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An Analysis of Waste and Information Flows in an ICT Waste Management System
Available online at www.sciencedirect.com
ScienceDirect Procedia Technology 8 (2013) 157 – 164
6th International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies in Agriculture, Food and Environment (HAICTA 2013)
An analysis of waste and information flows in an ICT waste management system Maria-Chrysovalantou Emmanouila, Emmanouil Stiakakisa,*, Maria Vlachopouloua, Vasiliki Manthoua a
Department of Applied Informatics, University of Macedonia, Egnatia 156, Thessaloniki 54006, Greece
Abstract The generation and accumulation of obsolete electrical and electronic equipment is growing fast, becoming one of the most complex waste streams the modern world face. It is clear that the e-waste environmental, economical, and social consequences, that stakeholders in both developed and developing countries should deal with, need a proper e-waste management system. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the flow in an e-waste management system, present the processes included and the necessary information that interrelate and affect the processes. The analysis focuses on the management system for e-wastes created by IT and telecommunication equipment. The paper presents relative studies and flow diagrams that were used in the development of the herein proposed diagram. The study results in the presentation of a material and information flow diagram of ICT waste management system. © 2013 2013The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier © Published by Elsevier Ltd. B.V. Selectionand andpeer-review peer-review under responsibility HAICTA. Selection under responsibility of TheofHellenic Association for Information and Communication Technologies in Agriculture Food and Environment (HAICTA) Keywords:WEEE; e-waste management system; material flow; information flow; ICT
1. Introduction The use and sale of electrical and electronic equipment has been rising exponentially during the last two decades, particularly due to the revolutionary development of new technologies and telecommunications. Today, it is estimated that 40 million tons of e-waste are generated globally every year [1]. Market growth and maturity,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0302310891643; fax: +0302310891643. E-mail address: [email protected]
2212-0173 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of The Hellenic Association for Information and Communication Technologies in Agriculture Food and Environment (HAICTA) doi:10.1016/j.protcy.2013.11.022
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Maria-Chrysovalantou Emmanouil et al. / Procedia Technology 8 (2013) 157 – 164
technological innovation and consumer habits result in rapid and continuous replacement of that kind of products with new ones, leading simultaneously to shorter life cycles of products and to a significant increase of electrical and electronic waste (WEEE) disposal. The growing accumulation of WEEE in landfills is not only harmful for the environment, but also damaging for the economy since precious metals and rare natural resources are wasted. Most countries have developed proper legislation and measures for the management of electronic and electrical waste (e-waste). Two major global initiatives that deal with the e-waste problem are the Basel Convention (Basel Convention) and STEP (solving the e-waste problem). Furthermore, the European Parliament has attempted to develop suitable legislation which mainly includes two directives. The first one is EU WEEE Directive (EU, 2002) and its goal is to prevent improper discard of WEEE in landfills and establish measures for recycling and reuse. The second one is The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), which enforces the replacement of substances in products that cause environmental burden [2]. Despite the adopted measures and legislation, it is estimated that only 30-40 per cent of the total e-waste quantities is actually collected and treated through official channels. Therefore, there is still need to analyze the ewaste management system in order to detect ways to improve it and make it more efficient. Furthermore, it becomes clear that in the effort of optimizing the stages of e-waste life cycle, major part plays the understanding of the material and information flow in the e-waste reverse logistics network. Since electronic waste is complex, including a variety of products, and technology evolution has lead to a great ICT penetration in modern life and in turn to short lifespan and growing bulk of ICT waste, we focus our analysis in wastes from IT and telecommunication equipment. Although the material flow is assumed to be quite similar in all kind of e-waste products, the difference could be detected in information flow that affects the management system and the treatment processes. The aim of this paper is to analyze the material and information flow, present the processes of ICT waste management and propose a flow diagram. Policy-makers and stakeholders need to take such flows into consideration in order to develop an efficient WEEE management system. The second section of our research presents relative literature review and in the third section of our paper we propose a material and information flow diagram for the reverse logistics network of obsolete electronic equipment. 2. Literature Review It is clear, throughout literature, that e-waste management systems, their efficiency, suitability, problems, and challenges constitute major research subject for scientists, governments and entrepreneurs. For example, Widmer et al. [2] and Ongondo et al. [3] in their studies present the issue of electronic waste, the established legislation, the generation of e-waste, and the existing operating systems in several countries. Sinha-Khetriwal et al. [4] examine important issues about the management of e-waste using Switzerland as an example. Kahhat et al. [5] attempt to find one acceptable by the public way to organize the e-waste management system in the United States. Furthermore, Yu et al. [6] analyze the policies, pilot projects and other efforts to manage e-waste in China. The development of an appropriate management system and the adoption of the most suitable treatment strategy for obsolete electronic equipment are the main object of investigation in many studies like Ravi et al. [7], Bereketli et al. [8], Dhouib and Elloumi [9] and Rousis et al. [10]. Another subject of interest is the cost estimation of the management processes [11], alongside with the effort of cost minimization. This approach is presented widely in literature and has many aspects, like finding the optimal facility location, transportation, treatment, and material flow [12, 13, 14]. Furthermore, there is great interest in the improvement of product characteristics in order to facilitate their disassembly and enhance their recyclability, the studies of Kuo [15] and Mathieux et al [16] are some examples. A wide number of studies refer to the estimation of e-waste quantity and generation, like the ones of Araȧjo et al. [17], Steubing et al. [18], Robinson [19] and Yang and Williams [20]. A worth mentioned research field is reverse logistics of e-waste, considering the flow management of products or components and focusing the same time on information flow with the scope of value addition, proper use of resources and efficiency of disposal [21]. Through our extensive research in literature we came across studies and diagrams that illustrate end-of-life flow of electronic products. A typical example of a material flow diagram is presented in the study of Achillas et al. [22], a paper that aims at cost minimization of e-waste management system by finding the optimal location for storage of
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collected e-waste. According to the diagram, which is shown in Fig. 1 and presents a reverse logistics network of obsolete electronic products, an amount of e-waste is disposed with other municipal waste and the rest is collected through municipal points, retailers, EEE repairers, schools and scrap dealers. Afterwards, collected quantities are transported to treatment facilities, there are sorted and accordingly are sent to reuse, recycling, landfill and incineration for energy recovery, while hazardous materials receive additional treatment.
Fig. 1. Achillas et al [22] diagram about WEEE reverse logistics network
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Fig. 2. Peralta and Fontanos [23] diagram about end of life options
Fig. 3. Kang and Schoenung [24] diagram about a simplified flow of an electronic product
Additionally, in the research of Peralta and Fontanos [23] a model for e-waste quantity estimation and a diagram presenting the end of life options of e-waste in Philippines are proposed. The proposed diagram is shown in Fig. 2 and it suggests that the original owner of the obsolete product has four options; resale it to another user, store it, send it to landfill or recycling. According to the study, it is assumed that storage and resale of the product are intermediate stages and after a period of time in those stages, the obsolete product continues its flow to other options. As final stages in life cycle of obsolete products, the study considers recycling and landfill.
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Moreover, Kang and Schoenung [24] in their research attempt to estimate the cost of recycling and the waste quantities of CRT and LCD computer monitors produced in the U.S. particularly in California, where the landfill is banned. In order to achieve that, the method of material flow analysis is applied and the relative diagram is shown in Fig. 3. As we can see from the model, after the obsolete equipment is collected, it is tested, if it is functional it is send for resale otherwise it is disassembled. The parts of the product that are valuable and functional are reused, whereas the rest are treated and separated in materials, which in turn are disposed or are send to market for reuse/ resale. 3. Model Formulation 3.1. Material Flow Analysis Taking into account the three above diagrams (Fig. 1, 2 and 3) and the literature review, we can conclude in the main steps of the obsolete ICT management system. The model we propose and is displayed in Fig. 4, suggesting the processes and the important information in an ICT waste management system, is a combination of the three models depicted in Figure 1, 2, and 3. It is necessary to mention that in the proposed model oval denotes the
Cost Benefit Analysis Estimation of WEEE Volume
End of Life EEE
Reverse Logistics Investment
Collection
Transportation/ Storage
Selection of IT waste Treatment Strategy
Sorting/Test
Disassembly
Reuse/Resale
Remanufacture
Incineration/ Landfill
Redesign Improvement of product characteristics
Recycling
Fig. 4. Diagram with material and information flow
beginning of the e-waste management system where the product reaches its end of life and enters the reverse logistics network, rectangular stands for a process of treatment, parallelogram represents the affecting information which interrelates with at least one process, and rounded rectangle stands for a terminate situation/process of treatment. Lines show the material flow and dashed lines the information flow.
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It is worth noting that our initial assumption is that the end of life management of a product starts from the moment the obsolete product enters the official treatment channel. Consequently and in contrast to the first model (Fig.1), where the material flow of the e-waste includes the disposal with other municipal waste, our model starts with the end of life of the electronic product, which is disposed by its owner (business or household) in a way that can be officially and appropriately collected. Furthermore the diagram in Fig. 1 is more analytic than the other two, including the alternative e-waste collection sources and four different ways of recycling (ferrous fraction, non-ferrous fraction, residues treatment, and plastics recycling-incineration). The diagram in Fig. 2 is a simplified model which does not depict the complete material flow; it was used in the present analysis to indicate the four different options the owner of e-waste has. These four options, recommended by the model are reuse, storage, recycling and landfill, with the first two to be intermediate stages and only the last two final. Contrary to the suggestion of the model in Fig. 2, in our model storage is not included, since we present the material flow of ICT waste from the moment it is disposed by the final owner and enters the reverse logistics network. The third model in Fig. 3 shows the life cycle of disposed CRTs, and despite the fact that it proposes the main steps in the cycle it does not display all the alternative routes of materials or the options of disposal. Consequently, the material flow in our proposed ICT waste management system begins when the product ends its useful life and is disposed by the owner. Once it is disposed, it enters the collection process. There are four different and common ways of collection; curb side, where the equipment is picked up from the owner’s place, special drop off or permanent drop off events at retail shops or certain specifically designed sites, and point-of-purchase, where the owner returns the product to the retail shop. Manufactures have also established ways to collect obsolete equipment from the owner. When the e-waste is collected, it is stored temporarily or it is transported to treatment facilities. The next step in the e-waste management system is to test the ICT product in order to separate functional from non-functional equipment. In order to achieve that, utility and mechanical characteristics tests are performed. Depending on the tests and the sorting process, there are three optional routes that e-waste can follow. If the product is functional or can be repaired is send for reuse and resale. If the product can not be reused and contains valuable or harmful components or materials, there is need for further treatment; in that case it is disassembled. The third option, if the former two options are not suitable or applicable for the product, is landfill/ incineration for energy recovery. During the disassembly process, obsolete IT product is dismantled in its components which are further tested. The functional parts can be sent either to second hand markets for resale or to manufacture in order to be reused in new products. In this point, there is need to know and take into account the valuable (e.g. gold, silver) or harmful (e.g. toxic, plastic) materials that the part may contain. When a component of an obsolete product contains rare, valuable resources or harmful materials that can cause environmental burden, it is necessary to extract them before the disposal. Consequently, that component is sent to recycling. The rest are disposed in landfill or are incinerated. 3.2. Information Flow Analysis The proposed herein e-waste management model (Fig.4) includes, except the material flow, information flow that is necessary for the proper design and efficient operation of the system. The present model links internal factors of ICT waste management (treatment processes and material flow) with external intangible factors (information flow). We consider that there are many information determinants that affect the material flow and the options between processes in the management system. The information flow affects and helps particular processes of the management system. Their part and importance in the reverse logistics network is demonstrated by many relevant studies. In our model we indicate the information factors that affect in a managerial way the e-waste treatment system and constitute research object in an amount of studies. It is generally accepted that the first necessary information, when designing and developing an IT-waste management system, is the overall investment and the essential infrastructure that will be used. The first step, before the operation of the system, is to estimate the available economical resources, the average financial investment in facilities, labour and infrastructure. The already developed and used by other countries technological and information systems should be taken into account. The infrastructure is important in order to facilitate and improve the treatment process.
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Furthermore, except the investments and the infrastructure, in the first steps of the system development a cost benefit analysis should be performed. Since a management system has to be viable and cost effective, an analysis and estimation of the costs and the revenues needs to take place. It is necessary to design a system that will be profitable for the main stakeholders and advantageous compared to other options of disposal. The ultimate goal of the analysis is to identify the most optimal and appropriate ways to achieve total cost minimization and increase of profit. The optimal and the most efficient way of collection, treatment strategy, facility location, storage and transportation of obsolete ICT product are some of the options that are checked in the cost benefit analysis. Important information for the e-waste management system is the total generated amount of e-waste, which should be estimated and known since it affects the material flow, the required facilities, the necessary capacity, the available sources of transportation and storage. The amount of e-waste can be calculated from data of collection. It is a very common method in literature to use data from collection points in order to estimate the total quantities. As we can see in a material flow model after the collection process are the processes of transportation and storage. In order to perform and design the processes in an efficient and suitable way, the volume of e-waste should be known. As a result, we assume and indicate in the model that information of e-waste quantities is related to collection process, since it is estimated with the help of collection data, and to transportation/storage process. IT waste quantity and generation influence the design and the operation of the processes after collection in the management system, especially transportation, storage, and treatment facilities. Another considerable and affecting information factor we assume that is the analysis of the most suitable treatment strategy for obsolete ICT equipment. According to the literature and the flow diagrams we can conclude in four general categories of treatment strategy: reuse/resale, remanufacture, recycling and disposal in landfill or incineration. It is commonly accepted that not all treatment strategies are appropriate for every product. Information about the product characteristics, the components and the materials that contains, its easiness of disassembly and recyclability is necessary in order to choose the optimal treatment strategy, which will provide the desirable economic and environmental outcome. Information about the product and the most suitable treatment strategy that is necessary to be followed should be available during the sorting process and it will affect the e-waste material flow from this point. As a result of the previous affecting information factor, that is the choice of optimal treatment strategy depending on product characteristics, there is a general concern and effort in finding ways to improve them. Designing products with improved characteristics that are easier to treat, recycle, and disassemble can lead to efficient, cost effective, and environmentally sound treatment. The redesign of a product with improved characteristics can be achieved with feedback information from the disassembly and recycling process. The time, the easiness, the materials of disassembly and recycling are some of the information that can be used from designers and can contribute as information to remanufacture. 4. Conclusion The e-waste management problem constitutes major concern of the scientific community and the involved stakeholders. Many efforts worldwide have been conducted in order to identify the processes in WEEE reverse logistics network and optimize them. In this study, we focus on ICT waste management and we present the basic steps of the system. Depending on previous related literature and proposed models, our study resulted in an ICT waste management model displaying the material flow between processes and the information flow, which interacts with the processes and affects them. The herein proposed model, in contrast to previous models, includes information flow, considering that when designing an IT waste management system in order to be efficient only the material flow of obsolete IT products is not adequate, but the impact of information should also be taken into account. References [1] Deubzer O. Standards for Collections, Storage, Transport and Treatment of E-waste. Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP) Green Paper. 2012. Available from< http://www.weeeforum.org/sites/default/files/documents/2012_step_green_paper_ end_of_life _final.pdf>
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[2] Widmer R, Oswald-Krapf H, Sinha-Khetriwal D, Schnellmann M, Boni H. Global perspectives on e-waste. Environ Impact Assess Rev 2005; 25: 436-58. [3] Ongondo FO, Williams I D, Cherrett TJ. How are WEEE doing? A global review of the management of electrical and electronic wastes. Waste Manag 2011; 31:714-30. [4] Sinha-Khetriwal D, Kraeuchi P, Widmer R. Producer responsibility for e-waste management: Key issues for consideration-Learning from the Swiss experience. J Environ Manag 2009; 90:153-65 [5] Kahhat R, Kim J, Xu M, Allenby B, Williams E, Zhang P. Exploring e-waste management systems in the United States. Resour Conserv Recycl 2008; 52: 955-64. [6] Yu J, Williams E, Ju M, Shao C. Managing e-waste in China: Policies, pilot projects and alternative approaches. Resour Conserv and Recycl 2010; 54:991-99. [7] Ravi V, Shankara R, Tiwar MK. Analyzing alternatives in reverse logistics for end-of-life computers: ANP and balanced scorecard approach. Comput Ind Eng 2005; 48: 327-56. [8] Bereketli I, Genevois ME, Albayrak YE, Ozyol M. WEEE treatment strategies’ evaluation using fuzzy LINMAP method. Expert Syst Appl 2011; 38:71-9. [9] Dhouib D, Elloumi S. A new multi-criteria approach dealing with dependent and heterogeneous criteria for end-of-life product strategy. Appl Math and Comput 2011; 218: 1668-81. [10] Rousis K, Moustakas K, Malamis S, Papadopoulos A, Loizidou M. Multi-criteria analysis for the determination of the best WEEE management scenario in Cyprus. Waste Manag 2007; 28: 1941-54. [11] Wee HM, Lee MC, Yu JCP, Wang CE. Optimal replenishment policy for a deteriorating green product: Lifecycle costing analysis. Int. J. Prod Econ 2011; 133:603-11. [12] Achillas Ch, Vlachokostas Ch, Moussiopoulos N, Banias G. Decision support system for the optimal location of electrical and electronic waste treatment plants: A case study in Greece. Waste Manag. 2010; 30(5): 870-9. [13] Shanshan W, Kejing Z, editors. Optimization Model of E-waste Reverse Logistics and Recycling Network1. Proceedings of 2008 3rd International Conference on Intelligent System and Knowledge Engineering. 2008 Nov: 1436-42 [14] Schmidt M. A production-theory-based framework for analysing recycling systems in the e-waste sector. Environ Imp Assess Rev 2005; 25:505-24. [15] Kuo TC. The construction of a collaborative-design platform to support waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling. Robot Comput Integr Manuf 2009; 26: 100-8. [16] Mathieux F, Froelich D, Moszkowicz P. ReSICLED: a new recovery-conscious design method for complex products based on a multicriteria assessment of the recoverability. J Clean Prod. 2006; 16: 277-98 [17] Araȧjo MG, Magrini A, Mahler CF, Bilitewski B. A model for estimation of potential generation of waste electrical and electronic equipment in Brazil. Waste Manag 2012; 32(2): 335-42. [18] Steubing B, Boni H, Schluep M, Silva U, Ludwig C. Assessing computer waste generation in Chile using material flow analysis. Waste Manag. 2009 Sep; 30: 473-82. [19] Robinson B H. E-waste: An assessment of global production and environmental impacts. Sci Total Environ 2009; 408: 183-91. [20] Yang Y, Williams E. Logistic model-based forecast of sales and generation of obsolete computers in the U.S. Technol Forecast Soc Change 2009; 76: 1105-14. [21] Dowlatshahi, S. Developing a theory of reverse logistics. Interfaces 2000; 30:143-54. [22] Achillas C, Vlachokostas C, Aidonis D, Moussiopoulos N, Iakovou E, Banias G. Optimising reverse logistics network to support policymaking in the case of Electrical and Electronic Equipment. Waste Manag 2010; 30(12): 2592-600. [23] Peralta GL, Fontanos PM. E-waste issues and measures in the Philippines. J Mater Cycles Waste Manag 2006; 8:34-9. [24] Kang H Y, Schoenung J M. Electronic waste recycling: A review of U.S. infrastructure and technology options. Resour Conserv and Recycl 2005; 45: 368-400.
ScienceDirect Procedia Technology 8 (2013) 157 – 164
6th International Conference on Information and Communication Technologies in Agriculture, Food and Environment (HAICTA 2013)
An analysis of waste and information flows in an ICT waste management system Maria-Chrysovalantou Emmanouila, Emmanouil Stiakakisa,*, Maria Vlachopouloua, Vasiliki Manthoua a
Department of Applied Informatics, University of Macedonia, Egnatia 156, Thessaloniki 54006, Greece
Abstract The generation and accumulation of obsolete electrical and electronic equipment is growing fast, becoming one of the most complex waste streams the modern world face. It is clear that the e-waste environmental, economical, and social consequences, that stakeholders in both developed and developing countries should deal with, need a proper e-waste management system. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the flow in an e-waste management system, present the processes included and the necessary information that interrelate and affect the processes. The analysis focuses on the management system for e-wastes created by IT and telecommunication equipment. The paper presents relative studies and flow diagrams that were used in the development of the herein proposed diagram. The study results in the presentation of a material and information flow diagram of ICT waste management system. © 2013 2013The TheAuthors. Authors. Published by Elsevier © Published by Elsevier Ltd. B.V. Selectionand andpeer-review peer-review under responsibility HAICTA. Selection under responsibility of TheofHellenic Association for Information and Communication Technologies in Agriculture Food and Environment (HAICTA) Keywords:WEEE; e-waste management system; material flow; information flow; ICT
1. Introduction The use and sale of electrical and electronic equipment has been rising exponentially during the last two decades, particularly due to the revolutionary development of new technologies and telecommunications. Today, it is estimated that 40 million tons of e-waste are generated globally every year [1]. Market growth and maturity,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +0302310891643; fax: +0302310891643. E-mail address: [email protected]
2212-0173 © 2013 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and peer-review under responsibility of The Hellenic Association for Information and Communication Technologies in Agriculture Food and Environment (HAICTA) doi:10.1016/j.protcy.2013.11.022
158
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technological innovation and consumer habits result in rapid and continuous replacement of that kind of products with new ones, leading simultaneously to shorter life cycles of products and to a significant increase of electrical and electronic waste (WEEE) disposal. The growing accumulation of WEEE in landfills is not only harmful for the environment, but also damaging for the economy since precious metals and rare natural resources are wasted. Most countries have developed proper legislation and measures for the management of electronic and electrical waste (e-waste). Two major global initiatives that deal with the e-waste problem are the Basel Convention (Basel Convention) and STEP (solving the e-waste problem). Furthermore, the European Parliament has attempted to develop suitable legislation which mainly includes two directives. The first one is EU WEEE Directive (EU, 2002) and its goal is to prevent improper discard of WEEE in landfills and establish measures for recycling and reuse. The second one is The Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), which enforces the replacement of substances in products that cause environmental burden [2]. Despite the adopted measures and legislation, it is estimated that only 30-40 per cent of the total e-waste quantities is actually collected and treated through official channels. Therefore, there is still need to analyze the ewaste management system in order to detect ways to improve it and make it more efficient. Furthermore, it becomes clear that in the effort of optimizing the stages of e-waste life cycle, major part plays the understanding of the material and information flow in the e-waste reverse logistics network. Since electronic waste is complex, including a variety of products, and technology evolution has lead to a great ICT penetration in modern life and in turn to short lifespan and growing bulk of ICT waste, we focus our analysis in wastes from IT and telecommunication equipment. Although the material flow is assumed to be quite similar in all kind of e-waste products, the difference could be detected in information flow that affects the management system and the treatment processes. The aim of this paper is to analyze the material and information flow, present the processes of ICT waste management and propose a flow diagram. Policy-makers and stakeholders need to take such flows into consideration in order to develop an efficient WEEE management system. The second section of our research presents relative literature review and in the third section of our paper we propose a material and information flow diagram for the reverse logistics network of obsolete electronic equipment. 2. Literature Review It is clear, throughout literature, that e-waste management systems, their efficiency, suitability, problems, and challenges constitute major research subject for scientists, governments and entrepreneurs. For example, Widmer et al. [2] and Ongondo et al. [3] in their studies present the issue of electronic waste, the established legislation, the generation of e-waste, and the existing operating systems in several countries. Sinha-Khetriwal et al. [4] examine important issues about the management of e-waste using Switzerland as an example. Kahhat et al. [5] attempt to find one acceptable by the public way to organize the e-waste management system in the United States. Furthermore, Yu et al. [6] analyze the policies, pilot projects and other efforts to manage e-waste in China. The development of an appropriate management system and the adoption of the most suitable treatment strategy for obsolete electronic equipment are the main object of investigation in many studies like Ravi et al. [7], Bereketli et al. [8], Dhouib and Elloumi [9] and Rousis et al. [10]. Another subject of interest is the cost estimation of the management processes [11], alongside with the effort of cost minimization. This approach is presented widely in literature and has many aspects, like finding the optimal facility location, transportation, treatment, and material flow [12, 13, 14]. Furthermore, there is great interest in the improvement of product characteristics in order to facilitate their disassembly and enhance their recyclability, the studies of Kuo [15] and Mathieux et al [16] are some examples. A wide number of studies refer to the estimation of e-waste quantity and generation, like the ones of Araȧjo et al. [17], Steubing et al. [18], Robinson [19] and Yang and Williams [20]. A worth mentioned research field is reverse logistics of e-waste, considering the flow management of products or components and focusing the same time on information flow with the scope of value addition, proper use of resources and efficiency of disposal [21]. Through our extensive research in literature we came across studies and diagrams that illustrate end-of-life flow of electronic products. A typical example of a material flow diagram is presented in the study of Achillas et al. [22], a paper that aims at cost minimization of e-waste management system by finding the optimal location for storage of
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collected e-waste. According to the diagram, which is shown in Fig. 1 and presents a reverse logistics network of obsolete electronic products, an amount of e-waste is disposed with other municipal waste and the rest is collected through municipal points, retailers, EEE repairers, schools and scrap dealers. Afterwards, collected quantities are transported to treatment facilities, there are sorted and accordingly are sent to reuse, recycling, landfill and incineration for energy recovery, while hazardous materials receive additional treatment.
Fig. 1. Achillas et al [22] diagram about WEEE reverse logistics network
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Fig. 2. Peralta and Fontanos [23] diagram about end of life options
Fig. 3. Kang and Schoenung [24] diagram about a simplified flow of an electronic product
Additionally, in the research of Peralta and Fontanos [23] a model for e-waste quantity estimation and a diagram presenting the end of life options of e-waste in Philippines are proposed. The proposed diagram is shown in Fig. 2 and it suggests that the original owner of the obsolete product has four options; resale it to another user, store it, send it to landfill or recycling. According to the study, it is assumed that storage and resale of the product are intermediate stages and after a period of time in those stages, the obsolete product continues its flow to other options. As final stages in life cycle of obsolete products, the study considers recycling and landfill.
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Moreover, Kang and Schoenung [24] in their research attempt to estimate the cost of recycling and the waste quantities of CRT and LCD computer monitors produced in the U.S. particularly in California, where the landfill is banned. In order to achieve that, the method of material flow analysis is applied and the relative diagram is shown in Fig. 3. As we can see from the model, after the obsolete equipment is collected, it is tested, if it is functional it is send for resale otherwise it is disassembled. The parts of the product that are valuable and functional are reused, whereas the rest are treated and separated in materials, which in turn are disposed or are send to market for reuse/ resale. 3. Model Formulation 3.1. Material Flow Analysis Taking into account the three above diagrams (Fig. 1, 2 and 3) and the literature review, we can conclude in the main steps of the obsolete ICT management system. The model we propose and is displayed in Fig. 4, suggesting the processes and the important information in an ICT waste management system, is a combination of the three models depicted in Figure 1, 2, and 3. It is necessary to mention that in the proposed model oval denotes the
Cost Benefit Analysis Estimation of WEEE Volume
End of Life EEE
Reverse Logistics Investment
Collection
Transportation/ Storage
Selection of IT waste Treatment Strategy
Sorting/Test
Disassembly
Reuse/Resale
Remanufacture
Incineration/ Landfill
Redesign Improvement of product characteristics
Recycling
Fig. 4. Diagram with material and information flow
beginning of the e-waste management system where the product reaches its end of life and enters the reverse logistics network, rectangular stands for a process of treatment, parallelogram represents the affecting information which interrelates with at least one process, and rounded rectangle stands for a terminate situation/process of treatment. Lines show the material flow and dashed lines the information flow.
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It is worth noting that our initial assumption is that the end of life management of a product starts from the moment the obsolete product enters the official treatment channel. Consequently and in contrast to the first model (Fig.1), where the material flow of the e-waste includes the disposal with other municipal waste, our model starts with the end of life of the electronic product, which is disposed by its owner (business or household) in a way that can be officially and appropriately collected. Furthermore the diagram in Fig. 1 is more analytic than the other two, including the alternative e-waste collection sources and four different ways of recycling (ferrous fraction, non-ferrous fraction, residues treatment, and plastics recycling-incineration). The diagram in Fig. 2 is a simplified model which does not depict the complete material flow; it was used in the present analysis to indicate the four different options the owner of e-waste has. These four options, recommended by the model are reuse, storage, recycling and landfill, with the first two to be intermediate stages and only the last two final. Contrary to the suggestion of the model in Fig. 2, in our model storage is not included, since we present the material flow of ICT waste from the moment it is disposed by the final owner and enters the reverse logistics network. The third model in Fig. 3 shows the life cycle of disposed CRTs, and despite the fact that it proposes the main steps in the cycle it does not display all the alternative routes of materials or the options of disposal. Consequently, the material flow in our proposed ICT waste management system begins when the product ends its useful life and is disposed by the owner. Once it is disposed, it enters the collection process. There are four different and common ways of collection; curb side, where the equipment is picked up from the owner’s place, special drop off or permanent drop off events at retail shops or certain specifically designed sites, and point-of-purchase, where the owner returns the product to the retail shop. Manufactures have also established ways to collect obsolete equipment from the owner. When the e-waste is collected, it is stored temporarily or it is transported to treatment facilities. The next step in the e-waste management system is to test the ICT product in order to separate functional from non-functional equipment. In order to achieve that, utility and mechanical characteristics tests are performed. Depending on the tests and the sorting process, there are three optional routes that e-waste can follow. If the product is functional or can be repaired is send for reuse and resale. If the product can not be reused and contains valuable or harmful components or materials, there is need for further treatment; in that case it is disassembled. The third option, if the former two options are not suitable or applicable for the product, is landfill/ incineration for energy recovery. During the disassembly process, obsolete IT product is dismantled in its components which are further tested. The functional parts can be sent either to second hand markets for resale or to manufacture in order to be reused in new products. In this point, there is need to know and take into account the valuable (e.g. gold, silver) or harmful (e.g. toxic, plastic) materials that the part may contain. When a component of an obsolete product contains rare, valuable resources or harmful materials that can cause environmental burden, it is necessary to extract them before the disposal. Consequently, that component is sent to recycling. The rest are disposed in landfill or are incinerated. 3.2. Information Flow Analysis The proposed herein e-waste management model (Fig.4) includes, except the material flow, information flow that is necessary for the proper design and efficient operation of the system. The present model links internal factors of ICT waste management (treatment processes and material flow) with external intangible factors (information flow). We consider that there are many information determinants that affect the material flow and the options between processes in the management system. The information flow affects and helps particular processes of the management system. Their part and importance in the reverse logistics network is demonstrated by many relevant studies. In our model we indicate the information factors that affect in a managerial way the e-waste treatment system and constitute research object in an amount of studies. It is generally accepted that the first necessary information, when designing and developing an IT-waste management system, is the overall investment and the essential infrastructure that will be used. The first step, before the operation of the system, is to estimate the available economical resources, the average financial investment in facilities, labour and infrastructure. The already developed and used by other countries technological and information systems should be taken into account. The infrastructure is important in order to facilitate and improve the treatment process.
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Furthermore, except the investments and the infrastructure, in the first steps of the system development a cost benefit analysis should be performed. Since a management system has to be viable and cost effective, an analysis and estimation of the costs and the revenues needs to take place. It is necessary to design a system that will be profitable for the main stakeholders and advantageous compared to other options of disposal. The ultimate goal of the analysis is to identify the most optimal and appropriate ways to achieve total cost minimization and increase of profit. The optimal and the most efficient way of collection, treatment strategy, facility location, storage and transportation of obsolete ICT product are some of the options that are checked in the cost benefit analysis. Important information for the e-waste management system is the total generated amount of e-waste, which should be estimated and known since it affects the material flow, the required facilities, the necessary capacity, the available sources of transportation and storage. The amount of e-waste can be calculated from data of collection. It is a very common method in literature to use data from collection points in order to estimate the total quantities. As we can see in a material flow model after the collection process are the processes of transportation and storage. In order to perform and design the processes in an efficient and suitable way, the volume of e-waste should be known. As a result, we assume and indicate in the model that information of e-waste quantities is related to collection process, since it is estimated with the help of collection data, and to transportation/storage process. IT waste quantity and generation influence the design and the operation of the processes after collection in the management system, especially transportation, storage, and treatment facilities. Another considerable and affecting information factor we assume that is the analysis of the most suitable treatment strategy for obsolete ICT equipment. According to the literature and the flow diagrams we can conclude in four general categories of treatment strategy: reuse/resale, remanufacture, recycling and disposal in landfill or incineration. It is commonly accepted that not all treatment strategies are appropriate for every product. Information about the product characteristics, the components and the materials that contains, its easiness of disassembly and recyclability is necessary in order to choose the optimal treatment strategy, which will provide the desirable economic and environmental outcome. Information about the product and the most suitable treatment strategy that is necessary to be followed should be available during the sorting process and it will affect the e-waste material flow from this point. As a result of the previous affecting information factor, that is the choice of optimal treatment strategy depending on product characteristics, there is a general concern and effort in finding ways to improve them. Designing products with improved characteristics that are easier to treat, recycle, and disassemble can lead to efficient, cost effective, and environmentally sound treatment. The redesign of a product with improved characteristics can be achieved with feedback information from the disassembly and recycling process. The time, the easiness, the materials of disassembly and recycling are some of the information that can be used from designers and can contribute as information to remanufacture. 4. Conclusion The e-waste management problem constitutes major concern of the scientific community and the involved stakeholders. Many efforts worldwide have been conducted in order to identify the processes in WEEE reverse logistics network and optimize them. In this study, we focus on ICT waste management and we present the basic steps of the system. Depending on previous related literature and proposed models, our study resulted in an ICT waste management model displaying the material flow between processes and the information flow, which interacts with the processes and affects them. The herein proposed model, in contrast to previous models, includes information flow, considering that when designing an IT waste management system in order to be efficient only the material flow of obsolete IT products is not adequate, but the impact of information should also be taken into account. References [1] Deubzer O. Standards for Collections, Storage, Transport and Treatment of E-waste. Solving the E-waste Problem (StEP) Green Paper. 2012. Available from< http://www.weeeforum.org/sites/default/files/documents/2012_step_green_paper_ end_of_life _final.pdf>
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