrh is widely enjoyed. It is a
soft drink. Beyo is still imported primarily from Somalia (Ancient Punt) and East Africa (Duke, 1999). It also grows around the horn of Africa, the
dentifrice; Africans chew myrrh stems to clean their teeth and Kenyans chew myrrh as gum. Ghanaians fumigate clothing with fragrant
Hadhramaut region of Yemen and Oman (Celestial Tides, 2003). Maydi is the top grade medicinal frankincense. Used as a chewing
smoke of burning myrrh wood. Nigerians decoct myrrh and give as a drink for mental illness and tapeworm. A mouthwash is made from it
product in Saudi Arabia, maydi comes in seven grades. The highest two are preferred: Mushaad and Mujaarwal, numbers one and two, respectively, are close to transparent and
to help topical ulcers and it is also used for bronchial inflammations and vaginal infections. It is astringent and fixative, and may be found in lotions, potpourri, perfumery, soap
are sold as quite large, unbroken pieces. The Maydi that survives shipment abroad is usually the smaller, opaque, lower grade types.
and food (approved by FDA). Today modern Egyptian women carry pearls (small chunks) of myrrh in their purse for perfume and status
Swahili speakers use frankincense as a diuretic. East Africans use it to treat syphilis and the bark of the resin is used as a tonic. Tanzanians
(Duke, 1999). Practitioners of Hoodoo, Ifa and Santeria, Moslems, Catholics, Jews and Christians, all use myrrh spiritually. African Americans
boil frankincense with sesame oil to treat a parasitic disease called schistosomiasis (Duke, 1999). It is heavily used in the African diaspora, particu-
use myrrh blessing and anointment oils (Riva, 1974). Myrrh is burned to honour the Egyptian moon goddess Isis (Illes, 2001). The corresponding
larly in the United States, as an incense and anointment oil. British herbalist Anne McIntyre suggests that frankincense heals many conditions including, respiratory infections, ca-
ewe (herb) of the angelic spirit Oshun of the Ifa tradition from Nigeria is myrrh. Ann McIntyre recommends it medicinally in her ‘Women’s Herbal,’ citing it as a
tarrh, laryngitis, asthma, fevers, scars, sores and wounds (McIntyre, 1994).
stimulant, carminative, vulnerary, expectorant, antiseptic, antiviral, detoxifying and useful for bronchitis, asthma, colds, indigestion and in-
Rue (Ruta graveolens) Rue was massaged directly on the body to reduce fever. Practitioners of Candomble in Brazil and Lucumi in Cuba, wear rue in their hair with other herbs to deter negative spirits (Voeks, 1997). Sage (Salvia spp.) Sage (probably clary sage) was found on the body of Ramesses II and the incense smoke was inhaled sometimes through a straw called profomo. Sage was used for magico-spiritual benefits in Ancient Egypt, a belief that persists today with smudge sticks in the diaspora.
Frankincense and myrrh Frankincense and myrrh have been revered for their healing properties from ancient times to the present. These resins are extracted from sap of members of the Burseraceae family; each has a distinct aroma, colour, medicine and spiritual attribute. Frankincense (Boswellia spp.) Called Beyo locally, frankincense is used for dysentery, gonorrhoea, fever and polyps. The three Wisemen honoured the divinity of Jesus Christ with frankincense, at a time when it was more valuable than gold. Frank means free, incense means lightning. The Arabic word for frankincense, luban, means milk of the Arabs and its earliest use was inscribed on the tomb of Queen Hatsheput in the 15th century BC (Celestial Tides, 2003). Somalia’s commercial history began with in-
Myrrh (Commiphora spp.) Myrrh is a hard resin and is used by preparing infusions or tinctures of the finely ground powder. It is used as an analgesic, astringent, for bronchitis and as an expectorant. There are 135 species of myrrh growing in Africa and the Middle East and just as with
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flammation (McIntyre, 1994).
The Yoruba of Nigeria The Yoruba are an additional culture of interest to this conversation, as they are a link from our past to
present day herbal practices. Yoruban history begins with the migration of an East African population across the trans-African route leading from the mid-Nile river area to the mid-
closer to the deity as do oils. Incense is used for invocation and prayer. Shango (Ifa) Heru (Khametic) are gods of action and will. Baths: geranium, bay leaf; oils olibanum
demonstrates a different cultural perception in some cases and suggests that alternative approaches in processing and application render them useful.
Niger. Migrating peoples undoubtedly used this route from times that were exceeding remote. Michael Omoleya takes us back further, ‘‘The
(frankincense) and geranium. Incense is olibanum. Shango is also associated with cayenne, sarsaparilla, cedar and lightning (Karade and
Harold Courlander cites remedies collected from Trinidad (Simpson, 1962) in ‘A Treasury of AfroAmerican Folklore’:
Nigerian region was inhabited more than 40,000 years ago or as far back as 65,000 BC’’ (Omoleya, 1986). Olumede Luceus illustrates the point
Baldwin, 1994). Oshun (Ifa) Het-Heru (Khametic) the goddesses (orisha) of life and sexuality. Baths: yellow roses, honey-
of connection between Egypt and sub-Saharan Nigeria; ‘‘The Yoruba lived in ancient Egypt during antiquity before migrating to the
suckle, vetiver, spearmint and sandalwood. Oils: rose, sandalwood, honeysuckle and cinnamon. Oshun is associated with lotus, chamomile and
Atlantic coast.’’ Luceus cites, ‘‘similar languages, religions, beliefs, customs, names of persons, places and things.’’ This is of interest to the discussion of African diasporic
myrrh (Karade and Baldwin, 1994). Elegba (Ifa) Sebek (Khametic) gods of wisdom and divinity; human and godly. Baths: lavender, oregano, larkspur. Oils and incense: lavender and
aromatic traditions since the greatest percentage of Africans enslaved in the new world came from the Yoruba nation (Karade and Baldwin,
lily of the valley (Karade and Baldwin, 1994). Yemaya (Ifa) Auset (Khametic) goddesses of humanities, creation
1994). In the Metu Neter Vol. 1 by Ra Un Nefer Amen (1990), clear correlations are drawn between the Yoruba
and nurturing. Baths: spearmint. Oils and incense: jasmine and spearmint. (Karade and Baldwin, 1994). Ogun (Ifa) Herukhuti (Kahametic)
traditional practice called Ifa and Khametic (Egyptian) spirituality. For example, Ra Un Nefer connects Ifa gods and goddess (orisha) and
gods of war, justice and metal. Bath: pine. Oils: pine and cedarwood. Incense: pine, tobacco and cedarwood. Ogun is associated with eucalyptus
Khametian beings with the same attributes. Each deity has spiritual baths, incenses and herbal medicines that are used to both pay spiritual homage and for healing. In Ifa, each
(Karade and Baldwin, 1994). As we travel to the diaspora it is interesting to keep in mind the creator and elder orisha, Obatala, as he is associated with kola nut, basil,
orisha has a corresponding herb called ewe. This unique application of aromatic healing is not limited to the Yoruban-based Ifa faith; it is prevalent
sage, hyssop and tobacco.
in most African diasporic practices. Below are a few examples of the Khametic and Ifa continuum. Numerous herbs are associated with each deity.
Aromatic herbs thought of as irritants, skin sensitizers, photosensitizers and even toxic because of high concentrations of ketones, phenols
This is an abbreviated listing highlighting fragrant herbs used magically and spiritually. Baths brings devotees
and other constituents, are used traditionally in African cultures. Successful use of strong herbs
Fragrant cures from Trinidad
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Head cold Make paste of soft candle (wax), mustard powder and black pepper. Cut (part) the hair in the middle of the head, apply the paste and cover the spot with thyme leaves. This preparation breaks fever by causing perspiration (Courlander, 1996). Stomach ache, stomach gas, dyspepsia (1) Chew guinea pepper (cayenne) with obi seed (Cola acuminate)1 and swallow. (2) Boil together some guava leaf and black sage leaves, add spirits of asafoetida (presumably tincture of asafoetida). (3) Make a bush tea of lemongrass, guava, soursop2 and avocado (Courlander, 1996). Cuts Put ground balsam leaves and young coca pods on the cut and place a piece of rotten banana stump on top
1 Kola Nut is a sacred African plant employed in divination, traded as early as 12th–16th century by African–Arabian routes. Kola is revered as a stimulant, native to West Africa and is used today in African American hair products (Voeks, 1997). 2 Wild Soursop (A. muricata L.) is an aromatic, acidic fruit sold in open-air markets in Africa. Most people consider soursop too acidic to eat fresh. The fruit contains a variety of constituents, aliphatic ketone, alkanes, alkaloids, fatty acids, flavonoids, sterols, monoterpenoids and sesquiterpenoids The constituents aporphine and ())-roemerine possess cytotoxic activity.
Table 1
Some Jamaican herbal remedies
Headache Soak white cloth in bay rum – affix to forehead with safety pin, facing each side of head (Copney, 1998). The white is symbolic of purity and cleansing; the silver-coloured pin is believed to have magical protective abilities. The aroma calms the nerves, thereby relieving the headache (Bird, 2004). Flu Rub down the client with bay rum to draw out the fever and put under a cover. For headache, pour bay rum onto a face cloth and inhale. For nose bleeds Soak cloth in bay rum, pin around head and inhale the vapours. Heart Burn Dampen chest with rum Tone Internal Organs (cure-all) Add one shot of bay rum to coffee or tea. (do not wash cut first). The banana stump will drop off within 2–3 days. The mixture stays on until the cut heals (Courlander, 1996).
Jamaican folk medicine
Asthma
In ‘Jamaican Culture and International Folklore,’ Claudette Copney shares a variety of herbal remedies from her culture featuring bay rum.
(a) Put yon tasso root, sarsaparilla root, young calabash3 (Crescentia cujete), wild thyme, petit baume leaves, mango bark, guava bark, cedar bark,
Bay rum is created from Jamaican Pimento (Pimenta dioica), a tree in the family of Myrtaceae, closely related to bay trees and cloves. Jamai-
coconut roots, coconut bark, green lime, lemon glassia leaves and lemongrass in a large jar. Cover the jar and bury underground. After two
can pimento contains about 4% volatile oil and the eugenol content varies from 30% to 90% (Lancashire, 2003). Bayberry5 (Myrica cerifera),
weeks, unearth and strain the bottle. Use as needed (Courlander, 1996). (b) Boil Bahama grass4 (Cynodon dactylon) and coconut fibre; infuse
another Myrtaceae, is also included in Bay Rum. Myrica cerifera is also beloved in the United States by Gullah healers. Some remedies are listed in Table 1.
with green rock sage and set aside. Roast rosemary bush and wild okra seeds; grind into powder and put in corked bottle and add menthol – inhale this brew between sips of the Bahama grass/coconut (Courlander, 1996).
fibre
tea
often give aromatic herbal treatments for ailments. The statistics attest to the need for better healthcare for people of colour. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the Surgeon General (SAMHSA): •
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African American remedies • It is no wonder that African descended people keep close ties to root doctors or bush doctors who
A few statements from Healthy Americans.org: •
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3 Calabash are containers of herbal wisdom and strong medicine. 4 Bahama grass is a tenacious perennial grass used for astringent, styptic and healing properties.
Bay berries contain essential oils, triterpenes, flavonoids, (myricitrin) phenols, myrica wax and tannins. Used as an astringent and antibiotic, also for dystentery; to build immunity, drain lymphatic system and heal mucus membranes (Viable Herbal Solutions, 2003).
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Over 25% of African American youth exposed to violence met the diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder, especially those in high-need populations. Sixty percent of African American elders who need mental health care do not receive it. African Americans use alternative therapies more often than White (nonhispanic) Americans. African Americans respond favourably to treatment.
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Diabetes is 70% higher in African Americans than in White American populations. African American children are five times more likely to die from asthma than White American children.
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Puerto Ricans had an ageadjusted annual asthma rate of 40.9 per million – the highest of all American ethnic groups. Diabetes affects more than 1.2 million Hispanics/Latinos living in the United States, double the rate of White Americans. Most African Americans have Type II, non-insulin-dependent diabetes (National Health Interview Surveys (NHIS)). For African American women, regardless of age, Type II diabetes is the third leading cause of death (Blackhealthcare.com, 1999– 2000). Bantu people who hunt and gather wild foods enjoy good health.
Fragrant baths, floor washes, powders, bath crystals, incense, anointing and blessing oils, as well as fresh aromatic flowers are employed in our folk medicines and magic. (a) Pomades Unguents, which we now call pomades, were used approximately 5000 years ago according to cave walls on the Tassili plateau, in the Sahara and Algiers; women, with what appears to be corn-rowed hair, are having a substance (assumed to be unguent) applied to their braids and scalp. Women had their hair and bodies anointed with fragrant pomades and botanical oils, assured of the oils medicinal powers. Women perfumed themselves by sitting over or near burning pots of sandalwood or aromatic substances (similar to smudging or smoke bath). Fragrant flowers, among other natural objects worn on the body, served as protection amulets (Yarbrough, 2002). In Ancient Egypt, women are depicted wearing cone-shaped unguents on their heads. These cones were either representative of all of
the pomade previously applied or actual cones that melted from body heat, perfuming and conditioning the hair (illustrated in stele, papyri and cave art from various civiliza-
•
tions) (Jeffries, 1988). Madame C.J. Walker became the first Black millionaire in the United States in the early twentieth century from her miraculous, herbal hair growth pomades and other botanical formulas. Afro Sheen, Dixie Peace, Dax, Bergamot, as well as tallow and lanolin and herbal blends, have been used for decades by African Americans to treat scalp disorders and encourage hair growth. Over the years, synthetic and petroleum products dominated the formulae and their use dwindled. Today, there is a virtual pomade renaissance sparked by Black-owned and other corporations. African Pride and African Root Stimulator, prominently feature aromatic herbs like sage, rosemary, lemon verbena, neroli, patchouli, lemongrass and kola nuts, in a shea butter or olive oil base. Pomade has regained popularity, unrestricted by ethnicity or race. (b) Stress, anxiety and depression While aromatherapy may not always cure disease, it enhances lifestyle, making it an effective preventive. Traditional African American formulae feature aromas that address the body, mind and spirit. •
Kananga water: Ylang ylang (Cananga odorata) is an uplifting nervine used in African American folk medicine. The sweet, floral scent of ylang ylang helps ease transitions by reducing anxious feelings, inhibitions and stress. Kananga water is a specific treatment for bereavement, separation, longing and may have applications for Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.
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Kananga water is a readymade product that contains low-grade ylang ylang. Chinese wash: This contains broom straw, lemongrass and citronella essential oils in a soapy solution. Chinese wash cleanses the home or business. Lemongrass has a pleasant, energizing citrus aroma. Van van: A preferred spiritual oil, it is used environmentally as a perfume and bath and is made from African ingredients; lemongrass, vetiver, castor oil and jojoba oil with magnetic stones. Florida water: This contains bergamot (Citrus bergamia), lavender (Lavandula augustifolia), lemon (Citrus limonum), jasmine (Jasminium spp.), attar of roses (Rosa spp.) and neroli (Citrus aurantium ssp. aurantium). Florida water is used for blessings and spiritual cleansing; placed on altars, in baths and as cologne.
(c) Flowers Fresh flowers considered hypnotic or narcotic, as essential oils or absolutes, are used in traditional African spiritual traditions and American folk cultures. Flowers create a pleasant environment by inspiring a positive atmosphere. Narcissus (paper white lily) and hyacinth, gardenia, jasmine, old-fashioned roses, orange trees, magnolias and carnations are featured and many cultivars can be grown indoors. African American singer Billy Holiday’s trademark was a fresh gardenia worn in the hair. Holiday battled depression and addiction most of her life. (d) Lemon Lemons (Citrus limonum) were brought to Africa and the diaspora from Southeast Asia. They serve in both places as a medicine and food (Grime, 1979). Lemons are highly
touted by the Gullah and Hoodoos. The Gullah use lemon in herbal teas as a natural remedy. Admired in the Black community for some of the same qualities that attract mainstream aromatherapists, lemons are thought to detoxify and be astringent, antifungal, antiseptic, insect repelling, refrigerant and are high in citrofl-
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Pine products used in the Black community:
avonoids, a source of vitamin C. Lemons are a useful treatment for fever, high blood pressure, cold and flu symptoms, sinusitis and lethargy
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(Purchon, 1998). Associated with positive energy, good spirits and luck, lemons can be grown indoors.
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(e) Pine Pine and other conifers have been used historically, particularly in the United States, to treat a variety of ailments that African Americans have struggled with. Pine is easy to obtain as it grows well in most places and the essential oil is one of the most inexpensive. Ethnobotanist Dr. Faith Mitchell lists a variety of conditions pine treated in ‘Hoodoo Medicine – Gullah Herbal Remedies’: stuffy nose, fever, stomach ache, whooping cough, bacteria, parasites and fatigue. The Native Americans of the Southeast coast used pine tar for swelling, burns, itching, sore, throat, colds and consumption. These applications influenced African American medicine. It is interesting to note African uses of conifers as well. Pine kernel oil (Pinus pinea L.) may have been an ingredient in the complex incense kyphi, referred to in the Papyrus Ebers as ked. Juniper unguent was used for headache in Egypt according to medical papyri. Infused juniper oil was used to treat tapeworm (Papyrus Ebers, 85) Juniper was used heavily for embalming. •
Infusion of pine needles alleviates cold symptoms.
Pine infusion makes a conditioning hair rinse; mouthwash for sore throat; treatment for laryngitis. Chewing white pine needles releases immunity-boosting vitamin C.
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Grandpa’s pine tar shampoo treats scalp disorders. Grandpa’s pine soap for dry, itchy, flaky skin. Many people use Pinsol but since it is largely synthetic, adding pine, cedar or fir essential oil to a wash bucket is a healthy aromatic alternative.
Other coniferous herbs of interest include white spruce (Picea glauca), balsam fir (Abies balsamea) and red cedar (Juniperus virginiana). Fresh, infused in water or distilled as essential oils, these evergreens are useful for house cleansing or hydrotherapy. (f) Cayenne (Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum annuum) African pepper is used to treat stomach ache, sore throat, rheumatism, poor circulation, body aches, sluggish metabolism and lack of motivation. It is also used spiritually by most African people. (g) Ginger (Zingiber officinale) Brewed, served hot, as iced tea with lemon or cooked with a main meal, ginger is said to be warming, anticatarrhal, tonic, detoxifying, digestive, eliminating and lowers cholesterol and blood pressure. Ginger has been used for more than 25 centuries; major producers include Kenya, Nigeria and Jamaica.
(h) Wild camphor tree (Tarchonanthus camphorates) The wild camphor tree offers many benefits. Khoisan people use wild
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camphor for its soothing qualities. Dried leaves are used in ceremonies to anoint the body during rituals. The leaves and seeds are used to fumigate. Camphor smoke treats rheumatism, headache and insomnia. The tea relieves stomach ailments, asthma, anxiety and heartburn. The leaves contain an insecticide used to deter lice and external parasites. (Several South African companies sell bush teas internationally. Bush teas are wildcrafted, organic indigenous herbs, steeped in the ethnobotanical history of their perspective regions.)
African carrier oils In addition to shea and cocoa butter, neem, coconut, sweet almond and avocado oils, promising carrier oils that are organic and wildcrafted by women, are becoming available: Baobab (Adansonia digitata) is light with a faint aroma and is nutritious and has a long shelf life. It is available from various African countries. Cape Chestnut Oil (Calodendrum capense (L.F.) Thunb) is grown in Mt. Kenya’s forests. It has a mild smell and offers natural ultra violet protection, contains essential fatty acids, antioxidants and is an ideal base for creams. Foraha (Calophyllum inophyllum) is dark green, waxy, rich, and thick, with a delicate smell. It is used to treat wounds, eczema, burns, insect bites, herpes, varicose veins, scars and as a useful face oil. Kweme or Oyster nut (Telfairea pedata) from Tanzania is used locally as a breast massage to encourage milk flow. It contains essential fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, iodine and has a long shelf life. Moringa oil (Moringa stenopetala) from Egypt, the Sudan and Arabian
Peninsula is a woman’s pregnant belly rub, called ben; it contains 73% oleic acid and other nutrients. It is also used for soap, lamps, perfume and general skincare.
International cooperation: the future of aromatherapy •
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Morocco is brimming with wild, fragrant sage brush, rosemary, thyme, verbena, henna and roses. Technically not chamomile, Chamomile Maroc (Ormensis multicaulis) offers similar comfort to the nervous system and is sold as an alternative to the pricier Roman and German Chamomile. Essential oil production has been a Moroccan cottage industry since the seventh century AD (Lachance, 1993). However, equipment and technology has grown obsolete and Canadian researchers, supported by the International Development Research Centre, are working to develop new stills. Dr. Bachir Benjilali of the Aromatic Plants and Essential Oil Laboratory has observed progress, as currently hundred of thousands of Moroccan people are employed through the essential oil industry. Plantes Aromatiques (Maroc), a project directed by Prof. Benjilali and Dr. Belanger of Canada, includes research on the chemical composition, chemotaxonomy and optimal growth conditions for the exploitation of artemisia, verbena, rosemary, Thymus satureoides, Tanacetum annuum, Ammi visnaga, Inula graveolens, Cistus ladaniferus and Cedrus libani. UNIFEM brokered a deal between the women shea butter manufacturers of Burkina Faso and the international natural cosmetic company L’Occitane.
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STIFE (Students in Free Enterprise), a US led not-forprofit organisation, is working in various West African countries teaching rural villagers to make soap and botanical cosmetics. Rural Togo, Benin and Ghana have established distillation technology to extract lemongrass oil, under the direction of Vegetal Extracts and Natural Aromas Laboratory et al. Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products helps rural African communities manufacture natural products for the international market. Zambian farmers in concert with Ecocert in Malawi have certified organic essential oils of melissa, jasmine, lemon verbena, rosemary, lemongrass and citronella. Wildcrafted and organic bee products are also being exported. Zambili d’Afrique is developing crafts and agricultural products including essential oils, herbs and spices. As of 2000, they have been members of IFAT (International Federation of Alternative Trade). Zambili products have been inspected by the Fair Trade Labelling Organization and the Ethical Trading Initiative. Women in Zambia and Zimbabwe have organized their own lemongrass essential oil co-ops. The African Shea Butter Company is the first (hopefully of many companies) buying directly from such co-ops, directly affecting rural economies. This same company also sells bourbon geranium, quality shea butter and oils from rural communities. The African Shea Butter Company plans to add African natural fabrics and locally made paper to their packaging.
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In current Incense land (Somali, 2003), trade groups wade through politics and tradition to establish the fair trade of frankincense and myrrh. An exquisite vetiver essential oil sold internationally comes from Haiti. An innovative phytotherapy school featuring non-western approaches has been established. 6 Traditional distilleries still manufacture bay rum in Jamaica. There is a growing grass roots movement within the US to obtain sufficient medical care for African Americans and to utilize complimentary care more. Gullah herbal traditions are being preserved and disseminated. 7 A growing number of Black people are embracing traditional African religions (which feature herbalism) and reconnecting to Egyptian spiritually.
Conclusion As we embark on a new millennium, I hope to see an increase in the use of aromatherapy to address the health crisis facing the Black community worldwide, including our high incidence of diabetes, asthma, high blood pressure, cancer and mental illness. Accomplishing this goal is complex. We need more aromatherapists of African descent; people knowledgeable of African healing traditions capable of adapting it to today’s needs. Moreover, practitioners from the global community, regardless of nationality or ethnicity, need to be willing to reach out practically, politi6 The Temple of Yehwe, Vodou Medicine, Max-G Beauvoir, www.vodou.org; seminars and workshops. 7 Gullah/Geechee Sea Island Coalition, P.O. Box 1207, St. Helena Island, SC 29920, (843) 838–1171.
cally, economically or socially and this will undoubtedly bring about healing. Overall, the future looks bright for the conservation of indigenous aromatic plant knowledge of Africa. I
10017 USA; West African Contact: Florence Butegwa, 11 Oyinkan Abayomi Drive, Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria. Zambili d’Afrique, PO Box 38540, Lusaka, Zambia email: [email protected]
7.
hope that the intense concentration of international energies towards African ecology, sustainability, development of non-timber related forest products, fair trade, new technologies and creative entrepreneurial schemes built around aromatic plants continues to flourish.
Contacts 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Africa Recovery, Room S-931, United Nations, New York, NY 10017, USA. To support A-SNAPP (Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products, 2003): c/o Herb Research Foundation, 1007 Pearl St. Suite 200, Boulder, CO, USA 80302. African Shea Butter Company. To purchase fixed oils and essential oils from African cooperatives contact Tammie Umbel url: www. africansheabuttercompany. com IDRC International Development Research Centre resource person Dr. Honore Kossi Koumaglo, Vegetal Extracts and Natural Aromas Laboratory, (LEVAN) Department of Sciences, University of Benin, P.O. Box 1515, Lome Togo; email: [email protected]. Institut agronomique et veterinaire Hassan II, Professor Bachir Benjilali, P.O. Box 6202, Rabat-Instituts, Morocco; Agriculture Canada Research Centre, Andre Belanger, 430 Gouin Blvd., StJean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec J3B 6Z8, Canada. UNIFEM, 304 E. 45th Street, 15th Floor, New York, NY,
References African Shea Butter. www. Africansheabuttercompany.com (accessed 7/29/03). Amen, R. U. N. (1990). Metu Neter (Vol. 1), Kamit Publications, Brooklyn. Agribusiness in Sustainable Natural African Plant Products (2003). Beauvoir, M.G. (2003). A Medical System. www.vodou.org (accessed 7/29/03). Bird, S.R. (2004). Sticks, Stones, Roots and Bones. Llewellyn Worldwide. Blackhealthcare.com (1999–2000). Fact Sheet: Chronic diseases affect minorities disproportionately. www.BHC.com. Blackhealthcare.com (1999–2000). Diabetes in African Americans? www.BHC.com. Celestial Tides (1990–2003). History and Use of Frankincense. www.celestialtides.com (accessed 8/03/ 03). Copney, C. V. (1998). Jamaican Culture and International Folklore, Superstitions, Beliefs, Dreams, Proverbs and Remedies, Pentland Press, Raleigh. Courlander, H. (1996). A Treasury of Afro-American Folklore, Marlowe and Co, New York. Duke, J. A. (1999). Herbs of the Bible: 2000 Years of Plant Medicine, Interweave Press, Loveland. Edwards, V. H. (1999). The Aromatherapy Companion, Storey Books, Pownal. Grime, W.E., 1979. Ethno-botany of the Black Americans. Reference Publications. Illes, J. (2001). Earth Mother Magic, Fairwinds Press, Gloucester.
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Karade, B.I., Baldwin, J.D. (1994). Pre-historic Nations. p. 61. Lancashire, R.J. (1994–2003). Jamaican Pimento. Department of Chemistry: University of the West Indies Indies (Messrs. Schimmel and Co., of Leipzig). Lachance, A. (1993). The Sweet Smell of Success: IDRC 21(2): 1–3. Manniche, L. (1999). Sacred Luxuries: Fragrance, Aromatherapy and Cosmetics in Ancient Egypt, Cornell University Press, Ithaca. McIntyre, A. (1994). The Complete Woman’s Herbal, Henry Holt Books, New York. Mitchell, F. (1999). Hoodoo Medicine, Summerhouse Press, Columbia. Omoleya, M. (1986). Certificate History of Nigeria, Longman Group, London, Lagos. Purchon, N. (1998). Handbook of Natural Healing, Allen and Unwin, St. Leonards, NSW. Riva, A. (1974). The Modern Spellbook: the Magical Uses of Herbs, International Imports, Las Vegas. Simpson, G. E. (1962). Folk medicine in Trinidad. Journal of American Folklore, 75: 298. Voeks, R. A. (1997). Sacred Leaves of Candomble: African Magic, Medicine, and Religion in Brazil, University of Texas Press, Austin. www.Buysomali.com. Somali Frankincense; Somali Myrrh. Progressive Interventions (accessed 7/22/03). Viable Herbal Company. Bayberry Root (Myrica certifera) pp. 1–6 (accessed 07/22/03). Jeffries, R. (1988). The image of woman in African cave art. Journal of African Civilizations, 6: 1. In: Black Women in Antiquity. Sertima IV, (Ed.). (1984). Transaction Pub- lishers, New Brunswick, London. Rashidi, R. (2002). African Goddesses, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, London.
Yarbrough, C. (2002). Female Style and Beauty in Ancient Africa, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, London. William, L. and Finch, C. S. (1988).
Cordeiro Roca, M.C., de Queiroz, A.C., Soursop Taxonomy, Properties, Uses. 61, 6. Davidson, B. (1959). The Lost Cities of Africa, Little, Brown and Co, New
Olumide, L. and Karade, B. I. (1994). Yoruba Religious Concepts, Weiser, York Beach, p. 2. US Surgeon General, Mental Health: Culture, Race and Ethnicity Re-
The Great Queens of Ethiopia, Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, London.
York, p. 60. Harsch, E. (2001). Making trade work for poor women. African Recovery, 15(4): 1–16.
port 2002. Riva, A. (1985). Magic with Incense and Powders, International Imports, Las Vegas.
Irfan, H. (04/06/2003). It all Makes Good Scents. www. islamonline.net (accessed 07/30/ 03).
Stoller, P. and Olkes, C. (1987). In Sorcery’s Shadow, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, London. Thomas, C. (2003). Ginger Oil Data
The Handbook of Yoruba Religious Concepts. Weiser Books, York Beach.
Sheet. Sniffing Moose Aromatherapy, Birmingham (accessed 8/6/ 2003).
Further reading Blao, H. (2003). Producing Essential Oils in West Africa: Series (IDRC publications).
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