Are formally trained motorcyclists safer?

CW-4575/8?/040?474%03 0010 0 1%. Pergamon Press Ltd

ARE FORMALLY TRAINED MOTORCYCLISTS SAFER? BRIAN A. JONAH, NANCY E. DAWSONand BARRYW.

RoadandMotor

E. BrUGGt

Vehicle Traffic Safety Branch, Transport Canada, Ottawa, Canada KlA (Received 9 March

ON5

1981)

Abstract-The present study was conducted to determine whether graduates of the Motorcycle Training Program (MTP) were less likely to have had an accident or committed a trafhc violation white riding a motorcycle compared to informally trained (fT) motorcyclists. Since motorcyclists could not be randomly assigned to the training program, multivariate analyses were used to impose statistical control on the data. Samples of MTP graduates (N = 811) and IT motorcyclists (N = 1080) were interviewed about their riding experiences during the past four years including accidents and violations. Univariate analyses indicated that the MTP graduates were less likely than IT riders to have had accidents and violations during the criterion period. However, the graduates and IT riders diiered in sex, age, time licensed, distance travelled, education and riding after drinking, all characteristics significantly related to accident and violation likelihood. Multivariate analyses, controlling for the daerences in these characteristics, revealed that the MTP graduates and IT riders did not difTer in accident likelihood but the MTP graduates were significantly less likely to have committed a tratlic violation than the IT riders. Although the lower incidence of trat%c violations among graduates could be attributed to the training program, it is possible that the graduates sought formal training because they were safety conscious and this attitude also influenced their riding behaviour.

INTRODUCTION

in motorcycle registrations over the last 15 yr and the accompanying increase in the number of motorcycle accidents have become a matter of considerable concern among traffic safety researchers [Anderson, 1980; White, 19801. Motorcycle accidents present a particularly serious problem since approx. 65% of reported accidents result in injury or death compared to 14% for passenger cars [Statistics Canada, 19751.Several studies have identified inexperience as a major causal factor in motorcycle accidents [California Highway Patrol, 1968; Harano and Peck, 1%8; Reiss and Haley, 1%8; Wailer, 1972; Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 19781.Experts in the area of motorcycle safety [OECD, 19781 have suggested the following measures to counter the effect of inexperience on motorcylce accidents: (1) availability of training programmes for those who elect to enroll and as a mandatory requirement for those who fail any portion of the recommended licensing system; (2) improved testing based on hard accident data and and comprehensive task analysis; and (3) issuing of provisional licences with certain restrictions (p. 79). The present study addresses the first of these alternative approaches to motorcycle safety. Currently, there are training courses for motorcyclists offered in the United Kingdom, Japan, Sweden, the United States and Canada [OECD, 19781.Regrettably few attempts have been made to evaluate the effectiveness of these training courses in reducing motorcycle accidents and traffic violations among their graduates. In the United Kingdom, Raymond and Tatum [ 19771recently evaluated the Royal Automobile Club’s motorcycle training scheme by comparing the accident rates of trained and untrained riders. This course consists of 24 hr of instruction, 12 of which are in the classroom and 12 of which are in a training area or in actual traffic. Controlling for exposure (distance travelled by motorcycle), it was found that the trained riders had a significantly higher accident rate compared to the untrained control group. As part of the California improved motorcycle licensing project [Anderson, 19801,applicants who failed the licensing test were offered a 3 hr training course which focussed on those skills measured by the test. As expected, applicants failing the test on their first attempt and receiving remedial training were safer riders than those applicants who failed the test on their first attempt but did not receive remedial training. Riders with training had 22% fewer accidents

The increase

tRequests for reprints should be sent to the first author. Barry Bragg is now with Abt Associates of Canada, Toronto. Ontario. Parts of this paper were presented at the International Motorcycle Safety Conference, Washington, DC., May, 1980. AAP Vol

14. No 4-A

247

248

B. A. JONAHet of.

during the 12 months following the training. While the riders in the two groups were equivalent with respect to biographical and pre-application variables, it was not known whether the groups travefled the same distance during the foIlow-up period. Jonah et al. [1981], as part of the evaluation of the Motorcycle Operator Skill Test, noted that motorcyclists reporting that they had received some formal training in motorcycle riding reported fewer traffic violations than motorcyclists who were informally trained, even when factors like age, sex and vehicle distance travelted were controlled. However, trained and untrained riders did not significantly differ in the incidence of motorcycle accidents. While this study suggests some benefit of training for motorcyclists, to date the value of training programs vis a vis accident reduction has not been demonstrated. Currently in Canada, the Motorcycle Training Program (MTP) sponsored by the Canada Safety Council, is offered in most provinces. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the MTP in reducing motorcycle accidents and traffic violations among its graduates. As is often the case in applied social research, it was not possible to randomly assign motorcyclists to training or no training conditions. The study was a retrospective examination of the riding histories of MTP graduates and informally trained (IT) riders. Consequently, any observed differences between MTP graduates and IT motorcyclists could be due to differences that exist prior to training (e.g. attitude toward safety) or develop after training (e.g. exposure to risk). Multivariate analyses were used in the study to statistically control these differences. While the effectiveness of the MTP or any training program can be assessed unequivocally only through random assignment to training conditions, a retrospective study allows the researcher to assess the likelihood that in an experimental evaluation, the program would be proven effective. Since the selection bias operates in a direction favourable to the training program, if there are no effects of the training program on the outcome criteria, it is highly unlikely that an evaluation using random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions will indicate that the pro~am is effective. If there are effects of the program observed in a retrospective study, then a more controlled evaluation would be warranted.

METHOD

A sample of motorcyclists who successfully completed the Motorcycle Training Program conducted in Ontario by the Ontario Safety League and a sample of motorcyclists who were not trained by this program, were interviewed between June and September 1978, about their riding experiences including distance travelled, accidents and traffic violations. Driver records were searched for accidents for the period 1 January 1974 to 31 December 1977.

A list of motorcyclists who had successfully completed the MTP between the Spring of 1974 and the Spring of 1977 was compiled.? Of these motorcyclists, all were interviewed by telephone. In addition, 1080 motorcyclists randomly selected from the Ontario motorcycle operator file were interviewed during the same time periodA

The MTP which is about 20 hr in duration, is usually taught during two consecutive weekends (i.e. 4 days). The program includes the following activities: brake applications, cold starting, moving off and stopping, gear shifting, hand signals, slow speed control, traffic behaviour on a riding range, emergency braking, collision avoidance, emergency decisionmaking, advanced skills, obstacles, rules of the road, mechanica and eIectrical knowledge, and defensive riding. The course hours are divided such that about 4 hr are devoted to theoretical aspects of motorcycling and 16hr involve riding of which about 6 hr are spent street riding.

tWe appreciatethe assistanceof GeorgeCurrie of the Canada Safety Council and Ken Morganof the OntarioSafety Leaguein compiling this list. SWe appreciate the assistance of the Minis~y of Transportation and Communicationsin providio~this sample of motorcyclists.

Are formally

trained

motorcyclists

safer?

249

Procedure Once the names and addresses of the motorcyclists were compiled, telephone and city directories were used to obtain their telephone numbers. At least four attempts were made to contact each subject by telephone. An introduction to the survey was given to the subjects followed by a series of screening questions: (1) are they licensed motorcyclists?, (2) had they ridden 100 or more miles (160 km) in the last 4 yr (i.e. are they active motorcyclists)? Motorcyclists in the MTP sample were asked the additional question: (3) had they successfully completed the Canada Safety Council’s Motorcycle Training Program? If respondents qualified as active licensed motorcyclists, they were asked questions concerning: (1) motorcycle ownership; (2) time licensed; (3) distance travelled by motorcycle in last 4 yr; (4) training; (5) accidents and traffic violations during last 4 yr; (6) typical riding habits; and (7) demographic characteristics. At least four attempts were made to contact 2310 MTP graduates and 2029 IT riders of which 1435 (62%) and 1521 (75%) were contacted respectively. The major reason for not contacting riders was that they had moved from their last known address and could not be traced. Of those riders contacted, 811 (57%) MTP graduates and 1080 (71%) IT riders completed an interview. The major reason for noncompletion once contacted was that the rider was ineligible since he or she was not licensed or had not ridden at least 100 miles (160 km) in the last 12 months. This was particularly the case for MTP graduates (3%) compared to IT riders (14%). In both samples only 2% of the riders refused to be interviewed. Driver records for 1486 (79%) of the interviewed motorcyclists were obtained from the Province of Ontario. Riders whose driver record could not be obtained were licensed for a shorter period of time, x2(2) = 22.92, p < 0.001 and were more likely to be from the MTP sample, x*(l) = 81.37, p
The demographic and riding characteristics of the MTP graduates and the informally trained (IT) motorcyclists were compared and it was found that MTP graduates and IT motorcyclists differed significantly on a number of dimensions. As shown in Table 1, MTP trained riders were more likely to be female, older, better educated, have higher family incomes and be married, than IT riders. Although the MTP graduates were more likely to own their own motorcycle, they were licensed for a shorter period of time and had travelled less distance on a motorcycle in the last 4 yr. Not surprisingly, the majority of MTP graduates (52%) indicated that they had first learned how to ride a motorcycle in a formal course. For IT riders, 44% indicated that they had learned to ride a motorcycle on their own. Finally, IT motorcyclists were more likely to have ridden a motorcycle after drinking alcohol than MTP graduates which is, perhaps, indicative of greater risk-taking among the IT motorcyc1ists.S Riding after drinking was therefore used as a proxy variable for safety consciousness such that riders reporting that they tAs of 1 Jan., 1978, reportable accidents were officially defined by the Ontario Ministry of Transportation and Communications as those accidents where someone was injured or the property damage was WOO.00 or greater. Sit is noted that the difference between MTP and IT riders on riding after drinking may well be the result of age and sex differences.

250

B. A. JONAH et al.

Table 1. Characteristics of Characteristics

flassi

Fication

the

interviewed motorcyclists MTP

Informally Trained Riders

Graduates

Sex

76.9a

x*

-P

151.83

.OOl

36.4 44.9 18.7

295.52

.OOl

35.8

47.3

49.39

.OOl

25.3

28.6

38.9

24.1 14.8 21.7 22.3 17.5 23.8

20.79

-001

$25,000+

11.2 15.9 24.1 17.4 31.4

Single Married Divorced/separated Widowed

61.2 34.8 3.9 0.1

85.6 13.2 0.9 0.2

151.64

.OOl

Yes

77.6 22.4

68.0 32.0

20.72

.OOl

NO

5250 cc 251-450 451t

30.1 36.2 33.6

34.7 31.1 34.2

6.55

.04

Time licensed


32.5 37.5 14.6 15.3

20.2 24.0 24.5 31.3

125.07

.OOl

Vehicle distance travelled in last four years

s4500 Kma 4SOl-13,000 13,001t

41.8 34.5 23.1

20.0 35.1 44.9

133.37

*OOL

2.3 2.6 21.0 14.2 52.2 4.2 3.5

5.9 9.5 34.1 43.5 2.2

697.98

.OOl

34.5 47.2

65.5 52.8

Male Female

23.1

Me

16-18 yrs. 19-21 yrs. 22t

21.7 21.7 56.7

Education

Some high school or less completed high school Some post secondary

; 1~~~~~~~14 999 $15.000-$19:999

Total family income

$20,000-524;999

Marital

status

own nlotorcyc1e Engine

size

llow first learned to ride moCorcycle

Parents Siblings FTiCZndS

S&f Course

Combination Other Rode

Ye8

motorcycle

after drinking alcottof

NO

95.8

4.2

It:: 30.18

.OOl

a. Percent

rode a motorcycle after drinking were assumed to have a poorer attitude toward safety than those reporting never having ridden after drinking.

The percentage of motorcyclists who reported having had a motorcycle accident in the last 4yr is presented in Table 2. The MTP graduates reported fewer accidents than IT riders. In addition, those riders who first learned to ride a motorcycle in a formal training course reported fewer accidents than those who first learned on their own or through friends. The data also showed that the incidence of reported accidents was greater for males, younger riders, less educated riders and single(never married) riders. Accidents were also reported more often in the interviews with motorcyclists who had been hcenced for longer time periods and travelled farther by motorcycle. Finally, the proportion of motorcyclists who had been involved in an accident was greater for motorcyclists who responded affirmatively to the question of drinking alcohol and riding afterwards, compared to those who gave negative resp0nses.t +Although culpabihty for these self-reported accidents was ( 1.8%)graduates and the IT nders (0.9%). x2(I) = 2.12. n.s

assessed.

no difference

was observed

between

the

h4TP

Are formally trained motorcychsts

251

safer?

Table2.Motorcycbsts reporting accident in last 4yr

Classification

Predictor Trained

by

% Having Accident

Yes

x

E

12.2 18.3

12.69

.OOl

17.0 6.5

16.27

.OOl

Female Age

16-18 yrs. 19-21 22+

16.9 20.6 9.8

29.65

.OOl

Educa'ion .

Some high school or leas Completed high School dome post secondary

18.4

7.32

MTP

NO

Sex

Male

Total family income

~$10,000

Marital status

Single

mtorcycle Engine

size

Vehicle distance travelled in past 4 Years

13.7 6.21

18.0 8.2 14.3

24.26

Married Divorced/separated Yes NO

15.5 16.3

0.13

~250~~ 251-450 451+

13.6 15.1 18.3

5.46

s4500 Ions 4501-13.000 13.001+

1::: 22.9

$25,000+

own

13.8

11.8 16.9 13.3 15.2 17.8

$10,000-$14,999 t15,000-$19,999 $20,000-$24,999

Time licensed

~1

yr.

21<2 yrs. 22~3 yrs. 23 yrs.

.03

54.34

*.s.

.OOl

n.s. .07

.OOl

10.8 14.7 17.9 21.5

21.35

.OOl

How first learned to ride a motorcycle

Parents Siblings Friends self course Combination Other

13.3 17.1 19.3 17.0 11.0 13.6 8.5

16.10

-02

Rode motorcycle

Yes NO

22.7 10.7

48.64

.OOl

after drinking alcohol

The examination of motorcyclists’ records indicated that MTP graduates were less likely to have had a motorcycle accident than IT riders. As shown in Table 3, accidents were more frequent among males, 19-21 yr old riders, less educated riders, divorced or separated riders, riders who had rode further and been licensed longer. and riders reporting riding after drinking. It was expected that the MTP would also have an impact on the incidence of traffic violations since its graduates should have greater knowledge of, and respect for, traffic regulations. The percentage of motorcyclists who reported that they had committed a moving traffic violation in the last 4yr, is presented for various predictors in Table 4. The results showed that a smaller proportion of MTP graduates had committed a traffic violation compared to IT riders. Moreover, for motorcyclists who first learned to ride in a formal course, violations were reported by a smaller proportion of respondents compared to motorcyclists who learned to ride through some other method. The incidence of violations was greater for males, younger riders, less educated riders and single riders. Moreover, the incidence of a violation increased as a function of engine size, years since licensing and distance travelled. Also, a greater proportion of those motorcyclists who reported having ridden after drinking alcohol had traffic violations compared to riders who reported never having ridden after drinking.

B.A. Table 3. Percentage of motorcyclists

JONAH

et al.

having motorcycle accident on their driving record”

? Havmg Accident Yes

X2

3

3.3 5.9

4.55

Female

5.6 0.6

6.98

Age

16-18 years 39-21 224

5.5 7.0 2.4

11.40

.0;

Educatron

Some high school or less Completed high school Some post-secondary

7.3

12.33

.Ol

Traued

by MTP

NO

Sex

Male

Total Family income

::', 4.7

Single Married Divorced/separated

113 6.5

own motorcycle

Yes NO

Engine size

status

.01

2.8 3.7

<$10,000 $10,000-$14,999 f15,000-$15,999 $20,000-$24,999 $25,000+

Marital

.03.

.57

n.s.

::z

8.31

.Ol

4.9 5.1

0.00

n.s.

5250 cc 251-450 451t

3.5 5.4 6.2

3.86

n.s.

Vehicle distance travelled in last 4 years

54500 kms

2.5 4.8 8.4

11.49

Time licertoed

<1 r1 h2 23

2.1 6.0 5.3 5.5

6.28

first learned to ride

4501-13,000

13001+ <2 <3

.Ol

n.s.

HOW

Rode motorcycle after drinkIn alcohol

Parents Siblings Frzends Self course combination Other

2.9 3.7 7.4

Yes

6.8 3.6

This data includes only those motorcyclists driving records could be found and 1977.

n.s.

6.91

.Ol.

::5 2.3 0.0

NO

a

9.99

for

(N.1486) lo? whom

the years 1974, 1975, 1976

Multivariate analyses Although MTP graduates were apparently less likely to have been involved in accidents and traffic violations than IT riders, this difference could be due to the fact that the MTP graduates were more likely to be female, older, licensed less time, have travelled less by motorcycle, had a higher level of education and be less likely to ride after drinking, all characteristics associated with lower likelihood of accident and violations. In order to control for these potentially confounding factors, discriminant analyses were performed on the accident and violation criteria using sex, age, time licensed, vehicle distance travelled in last 4yr, education and riding after drinking as covariates. This was accomplished by entering these variables into the discriminant analysis prior to the training variable. The significant function which discriminated between riders reporting an accident and those not reporting an accident, r, = 0.24, x’(4) = 103.61,p
Are formally Table

4. Percentage

trained

of motorcyclists

motorcyclists reporting

safer?

traffic violations

253 in the last 4 yr

15.2 33.7

82.27

.OOl

28.8 4.3

62.32

.OOl

Female

16-18 yrs. 19-21 22 +

32.0 34.1 12.1

99.78

.OOl

Some high school (HA.1 or leSS Completed H.S. Some post-secondary

31.5

33.19

.OOl

25.5 17.7

Total family income

~$10,000 $10,000-$14,999 $15,000-$19,999 $20,000-$24,999 $25,000+

29.3 29.2 23.4 23.2 26.8

5.83

n.s

Marital status

Single Married Divorced/separated

31.0

84.78

.OOl

Trained !4TP

by

Yes NO

Male

Sex

Education

1:::

own

Yes NO

26.9 22.7

3.29

motorcycle Engine

25Occ 251-450 451

17.0 26.2 34.1

47.21

-001

4500 kms 4501 -13,000 13,001+

7.6 24.9 41.5

184.12

.OOl

18.9 22.5 31.5 32.4

31.58

-001

Parents Slbllngs Friends Self Course Combuw~tlon Other

31.3 26.8 29.6 30.0 16.1 19.7 19.1

34.73

.oo:

Yes

37.2 17.5

92.19

.OOl

size

Vehicle distance travelled in last 4 Years TlAUe lxensed

How first learned to ride a motorcycle

Rode motorcycle after drinking alcohol

cl yr. zl c2 z2<3 23

30

-07

the last four years, riding after drinking, age and education made significant (p ~0.05) contributions to the discrimination. The F values for entering a variable into the discriminant function are presented in Table 5. The significant function discriminating between those with and without accidents on their driver records, r, = 0.10, x’(2) = 14.19, p < 0.01, included only age and sex as significant (p ~0.05) contributors. Training status did not contribute to the discrimination between riders with and without accidents once confounding factors were controlled. The significant discriminant function which distinguished between those reporting traffic violations and those reporting no violations, r, = 0.37, x2(6) = 263.09, p < 0.001, revealed that distance travelled, age, riding after drinking, sex, education as well as training status were significant (p ~0.05) predictors. Even with the confounding factors controlled statistically, MTP graduates were less likely to report traffic violations than IT riders. DISCUSSION It

was expected that graduates of the Motorcycle Training Program would be less likely to have accidents and violations while riding a motorcycle than motorcyclists who were not trained by this program. Once sex, age, time licensed, vehicle distance travelled, education and

3. A. JONAHet at.

254

Table 5. F to enter values from discriminant analyses performed

on evaluation criteria

Predictors

Ride Training

Age

Self-reported accident

0.52

11.07**

Accident on record

0.37

8.74'*

Criterion

Self-reported violation * **

E'

.05

2 <

.Ol

11.88**

61.65*'

After

Time

Drinking

Licensed

Education

Distance Travelled

2.09

4.22'

55.50**

34.12**

2.78

5.50"

3.42

2.15

3.21

0.09

117.15'f

50.12**

0.43

Sex

19.70*'

8.54**

riding after drinking were statistically controlled, no significant effect of MTP on accident likelihood was observed. However, MTP graduates were less fikely than informalIy trained riders to have committed a traffic violation. These results are consistent with those obtained by Jonah et al. [I981] for new riders. Although training did not influence the likelihood of motorcycle accidents, it was interesting to note that 16% of the MTP graduates did not have a valid motorcycle operator licence at the point of being contacted for an interview compared to 5% of the informally trained sample, x2( 1) = 158.56, p < 0.001. Although some of the MTP graduates were probably licenced and had lost their licence, or did not renew their licence on expiry, the majority were likely never licensed. Since people without a Iicence were not interviewed, it is not possible to determine whether this was the case. Some of these unlicensed graduates may have taken the training course to try motor~ycIing for the first time and, as a result of the course, may have decided not to pursue motorcycling. Consequently, this sub~oup of MTP graduates never obtained a licence to operate a motorcycle. Perhaps the MTP was having a beneficiaf effect on accidents by discouraging some people from riding a motorcycle and thereby reducing their exposure to risk. A similar effect was noted in California, whereby a new and more difficult licensing test resulted in reduced exposure rather than a direct effect on accident involvement [Anderson, 19801. The MTP apparently had a positive effect on reducing traffic violations among its graduates. However, research on driver education has indicated that the drivers who choose to take formal training tend to have safer attitudes toward driving than those drivers who choose not to take a course [Conger et al., 1966; Asher, 19681.Since motorcyclists in the present study were not randomly assigned to training by MTP or IT groups, an alternative explanation of the training effect on violations is that the h4TP graduates were safer riders before taking the course and would have had fewer violations even if they had, in fact, not received formal training. If it were assumed that motorcyclists who chose to take the MTP do not differ in attitudes toward safety from motorcyclists who chose to take some other course-since both groups decided to obtain training-then the alternative interpretation in terms of attitudes toward safe riding would lead one to expect no difference between the graduates of MTP and graduates of other courses in violations. However, if the MTP had a more positive effect than the other course, the expected resuit would be fewer violations for MTP graduates than for the graduates of other courses. of the motorcyclists classified as informally trained, 50 (5%) had actually taken some other motorcycle training course besides MTP. Comparison of this albeit small group of riders with the graduates of the MTP, revealed that the MTP graduates had a lower involvement in traffic violations, x2( 1) = 6.64, p ~0.01. This finding is consistent with the contention that the MTP had a significant effect on its graduates’ likelihood of violations. However, the only way to completely eliminate the effects of selection bias would be through random assignment to training and no training conditions. It is noteworthy that the incidence of accidents on motorcyclists’ driving records was considerably lower than the incidence of self-reported accidents which were of sufiicient

Are formally trained motorcyclists safer?

255

severity that they should have been reported to the police. Clearly, driver records provided an underestimate of the frequency of accident involvement among motorcyclists, a finding noted by other researchers in the past [Zylman, 1972; McGuire, 1973; Smith, 19761.Whenever possible, researchers should evaluate the effects of countermeasure programs on traffic accident and violation criteria using the self-report method rather than relying on official driver records. In conclusion, the Motorcycle Training Program does appear to have reduced the likelihood of traffic violations among its graduates. No direct impact was evident on the likelihood of motorcycle accidents, once distance travelled, time licensed, sex, age, education and reported riding after drinking, were controlled. Since accidents are the major evaluative criteria, the present results suggest that a controlled evaluation of the MTP would indicate no effect of the program on accidents. REFERENCES Anderson J. W., The effect of new motorcycle licencing programs and skills training on the driver records of original applicants. Proc. of Int. Motorcycle Safety Con!. Washington, D.C., May 1980. Asher J. W., Do driver traimng courses produce better drivers? An alternative hypothesis. Research Review pp. 2-6, March 1%8. California Highway Patrol. A motorcycle accident study. (DOT-HS-002560)Jan. 1968. Cohen J. and Cohen P., applied Mu/rip/e Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, New Jersey, 1975. Conger J. J., Miller W. C. and Rainey R. V., Effects of driver education: The role of motivation, intelligence, social class and exposure. Trafic Safety Res. Rev. 10(3),67-71, 1966. Harano R. M. and Peck R. C., The California motorcycle study-driver and accident characteristics. Research Rep. 28, California Department of Motor Vehicles, July 1968. Hays W. L., Statistics for Psychologists. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 1%5. Jonah B. A. and Dawson N. E., Validation of the Motorcycle Operator Skill Test. Accid. Anal. & Prev. 11, 163-171,1979. Jonah B. A.. Dawson N. E. and Bragg B. W. E., Predicting accident involvement with the Motorcycle Operator Skill Test. Accid.

Anal.

and Preu. 13. 307-318.

1981.

McGuire F. L., The nature of bias in official accident and violation records. J Appl. Psychology 57, 300-305, 1973. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Safety of two-wheelers. Report by Road Research Group, March 1978. Raymond S. and Tatum S., An evaluation of the effectiveness of the RAC/ACU motorcycle training scheme. Road&fety Research Unit, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Salford, 1977. Reiss M. L. and Haley J. A.. Motorcycle safety. Final report, Transportation Research Department, Airborne Instruments Laboratory, Deer Park, Long Island, New York, May 1968. Smith D. I., Official driver records and self-reports as sources of accident and conviction data for research purposes. Accid. Anal. and Preu. 8, 207-211, 1976. Statistics Canada. Motor vehicle traffic accidents 1975.Publication No. 5>206. Wailer P. F., An Analysis of Motorcycle Accidents with Recommendations for Licensing and Operation. University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, 1972. White J. G., Motorcycle accident study. TP 2673, Vehicle Systems, Road and Motor Vehicle Traffic Safety, Transport Canada, July 1980. Zylman R., Drivers’ records: Are they a valid measure of driving behaviour? Accid Anol. & Prev. 4, 333-349, 1972.