An interdisciplinary approach to perception of water quality for human consumption in a Mapuche community of arid Patagonia, Argentina

Journal Pre-proof An interdisciplinary approach to perception of water quality for human consumption in a Mapuche community of arid Patagonia, Argentina

D. Morales, S. Molares, L. Epele, A. Ladio, P. Manzo, G. Alday PII:

S0048-9697(20)31019-6

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137508

Reference:

STOTEN 137508

To appear in:

Science of the Total Environment

Received date:

30 October 2019

Revised date:

17 February 2020

Accepted date:

21 February 2020

Please cite this article as: D. Morales, S. Molares, L. Epele, et al., An interdisciplinary approach to perception of water quality for human consumption in a Mapuche community of arid Patagonia, Argentina, Science of the Total Environment (2018), https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137508

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Journal Pre-proof AN INTERDISCIPLINARY APPROACH TO PERCEPTION OF WATER QUALITY FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION IN A MAPUCHE COMMUNITY OF ARID PATAGONIA, ARGENTINA D. Morales1, S. Molares1, L. Epele1, A. Ladio2, P. Manzo3, G. Alday3

1

. CIEMEP, CONICET, UNPSJB. Roca 780. Esquel (9200). Chubut. Argentina.

2

. INIBIOMA, CONICET, UNCo, CRUB. Bariloche. Río Negro. Argentina. Dirección Provincial de Área Programática Esquel, Departamento Zonal de Salud

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Ambiental.

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Phone number: 0054-02945-453985

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*Corresponding author: Daniela Morales [email protected]

Journal Pre-proof ABSTRACT Vital for human consumption, water is a scarce resource, particularly in the arid environments of Patagonia. In this study we analysed local perspectives and the use of different water sources, based on two case studies in rural communities of Mapuche and Creole ancestry inhabiting extra-Andean Patagonia in Chubut, Argentina. Water quality was evaluated using an ethnolimnological, interdisciplinary approach, taking into account local perspectives and scientific contributions. In addition, we analysed

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appropriation strategies, management and local organoleptic characteristics. The work

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was based on semi-structured interviews, tours guided by informants, and

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physicochemical and microbiological analysis of water sources. It was found that 92%

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of local inhabitants mainly used superficial and subterranean sources of water for consumption, among which stood out: river, streams, springs, wells, and boreholes.

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Differences were observed between local and scientific perspectives in terms of water

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quality (chemical and microbiological). Most water sources used by inhabitants presented water of deficient quality for human consumption (61%), whereas locals

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considered the water to be fresh, delicious, and transparent. Nevertheless, some points of agreement were found in terms of organoleptic characteristics (e.g., odour, colour) and physicochemical parameters in certain water sources. In general, locals do not recognise the deterioration of their water supply, but the importance of organoleptic characteristics in local perception should be highlighted. These aspects speak of a need to promote opportunities for dialogue, and implement effective health measures, taking local perspectives into account. Keywords:

Local

Intercultural dialogue.

perception;

Ethnolimnology;

Organoleptic

characteristics;

Journal Pre-proof 1. INTRODUCTION The availability of water suitable for human consumption in the landscapes of peoples throughout the world is essential to health and wellbeing (WHO, UNICEF 2017). Given its vital role, water occupies an important position in the culture of countless communities in the configuration of their agricultural systems, beliefs, symbolism, and rituals. In many cases it constitutes the structural base for communal management and governance of the landscape and its resources (Toledo and Barreras Bassols 2008).

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Water is used for many purposes, such as providing water for drinking, cooking,

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personal and domestic hygiene, agriculture and irrigation, and rituals.

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Ethnolimnology, associated with the study of relationships between culture, society, and

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water, has become important in diverse regions of the world and is of increasing interest as a tool for the development of water management and conservation strategies (Silvano

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et al. 2007; Gartin 2010; Sobczak et al. 2013). This discipline is based on local

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ecological knowledge which is constructed through the daily interaction of human groups with the environment, and includes practices, traditions and beliefs which, far

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from being static, evolve through adaptive processes, and are maintained by cultural transmission between community members (Berkes et al. 2000). In particular, for the indigenous Andean cultures the significance of rivers, lakes, lagoons, waterfalls and other sources of water as sacred, living bodies, reveals environmental ethics that involve a profound sense of environmental care (Skewes et al. 2012; Aigo and Ladio 2016). This vision acts as a guide that foments practices of reciprocity and sustainability in the management and use of environmental resources, and is generally related to a collaborative, community type of appropriation strategy (Cáceres 2002).

Journal Pre-proof In addition, organoleptic characteristics–flavour, smell, colour and temperature–are fundamental in the perception of water quality (Doria 2010). Their interpretation and significance may differ considerably between societies and cultural groups, which is reflected in the diverse ways they are appreciated and taken advantage of (Durand 2008). In a study carried out on sources of water for human consumption in Toba communities in Argentina, Martinez et al. (2014) found that these populations preferred water sources close to their dwellings, and which were perceived as cool and pleasant even

when

these

sources

were–according to

physicochemical

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tasting,

and

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microbiological analysis–the least suitable for consumption. Similar results have been

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found in rural Mexican communities, showing a notable discrepancy between the

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microbiological quality of the water and the perceived quality (Rowles et al. 2018). Water quality degradation is widely recognised in various regions of the world

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(Bradford et al. 2016; Cao 2018), and constitutes one of the major risks affecting human

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health (WHO, UNICEF 2017). Added to this are the numerous implications of water scarcity, especially in arid and semiarid environments, where communities are already

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subject to low water supplies. The effect of climate change, contamination, population increase and the high economic and environmental cost of developing new hydric infrastructures are some of the factors which further limit the provision of water (Rosegrant and Cai, 2002; Dussaillant et al. 2019). Around half a billion people in the world face severe water scarcity all year round, and more than 800 million people lack a basic drinking water service (Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2016; WHO, UNICEF 2017). In particular, in Latin America the problem of water being unsuitable for human consumption affects approximately 116 million people who use water which has not received appropriate treatment (Cirelli and Mortier 2005). In general, supply and/or treatment systems are scarce or inadequate, such that the people obtain their water

Journal Pre-proof directly from rivers, lakes, springs, wells, and rainwater (Calli et al. 2016). Most of these practices do not guarantee the quality of the water, which impacts directly on human health, given that water is one of the most frequent vehicles of transmission of infectious and contagious diseases. According to WHO, UNICEF (2017), microbial (the presence of Escherichia coli or thermotolerant coliforms), arsenic and fluoride contamination, are the main factors affecting water quality in terms of human health. Nevertheless, as previously mentioned, different cultural perspectives do not always

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coincide in their views about the quality of water for human consumption, or the

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implications for human and environmental health (Durand 2008). Therefore, health

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problems associated with water quality can only be conceived as such, and dealt with,

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when their significance in cultural terms has been understood. Visibilization of contrasting ideas and tension between different environmental

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perspectives (i.e. traditional and scientific/governmental) on water quality and

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management have been little dealt with at a local level, whether in the scientific field or public policies. This has often led to conflict and State environmental health plans that

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have proven fruitless or irrelevant.

Argentina‟s arid and semiarid regions comprise 76% of the national territory, and less than 14% of the country‟s surface water resources are available to them, so that problems associated with limitations to water quality lead to constant social demands (Zamora and Prieto 2016). Furthermore, previous studies have highlighted the prevalence of chronic or endemic pathologies associated with low-quality water (e.g., cholera) (Martinez 2011; Nickisch et al. 2018). The rural populations of the Patagonian steppe are not unfamiliar with this problem, water quality and scarcity being one of the principal conditioning factors in their family health and food security. However, in Patagonia studies have not yet been carried out to

Journal Pre-proof deal with this issue from a holistic perspective, including the relation between physicochemical and microbiological parameters and sociocultural factors. Taking the above situation into account, this exploratory work considered two case studies performed in rural communities of the Chubut steppe, Argentina, in order to identify local perspectives and explore the use of water resources destined for human consumption. We also seek to evaluate the quality of these resources, from a microbiological and physicochemical approach.

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The specific objectives are: 1) To identify the different water sources used by the local

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population, and their cultural importance, as well as appropriation strategies, with

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particular emphasis on water destined for human consumption. 2) To investigate local

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perspectives on water availability and quality. 3) To analyse local water management practices, particularly purification methods. 4) To evaluate the quality of water used for

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human consumption by means of physicochemical and microbiological analysis. 6) To

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analyse points of convergence and divergence between local and scientific perspectives on water quality, in order to contribute to the drawing up of plans for optimum, safe use

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of water resources.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Study area and community selection This work was carried out in the neighbouring rural communities of Costa del Lepá (42°41'21.74"S and 70°45'0.24"W) and Gualjaina (42°43'19.39S" and 70°32'30.38"W), situated on the Patagonian steppe in the northwest of Chubut province, Argentina (Fig. 1). The climate is arid and cold, with strong winds and frosts throughout the entire year. The average annual temperature is 11.7 ºC, and average annual precipitation is 119 mm, concentrated in the winter months (Mereb 1990). The Gualjaina community has 1183

Journal Pre-proof inhabitants (INDEC 2010), while 84 families live in Costa del Lepá. Most inhabitants have Mapuche and Creole ancestry. The local language of Mapuzungun (mapu=land; zungun=language) is gradually being lost in the region, being spoken currently by the oldest members of the communities. Most inhabitants speak Spanish as their first language. The case studies selected corresponded to typical rural steppe Patagonian communities, representing the main situation of the vast Patagonian region, dominated by arid

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conditions (Burkart et al. 1999).

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In general, inhabitants of these communities live a subsistence lifestyle, facing critical

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shortages in terms of satisfying basic needs. Their work consists mainly of sheep and

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goat breeding, complemented with small-scale agriculture. A small proportion of the population are employed by the State or by private ranches. They have no access to the

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gas network or sewers, and have a limited supply of electricity and potable water.

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Moreover, steppe communities suffer a long annual period of drought from spring to summer. In the current scenario of global climate change, the occurrence of persistent

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droughts and their increasing severity in the region has been notable over the last three decades (Dussaillant et al. 2019).

The selected communities largely depend on the Lepá and Gualjaina rivers which run through them. The Lepá river receives water from the Montoso stream, an outlet of the Mayoco and La Cancha streams, and flows into the Gualjaina river. These rivers and streams belong to the Chubut river water basin, which stretches from the Andes (in the west of Chubut) to the Atlantic Ocean (on the east coast of Chubut). According

to

statistics

from

the

Chubut

province

Health

Programme

(www.ministeriodesalud.chubut.gov.ar)), a large proportion (80%) of rural dwellers have no access to the public network of water for human consumption This situation has

Journal Pre-proof led to the development of different public health policies, and in particular, this interdisciplinary study carried out along with the Regional Environmental Health Department of the Esquel Programmatic Area, who began to work on these problems and surveyed local demand in the communities studied here. 2.2 Data collection 2.2.1 Ethnobiological Information Fieldwork was carried out between March 2018 and March 2019. Previously informed

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consent was first obtained from 36 rural families, following the Code of Ethics of the

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International Society of Ethnobiological (ISE 2006), and the recommendations

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established in the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20

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2012).

Information was collected using ethnographic techniques such as open, semi-structured,

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and in-depth interviews. The existence of local criteria of recognition and selection of

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sources of water for human consumption was investigated and also general perceptions of water quality. In addition, informants were consulted as to appropriation strategies,

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availability throughout the year, collection practices, and purification treatment of the water sources. The information collected was complemented with participant observation and walking tours with informants (Albuquerque et al. 2014). The criterion of rigor was the triangulation of sources of information (participant observation, interviews, walks). Since this was an exploratory study, informants were selected using non-probability intentional sampling (Albuquerque et al. 2014). We focused on specific human groups, based on their experience or knowledge of the population, and on the research question. Sample size was based on theoretical saturation and the representativeness of the information collected, totalling 58% women and 42% men (average age = 57 ± 2.52). To organize the information collected from the

Journal Pre-proof participants‟ discourses we used a qualitative “content analysis” (Bardin 1977). The results of the application of these techniques were contrasted with the variations that occurred in the local environment. 2.2.2 Collection of water samples and analysis In order to determine the quality (based on physicochemical and bacteriological characteristics) of the superficial and subterranean sources of water consumed, samples were collected in summer from 18 water sources, which were representative of the

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diversity of waters used by members of both communities. A total of 7 samples were

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taken from springs, 2 from wells, 5 from boreholes and 4 from rivers and streams. The

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maximum distance between water sources was approximately 32 km, while the

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minimum distance was about 0.22 km (Fig. 1).

At each sample site two water samples were collected for physicochemical and

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bacteriological analysis. Water samples were immediately refrigerated and taken to the

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laboratory. The samples were collected in the presence of community members, using the same methods they use to collect drinking water, therefore respecting the time of

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day, the exact point of the water source, and the water collectors they use (e.g., plastic or metallic containers). The depth of water collection for rivers, streams, wells, and springs was typically just above the water surface (10 cm approximately). Microbiological activity was quantified through the presence of bacteria: Pseudomona aeruginosa (PA), total coliforms (TCB), thermotolerant coliforms (TTCB) and Escherichia coli (EC). Detection of these bacteria was performed using the tube fermentation technique (AWWA 1998). Physicochemical analyses were carried out to determine pH, conductivity, temperature and total suspended solids using an HQ40d Portable pH, Conductivity, Optical Dissolved Oxygen, and Multi-Parameter Meter. Values for sulphate, chloride, nitrite, fluoride, carbonates, iron, ammonium, and soluble

Journal Pre-proof reactive phosphorus were determined using a Hach DR/2010 spectrophotometer. Turbidity was registered using a Hach 2100P turbidimeter. These variables were considered according to WHO (2006) and Argentine Food Code (AFC) (www.anmat.gov.ar). 2.3 Data Analysis The different types of water source were grouped etically as: 1. “Rivers and streams” (surface water); 2. “Springs” (upwelling of subterranean water); 3. “Boreholes”

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(subterranean water extracted by manual excavation, maximum depth of 6 m); 4.

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“Wells” (subterranean water extracted by manual excavation, maximum depth approx.

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2-3 metres); 5. Commercially bottled water and council-administrated, treated water

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supply (public network).

Appropriation strategies of the water sources were categorised as: 1. Community (free

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access and use for the entire community, including more than two families); 2. Family

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(used exclusively by parents and children).

As a measure of cultural importance, the frequency of use (FU) was estimated for each

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type of water source, considering the number of informants (n) that used the source (i) in relation to the total number of interviewees (N=36)×100, according to the equation: ni / N × 100.

The FU of the water sources (i.e., superficial and subterranean waters vs. bottled/supplied from network) was compared using the binomial test (p< 0.05). Local perceptions of the quality of water for human consumption were considered according to local organoleptic characteristics (i.e., flavour, appearance, odour, temperature), and then grouped etically as: 1. Optimum (e.g., informants mentioned that the water was delicious, transparent); 2. Possibly unsuitable (e.g., informants mentioned that the water was turbid in appearance or had an unpleasant flavour); 3. Deficient (e.g.,

Journal Pre-proof informants said that the water had a metallic smell, or was contaminated). Organoleptic characteristics were organised into four categories: 1. Flavour (salty, sweet, etc.), and appreciation of taste (delicious); 2. Visual characteristics (colour, appearance, etc.); 3. Temperature (cool) and 4. Smell (metal, etc.). In addition, using the relative frequency estimation, consensus among informants was calculated with respect to the perception of quality and the organoleptic characteristics of each type of water source, considering the number of people who referred to the organoleptic characteristic i (OCi) in relation

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to the number of people who characterised the category of water quality s (ns),

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according to the equation: OCi / ns × 100. To determine the association between these

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categorical variables, (i.e., water sources vs. water quality; organoleptic characteristics

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vs. water quality) contingency tables were drawn up and analysed using the Pearson chi-squared test (p<0.05).

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Local water purification practices were categorised as: 1. Use of sodium hypochlorite;

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2. Filtering; 3. Boiling; 4. None. The frequency of each category was calculated and then compared using the Chi-squared test (p<0.05).

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Physicochemical variables were compared between water sources using the Kruskal Wallis pairwise comparison test (p<0.05). Finally, a principal component analysis

was carried out, which included

physicochemical and microbiological variables and local perceptions of the different water sources. This enabled evaluation of the variables together, and analysis of points of convergence and divergence between local and scientific viewpoints (based on Martínez et al. 2014). The analyses were performed using Infostat statistical software (Di Rienzo et al. 2016) and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. 3. RESULTS

Journal Pre-proof 3.1 Sources of water for human consumption: Management and appropriation strategies Water used for drinking and cooking in the Costa del Lepá and Gualjaina communities came principally from superficial and subterranean waters (92%), among which stood out rivers and streams, springs, wells and boreholes; these sources were complemented in a small proportion (33%) by commercially bottled water and water from the public network (p=0.003).

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3.1.1 Rivers and streams

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Surface water was used from the Lepá river (28%) and two of its tributary streams, the

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Montoso and La Cancha (11%), particularly by families living close by. The water from

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here was collected by means of small, rudimentary water intake constructions called “bocatomas” (64%) (Fig. 2a). These constructions were built with stones, sandbags,

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animal skins, and tree trunks, among other materials, and the water was then directed

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through narrow lateral channels, approximately 1 – 2 metres in width, to the homes, where the water was collected using domestic recipients (pans, buckets) (36%), or

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extraction pumps (fuel-run) and hoses (29%). Another method of collecting water involved going directly to the same river or stream with buckets, jugs, jerry cans, etc. (36%).

The appropriation strategy or access to these sources of water was exclusively community, following the norms and rules typical of the Mapuche people. Although there was a tacit agreement on the communal access to these sources, in some cases the shared use has led to conflict, for diverse reasons, such as the overuse of water for irrigation, inefficient use of water intakes, which has a direct impact on the water flow, and/or the lack of cleanliness of the water further up the river (rubbish being dumped, dead animals being left for long periods, etc.)

Journal Pre-proof 3.1.2 Springs Springs were the most frequently used sources of groundwater in the communities studied (33%). In general, the dwellings were situated close by, or in open areas with easy access to them (Fig. 2b). In contrast to these water sources, the “aguadas” and “lloraderos” are hydric upwellings with a low flow which run on the surface for a short distance, and were used less for human consumption (3%), being more commonly destined to the farm animals

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and dogs. The appropriation strategy for springs of medium to large flow was mainly

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community (67%), while the exclusively family appropriation strategy (33%)

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corresponded to springs with less flow.

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3.1.3 Boreholes

Boreholes were used by 31% of informants. In general they were made by hand, using

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galvanised pipes to perforate the soil. In these cases, extraction was carried out with

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fuel-run pumps (82%), and to a lesser extent with hand pumps (9%) (Figure 2d), or windmills (9%) (Fig. 2c); the water was then taken to the dwellings by hose. The

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appropriation strategy was family (80%) or community use. The latter case refers to a borehole belonging to Costa del Lepá school, which also supplied locals who live close by. 3.1.4 Wells

Wells were less frequently used (8%), reached less depth (approx. 2-3 metres) and had a wider opening (approx. 1 m diameter) than the boreholes. They were usually protected by wooden covers and water was extracted using domestic recipients (Fig. 2e). They were of exclusively family use and management. 3.1.5 Commercially bottled water and water from the public network

Journal Pre-proof Water came from the public network in the urbanised sector of Gualjaina (22%), and was generally carried to the homes in plastic jerrycans or bottles. The bottled mineral water was bought or obtained through donation (11%); however, its use was infrequent due to its cost, inaccessibility and flavour. In particular, it was consumed when the superficial or subterranean sources were affected by conditions such as low flow, an increase in turbidity because of flooding or rainstorms, or specific recommendations from health workers (e.g., medical treatment).

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3.2 Local perspectives on water for human consumption

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3.2.1 Perception of water availability

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Local availability of water varied greatly during the year, particularly when it came

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from the rivers and streams. Hence, in summer there was a notable decrease in these water sources, while during autumn and winter the water levels rose, causing frequent

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flooding and affecting water quality (e.g., increase in turbidity).

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Nevertheless, 64% of inhabitants stated that despite these seasonal changes, they did not face a shortage of water for human consumption: “…the spring water comes up, there’s

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always water there, and even when the water level is high, the water isn’t dirty…” (E.R., 72 years). In contrast, some did say they had problems in summer due to the water deficit (36%). This situation is made even more complex by certain poor management practices, for example, J.P. (60 years) commented: “…you can tell that in January and February the water level goes down because there are a lot of water intakes, so the water gets stopped in a lot of places; the last person who lives close to the river won’t get any water…”. 3.2.2 Perception of water quality The majority of inhabitants (89%) considered that water from superficial or subterranean sources, particularly springs, presented optimal conditions for human

Journal Pre-proof consumption (p<0.0001; X2=55.2). Nevertheless, some locals were not in total agreement with this. Most of the inhabitants who drank river and stream water considered that it was good quality (79%), especially during the first hours of the morning before animals or other people made use of it. However, 21 % thought that the quality was possibly not good enough, mainly during winter when there can be a sudden increase in surface flow, leading to an increase in turbidity and making consumption impossible.

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Despite this, 17% of informants stated that the water in these sources was contaminated

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and not suitable for human consumption, since it was shared with the livestock (cows,

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horses and poultry), which habitually defecate, drink and bathe on the coasts; in

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addition, some inhabitants used these water sources for recreational purposes in summer (e.g., swimming, fishing).

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In contrast, borehole and well water was mainly considered optimum for human

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consumption (79%). To a lesser extent, it was considered doubtful (7%) or deficient (14%).

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However, this negative perception was not found to be directly related to gastrointestinal ailments (e.g., diarrhoea, vomiting), or other complaints. A very small proportion of inhabitants (11%) recognised a causal relation between unsuitable water and this kind of illness (possibly information transferred from the official health sector), and they preferred the children to consume water only from the public system or commercially bottled. Organoleptic characteristics of the water Inhabitants of the Costa del Lepá and Gualjaina communities perceived a wide variety of different characteristics they used to classify the quality of their water (p<0.0001), (Table 1).

Journal Pre-proof Optimum water Water considered to be suitable for consumption was mainly valued as having a delicious, sweet taste, and came from superficial and subterranean sources. A lower proportion of informants mentioned a salty taste, particularly in the spring and borehole water. In general, the water considered best by informants had no smell, except for a marshy smell emitted by certain wetlands.

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The general appearance of the water consumed was perceived as transparent, although

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some informants pointed out that this sometimes changed. To a lesser extent,

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inhabitants highlighted a possible yellow colouration in the borehole water.

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The temperature of the water varied, most informants perceiving it as cool, while others considered that this changed according to the season: tepid in winter and cool in

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Possibly unsuitable water

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summer, especially in the springs and boreholes.

A turbid appearance, and to a lesser extent an unpleasant flavour, were the most

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distinctive features used in recognising the unsuitability of water, particularly when referring to the river and streams during winter. Deficient water

Perception of unsuitable water was mainly associated with a metallic smell, a turbid or yellowish appearance, and a salty taste. It should be noted that perception of salinity was evaluated by taste and confirmed visually by the presence of scale in kettles, pans and hoses used to transport water to the dwellings. 3.3 Local water purification practices The majority of informants did not carry out any purification practices (70%) (p=0.001) (Fig. A1).

Journal Pre-proof The use of sodium hypochlorite or chlorine tablets was one of the main recommendations given by health workers, and was the practice most commonly used by informants (14%). However, this was used only in certain situations, when the water had an unpleasant taste or turbid appearance. To a lesser extent, solid particles were eliminated with home-made cloth filters, or pieces of algae (Cladophora spp.) which often grow in springs and wells (7%) were removed by hand. Boiling the water was not recognised as a habitual practice (2%) (Fig. A1).

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3.4 Quality of water according to microbiological and physicochemical parameters

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3.4.1 Microbiological quality of the water

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Table 2 summarises the microbiological distribution in different water sources. Most of

consumption (61%, 11 water sources).

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the water sources used by inhabitants were determined as unsuitable for human

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In particular, high counts of TCB (55% of samples) and PA (50 % of samples) bacteria

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were found, mainly affecting superficial water sources and springs. Although in a lower proportion, high counts were also recorded of TTCB and EC, corresponding to 44% and

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27% of the samples analysed, respectively (Table 2). 3.4.2 Physicochemical parameters of the water Water quality physicochemical parameters were below the limits recommended by WHO and/or AFC (Table A1).

The Lepá river and streams presented the highest values for dissolved oxygen, and the lowest values for conductivity, alkalinity, chloride, and soluble reactive phosphorus (p<0.05) (Table A1). However, in general terms the Lepá river and streams showed values similar to the springs, while the boreholes presented values similar to the wells. The wells showed high values for conductivity and chlorides, and the lowest values for dissolved oxygen (p<0.05) (Table A1).

Journal Pre-proof 3.5 Relation between the quality of water according to local perception and physicochemical and microbiological parameters The total variability was 90.8%, and was accounted for by the first two axes, showing a clear separation according to water sources (Fig. 3). The first axis of the principal component analysis explained 61% of the variance and was correlated positively with high levels of pH, ammonium, nitrites, dissolved oxygen, solids in suspension, and TCB, TTCB, EC and PA, which were present mainly in the surface and spring water

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perceived locally as sweet, fresh, and transparent. In contrast, the boreholes and wells

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showed opposite characteristics.

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The second axis explained 29.8% of the variance and was correlated positively with

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water from boreholes, recognised in particular by informants as having a metallic odour and yellowish colour, associated with high levels of iron and fluoride, and higher

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temperature values. The wells and springs were negatively correlated with these

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parameters, and with high sulphate values and electrical conductivity, and were evaluated locally as sweet tasting.

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4. DISCUSSION

In these arid environments we witnessed the vital role played by local knowledge of the natural elements that make up the hydrological landscape, enabling inhabitants to cushion these difficulties. In particular, the exploration of groundwater (springs) as a supply source has been highlighted. Numerous authors have pointed to the important cultural value of springs which, as in this study, are locally conceived as “good and healthy” (Gazzinelli et al. 1998; Marino et al. 2009). Complementing these, wells, boreholes, and surface water constitute other key elements in rural communities, as found in other parts of the world (Strauch and Almidon 2011; Gentle and Maraseni 2012). To a lesser extent, and as a last resort, inhabitants bought bottled water or used

Journal Pre-proof the public system closest to their homes, considered improved sources according to WHO, UNICEF (2017). Water availability was found to be related to the hydrological cycle of surface water. In summer when there are droughts, and in winter when water levels are high, water quality is affected. The vulnerability of rural communities in terms of water sources and sanitation in the face of climate variations and extreme events is an ongoing threat in diverse areas of the world. This situation is exacerbated by poverty, poor public health

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infrastructure and global change (Mukheibir 2008; Chanda et al. 2010). On the other

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hand, inhabitants mentioned that the availability and quality of the spring water was

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relatively stable throughout the year. Many authors have suggested that the use of

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subterranean water is a solution not only to the scarcity of surface water in arid

2011).

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environments, but also to its deficient quality (Calow et al. 2010; McDonald et al.

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Perception of organoleptic characteristics were considered of great importance as heuristic tools for evaluation of water quality, determining the use of certain sources

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above others. Similarly, Martínez et al. (2014) found that wells were the best option for Toba inhabitants of Argentina, due to the sweet flavour and coolness of the water, being replaced by other options only in times of drought, when they dry up. Superficial and/or subterranean water sources are perceived positively, above water that has been treated or bottled, principally because of flavour and/or temperature (see also Acharya 2011; Zamora and Prieto 2016). In some regions of the world, it has been shown that populations which have a supply of “tap water” still select their drinking water from rainwater and snow, valuing it for the previously mentioned attributes (Marino et al. 2009). Cultures that have a close association with their natural surroundings commonly consider that water from the public system or bottled “tastes of

Journal Pre-proof chemicals”, and is therefore not suitable for making traditional drinks, or is rejected because when ingested this water provokes discomfort or pain (Marino et al. 2009; Doria 2010; Ritter et al. 2014). In addition, some indigenous communities considered the presence of chlorine in tap water as a factor that can weaken the blood (Cassady 2008). In addition, inhabitants identified “healthy water” as that which flows in nature, even when the quality was not uniform throughout the day. This was also observed in rural

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populations of Africa, where water collection is carried out in the early morning when

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livestock have less access to the sources (Strauch and Almidon 2011), revealing locals‟

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knowledge of the hydrological cycle throughout the day.

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We would like to draw attention to the points of convergence and divergence between local and scientific perspectives on water quality. In particular, high levels of iron were

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associated with the metallic smell and yellowish colour in the boreholes, perceived as

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deficient water quality. Similar results were documented in traditional Alaskan communities (Ritter et al. 2014). According to Strang (2005), perception of water

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quality is based on specific parameters of neutrality. In particular the smell, colour, and flavour of water, as well as judgements about its purity, can be closely linked with concepts of contamination.

Iron released from corroded piping is one of the commonest causes of colouration of drinking water, even when the concentrations are minimal (Sarin et al. 2004). Nevertheless, the levels registered are not considered a health risk, which is also true for the other physicochemical parameters analysed (WHO 2006). However, analysis of the microbiological data revealed that even the water sources most valued culturally (i.e., springs, rivers, and streams), due to their freshness, flavour, and transparency, do not generally present water quality suitable for human consumption,

Journal Pre-proof from a scientific point of view. These waters showed a high presence of bacteria, representing a considerable health risk for these populations, as reported for other traditional communities (Eichelberger 2017; Rowles et al. 2019). Many authors have pointed out that certain cultural criteria (i.e., sensorial perception, accessibility) related to selection of water sources exist in tension with the suitability of this water for human use (Ritter et al. 2014; Eichelberger 2017). Particularly, satisfaction with the organoleptic characteristics of water, especially flavour, could be

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one of the principal factors influencing the perception of water quality (Doria et al.

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2009).

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Furthermore, in contrast to the positive perception associated with superficial water

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sources, locals also feel that water quality is gradually declining, mainly due to poor management, such as the presence of livestock and their defecation, the depositing of

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domestic residues, and/or human faeces, common contamination factors of surface and

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subterranean water sources (Gazzinelli et al. 1998; Strang 2005, WHO, UNICEF 2017). However, despite perceiving that the water is deficient in quality and having received

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information via State involvement (Departamento Zonal de Salud ambiental 2007) – such as programmes run by local health workers, recommendations for water treatment, a supply of chlorine tablets or other disinfectant products– because of water scarcity and limited access to sources of treated water, inhabitants of these communities continue to drink water from the only sources they have available, irrespective of its quality. In situations like this, the community appropriation strategy plays an important role and is more frequently found when water is less available and less accessible, thus producing a collective benefit on a local level, and implying general reciprocity (Brewis et al. 2019). In these scenarios, vulnerable communities tend to organise themselves and

Journal Pre-proof agree on management guidelines for the equitable, consistent distribution of water (Ravnborg and Guerrero 1999). Water as a vital, developmental resource is covered by diverse public health policies, which to a greater or lesser extent have had an effect in the region, with recommendations of strategies for water purification (i.e., the use of sodium hypochlorite, or boiling), which would mean changes in local practices. However, implementation of these strategies is not always viable, since the traditional

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communities do not consider the use of chlorine as a positive step. Neither do they boil

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the water, as firewood is also a scarce resource. In general, locals do not really believe

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that consumption of untreated water can have negative effects on their health (Martín-

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Domínguez et al. 2005; Martínez 2011), and so they do not follow the

points of view.

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recommendations, which generates tension between local and scientific-governmental

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Consequently, it is possible that the gap between local perspectives and State interventions is due to a lack of comprehension that these two approaches towards water

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quality and local wellbeing are not necessarily the same. Thus, making progress with the idea of interculturality in health could help in understanding these complex cultural relations, and create a framework within which the different approaches can interact in an atmosphere of equality and mutual respect (Salaverry 2010; Ritter et al. 2014). In addition, as shown in this study, interdisciplinary approaches that use different analytical perspectives, although they still constitute a challenge in the field of environmental health, were useful for identification of the intersection between water quality measured by physicochemical and microbiological parameters and that evaluated through local perceptions governed by culturally constructed criteria, which could facilitate better communication between the different players involved.

Journal Pre-proof 5. CONCLUSIONS This work shows that local practices and knowledge not only call into question conventional criteria for defining the boundary between scientific and local knowledge, but also point towards the importance of finding ways to maintain dialogue between the two. The majority of inhabitants mainly use superficial and subterranean water sources for their own consumption, and do not recognise the deficient quality of their water

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according to microbiological parameters. These communities select their water sources

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by availability and organoleptic characteristics (i.e. flavour, temperature and colour).

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Therefore, since local communities can be reluctant to adopt appropriate safety

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measures that modify these organoleptic characteristics, it is necessary to take their

measures.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

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perceptions and cultural dimensions into account in order to design effective health

Special thanks are due to the inhabitants of Costa del Lepá and Gualjaina for their

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willingness to collaborate in this study. We are also grateful to the reviewers and editor whose suggestions helped improve this work substantially. The work was financed by Proyecto de Unidades Ejecutoras, PUE 2017 (CONICET). REFERENCES

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Fig. 1 Location of the study area and the water sources analysed in the northwest of Chubut province, Argentina.

Fig. 2 Water sources used by inhabitants of the Costa del Lepá and Gualjaina communities, Patagonia, Argentina: Water intake in the Lepá river (Fig. 2a). Community spring (Fig. 2b). Borehole with windmill (Fig. 2c). Borehole with water

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of

extraction by manual pump (Fig. 2d). Well (Fig. 2e).

Fig. 3 Principal component analysis according to physicochemical and

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microbiological parameters and local attributes of the sources of water used in

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Costa del Lepá and Gualjaina, Chubut. Key: DO= Dissolved Oxygen; TSS= Total

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suspended solids; SRP= Soluble reactive phosphorus; TCB= Total coliform bacteria; TTCB= Thermotolerant coliform bacteria; EC= Escherichia Coli; PA=

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Pseudomona aeruginosa; PC= Principal component.

Journal Pre-proof Table 1 Relative frequencies (%) of organoleptic characteristics according to local perception of water quality in the Costa del Lepá and Gualjaina communities, Argentina (Pearson chi-squared test, 126.1; p<0.0001). Organoleptic characteristics

Water quality Optimum

Possibly unsuitable

Deficient

Sweet

8.3

4.2

87.5

Salt

60

20

20

Delicious

100

0

0

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Flavour and appreciations taste

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50

0

0

100

0

90.6

6.3

3.1

50

25

25

0

0

100

87.2

7.7

5.1

0

0

100

Yellowish

50

Transparent

100

Turbid

0

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Temperature

Changeable Smell Metal Odourless

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Other characteristic

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Cool

Contaminated

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0

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Visual characteristics

Journal Pre-proof Table 2 Microbiological variables evaluated to characterise the quality of different water sources in the Costa de Lepá and Gualjaina communities, Argentina

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PA: Pseudomona aeruginosa; TCB: total coliforms; TTCB: thermotolerant coliforms; EC: Escherichia coli. P: positive; N: negative; MPN: most probable number; (*) Indicates values above those recommended by the World Health Organization and/or the Argentine Food Code

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Wells

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Boreholes

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Springs

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 1 2

TCB TTCB EC PA Microbiological (MPN/100ml) (MPN/100ml) (MPN/100ml) Quality 9,2* 2,2 0 P* Deficient 2.2 2,2 2,2 P* Deficient >16* >16* >16* P* Deficient 16* 16* 0 P* Deficient < 2.2 0 0 N Suitable < 2.2 0 0 N Suitable 9.2* 9,2* 9,2* P* Deficient >16* >16* 0 P* Deficient >16* 16* 9,2* P* Deficient < 2.2 0 0 N Suitable >16* >16* >16* P* Deficient >16* >16* 0 P* Deficient < 2.2 0 0 N Suitable < 2.2 0 0 N Suitable 5.1* 0 0 N Deficient < 2.2 0 0 N Suitable >16* >16* >16* N Deficient < 2.2 0 0 N Suitable

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River and streams

Samples

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Water sources

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Credit Author Statement Morales Daniela: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing - Original Draft, Visualization, Supervision. Molares Soledad: Conceptualization, Data Curation, Writing - Original Draft, Project administration. Epele Luis: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Resources. Ladio Ana: Validation, Writing - Review and Editing, Funding acquisition. Manzo Pedro: Methodology, Investigation. Alday Germán: Resources.

Journal Pre-proof Declaration of interests ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:

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Highlights:  Patagonian rural communities largely depend on surface and subterranean water.  Most water sources are not suitable for human consumption.  Organoleptic attributes play an important role in the perception of water quality.  Poor-quality water is not perceived locally as a health risk.  Local and scientific perspectives differ with respect to water quality.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3