ASIA, WEST | Roman Eastern Colonies

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The more adventurous would take Hanno as far as Sierra Leone or even the Cameroons or Gabon in the Gulf of Guinea; according to a more conservative view, the explorer terminated his voyage at Cape Juby along Morocco’s southern boundary. See also: Asia, West: Archaeology of the Near East: The Levant; Southern Levant, Bronze Age Metal Production and Utilization; Southern Levant, Chalcolithic Cultures; Europe, South: Greece; Greek Colonies; Medieval and Post-Medieval; Rome; Exchange Systems; Metals: Chemical Analysis; Primary Production Studies of; Ships and Seafaring.

Further Reading Aubet ME (2001) The Phoenicians and the West. Politics, Colonies and Trade, 3rd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Briquel-Chatonnet F and Gubel E (1998) Les Phe´niciens aux origines du Liban. Paris: Gallimard. Harden DB (1971) The Phoenicians. Harmondsworth: Penguin. Krings V (ed.) (1995) La civilisation phe´nicienne et punique. Manuel de recherche. Leiden: Brill. Lipinski E (ed.) (1992) Dictionnaire de la civilisation phe´nicienne et punique. Brussels: Brepols. Markoe G (2002) Peoples of the Past. Phoenicians. London: British Museum Press. Markoe G (2005) The Phoenicians. London: The Folio Society. Moscati S (ed.) (1988) The Phoenicians. New York: Abbeville Press. Pritchard J (1978) Recovering Sarepta, A Phoenician City. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Roman Eastern Colonies Rebecca Sweetman, University of St Andrews, St. Andrews, UK ã 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Glossary colony colonia Status given to a city in the Empire which had especially high privileges. client kingdoms States who had yielded to, or allied themselves with, Rome and were under her control mainly through military presence but retain the local political and administrative establishment. duoviri Roman officials appointed to act as magistrates in a judicial role in Rome and in the cities of the provinces. globalization ‘‘A social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding’’ as stated by Waters 1995, 3. province The name given to the largest unit of a an area of foreign land under Roman possession.

Introduction Roman imperial expansion in the eastern Mediterranean was a consequence of the inheritance of land, the subduing of enemies and the quest for economic resources leading to a significant growth of the Empire from the late third century BCE. The Macedonian Wars (215–148 BCE), followed by the Mithridatic Wars (88–63 BCE) in addition to the series of Roman Civil wars (88–30 BCE) meant that by the death of Pompey in 48 BCE areas such as Epirus, Macedonia, Achaea, and Asia (see Figure 1) were officially under Roman control. Pompey had secured many of the Eastern provinces and subsequently, Caesar and Augustus were responsible for much of the organization and consolidation of the Eastern Empire. The institution of Roman rule in the provinces was manifested diversely; the joining of provinces, the consolidation of the geographical mass, inclusion of client kingdoms and the installation of armies, and comprehensive new administration. Provinces were established as administrative and political units and were controlled by governors, who were formally either Propraetors or Proconsuls and appointed by the Senate or the Emperor, thus creating ‘senatorial’ and ‘imperial’ class provinces. Imperial provinces were officially governed by the Emperor with a legate as his representative, were often established in areas of instability, buffer zones, or potential flashpoints and thus had a high military presence (hosting one or more legions), for example, Moesia. Although Egypt had a legion posted there, it was an Imperial province of a special kind with an Equestrian governor, as was Judea (at times). Once a province was firmly established with a governor appointed from Rome, unless there were mitigating circumstances or particularly vehement opposition to Roman rule, the local population (more often its elite elements) was commonly incorporated into regional government positions. The Letters of the Younger Pliny are especially enlightening for an understanding of the relationship between a Roman governor, his entourage, and the local population in the Eastern provinces. The roles of the governors were varied and they were expected to oversee administration, to ensure peace (at a range of levels), to warrant maintenance of the communication routes and upkeep of the cities, preservation of religious and entertainment facilities, and essentially, to guarantee the collection of taxes for Rome. The geographical boundaries of provinces were not static. Although the limes identified in the physical remains of the frontier forts and watchtowers, indicate the boundaries of the Empire at different times, it is arguable that they were as much about monitoring the unconquered tribes as defining the extent of the

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Figure 1 The Provinces (Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no FrontCover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ‘‘GNU Free Documentation License’’).

Empire (e.g., as fieldwork undertaken on the Limes Arabicus is showing). An awareness of the traditional political borders between provinces was maintained and while broad generalizations regarding the cultures of the Eastern Roman Empire are futile, the Roman army functioned directly and indirectly as a unifying element. Their tours of the Empire further stimulated communication between provinces, particularly through provision of food supplies and created an element of commonality through their presence and their maintenace of the built landscape. Just as the Emperor had to be constantly on guard against potential uprisings in Rome, the provinces, particularly those with a significant military presence, could be a breeding ground for future challenges to the Emperor. As such, the size and nature of a province could change to combat growing power bases, for example, Moesia was subdivided and by 211 CE Syria had been divided into three provinces. Provinces could also be merged and in some cases the reasoning behind this is not always clear, for example Crete and Cyrene were joined together to become a single administrative unit. Pisidia was originally given to Cappadocia in the second century BCE to govern, but when this failed it was joined with Galatia in the

late first century BCE. Lycaonia was divided between Galatia, Cappadocia, and Cicilia and following a series of border changes she finally became a separate province in CE 371. A historical framework for the foundation and organization of the Eastern provinces is achievable through a collation of sources such as Dio, Livy, Pliny, Suetonius, and Tacitus. The density of written culture in the East allows a view of the significant events and key characters of the provinces is viable. Archaeological material such as pottery and other small finds, epigraphic and numismatic evidence, mortuary evidence, and architecture provide a much more coherent picture of the broader aspects of society and culture of the Eastern Roman provinces. In the past, much of the archaeological work has been focused in urban centers, although with the rise and refinement of archaeological survey methods, increasing attention is paid to the consideration of the rural landscape in the Roman period (e.g., work such as the Libyan Valleys project and the Pylos Regional Archaeological Project in the Peloponnese). Scholars have explained the development and outcome of expansion and cultural change within the provinces through the application of processes

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such as Romanization, creolization, and globalization. A brief synopsis of these processes will allow for a more comprehensive understanding. Detailed discussion is available in the further reading section. Suffice is to say here that the nature of Roman provinces can be best understood through an examination of the archaeology in combination with the historical data to allow consideration of the perspective of the local population in addition to that of the Roman. As such this approach allows for a more inclusive understanding of the cultural change in the eastern Mediterranean with the growth of the Roman Empire. The initial establishment of the provinces in the East was quite a different process from that of the West. In many respects urbanization was fundamental to the success of Roman occupation and the presence of the long established cities of the East meant that it was relatively straightforward for Roman administration to fit in. The populations of the East were already habituated to centralized administration. In addition, they had advanced technologies and stunning architecture. There were well-developed trade and communication networks and there was intense exploitation of agricultural and natural resources. In addition to the manifestations of conspicuous consumption, the populations of the East had a keen awareness of hierarchy and the machinations of politics. Rome had respect for the territories of the East and her policy seems to have been to undertake as little interference as possible, as long as peace was maintained to facilitate crucial tax collection. Just as there are differences between the provinces and cities of the Eastern and Western Roman Empire, the archaeology of the East reveals that the provinces are as culturally diverse as they are geographically. There are few ‘model’ Roman cities; provinces become part of the Empire at different periods and for varied reasons. Their subsequent development as part of the Empire follow a multitude of progressions dependent on location, nature of the local population, economy, investment, etc. and a single scenario for provincial development is not appropriate. The provinces were subsumed and cities were given different status at different times for numerous motives. There was no concurrent rate at which they grew and transformations within the cities, if any took place, occurred for a staggering multiplicity of reasons. The different levels of support for Rome were sometimes, although not always logically reflected in the level of privileges or punishment conferred. For example, Aphrodisias wholeheartedly supported Rome and experienced the economic benefits, in contrast Corinth was sacked. Some cities retained certain autonomous rights, such as Palmyra and Damascus,

largely because of the benefits they provided for the Roman economy. These rights however were only valid as long as the cities behaved well. The foundation and subsequent growth of the Roman provinces was in some cases a planned strategic process, but more often there is little evidence throughout for a clearly defined unified policy. A study of the archaeology of the Eastern Roman Empire allows a broad range of perspectives and for such diversities to become apparent.

Brief History and Topography As noted in the introduction, much of the expansion and provincial organization in the East was carried out under Pompey, Caesar, and Augustus. A brief presentation of the chronology will allow further insight in the nature of the foundation of the different provinces and cities within. The widely accepted chronologies are followed here; however, it is important to note that current work is beginning to challenge the more traditionally accepted chronologies for province-creation. Following on from his success in the Mithridatic wars (after the Third Mithridatic war Bithynia ceded to Rome and Pompey was victorious over King Mithridates of Pontus in CE 65B), Pompey set about solidifying some of this control with the organization of some of the provinces, such as Cicilia (conquered in 102 BCE and reorganized 66 BCE). Pompey annexed Syria in 64 BCE and in this way she functioned as a peace monitor, having to ensure that the Cilician tribes behaved. In the same region, Pompey also organized for Judea to become a client kingdom under local monarchs. Octavian Augustus consolidated this arrangement and Judea came under the authority of the governor of Syria (as Cilica already was). The provinces were somewhat pillaged by both Pompey and Caesar to support their bids for control of Rome and the instability the civil wars gave Mithridates VI the opportunity to reclaim some of the lost land in the East in the middle of the first century BCE. Following his victories over Pompey and his success in Egypt, Caesar began a process of ensuring the loyalty of the elite, secured and founded client kingdoms in the East and also finally put an end to the Pontus uprisings in 47 BCE, thereby obtaining the province. The work of Pompey and Caesar gave Augustus a good foundation for the expansion and consolidation of the Empire. At this point, various provinces had been inherited (e.g., Cyprus), victories in Egypt had provided a good economic base and obstreperous regions such as Judea and Pontus were

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annexed along with Moesia (44 BCE). These actions of strengthening borders and policing uncontrolled regions served to unify the Eastern Empire geographically. After Augustus, the Julio-Claudians continued on a small scale to expand the Eastern Empire with the inclusion of Cappadocia (CE 17), Lycia (CE 43), and Thrace (CE 46). The next concentrated expansion did not occur until Trajan. Trajan extended the holdings with the inclusion of new provinces and previous client kingdoms such as Arabia Petraea (CE 105) and Armenia (CE 114). At this point, the Empire was expanded to include Dacia (CE 106) which functioned as a buffer zone to the unconquered peoples of the East. Hadrian’s view of the Empire was quite different from that of his predecessor Trajan. Much against the views of factions within the Senatorial elite, Hadrian envisioned that a smaller Empire would be both more manageable and more profitable and thus he began a process of contracting the borders. Although Severus motivated further consolidation and re-organization of the Empire with the inclusion of Osroene and the expansion into northern Mesopotamia, by the third century the nature of the Roman Empire had changed. At this point a clear eastern koine was identifiable throughout the Eastern provinces but at the same time the external threats of the Goths and Vandals created a need for defense rather than expansion.

The Nature of the Provinces The diversity within and between Roman provinces is understandable when full consideration is given to the following: (see Table 1): . How and why provinces were acquired (force or inheritance; strategic or economic)? . The intended or consequential role within the Empire (frontier zones or Roman colonies). . How the nature of pre-conquest societies created such diversity in the Early Empire through the extent of: . multiculturalism . pre-conquest peace within the province . pre-conquest Roman involvement. . Existing economy. . Existing religions. . Location (Mediterranean or continental; remote or accessible). . Natural resources. . Topography. Different reasons for foundation (see Table 1):

. Inherited: for example, Asia, Cyrene. . Development from client kingdoms to provinces (e.g., Judea). . Conquered because of economic potential (e.g., Egypt). . Conquered because of strategic location for trade (e.g., Crete). . Taken to shore up gaps in the area of the Empire (e.g., Cappodacia). . Taken to act as buffer zones against threatening tribes (e.g., Dacia). . Taken to maintain peace (e.g., Cilicia & Judea). . Conquered as a result of attempts to rebel against Roman rule (Pontus, Achaea). . Conquered as part of strategic expansion of Empire (e.g., Armenia & Mesopotamia taken in Trajanic expansion). As noted in the introduction, a range of different types of provincial establishments were founded in the East (see Table 1): . Senatorial Province (former consuls): Asia. . Senatorial Province (former praetors): Macedonia, Crete & Cyrene, Achaea, Cyprus, Pontus & Bithynia, Lycia & Pamphylia. . Imperial Provinces (former consuls): Moesia, Syria, Cappadocia. . Imperial Provinces (former praetors): Galatia, Cilicia, Arabia. . Imperial Procurators: Thracia, Epirus. . Prefect: Egypt and Mesopotamia by early third century. . Some were provinces but behaved more like client kingdoms (e.g., Syria). Within these different provincial establishments there was a range of cities with different status and functions: . Colonies (Butrint (Illyrium), Savaria (Pannonia), Corinth (Achaea), Knossos (Crete and Cyrene), Nicomedia (one of the last at 284–305), Beirut, Edessa, Antioch). . Military presence (Palestine & Syria and along the Danube). . Provincial principal city (Ephesus, Gortyna, Alexandria). . Economic foundations (Damascus, Palmyra). . Creations to balance internal power (Patras). . Cultural centers (Sparta).

Archaeology of the Eastern Provinces With these variations and diversities in mind a ‘model province’ is not a viable means of understanding either Roman cities or the provinces themselves in

Table 1 The Eastern Roman provinces

1

Province

Type of admin (by CE 211)

Date a

Some key cities (incl b capitals and colonies)

Reason for inclusion and economic resources

Macedonia

Senatorial former praetor

168 BCE/ 146 BCE

Dion, Pella, Thessaloniki (capital) Phillippi, Cassandra

Rebelled against Romans. Early Empire used as a launch for several conquests into east and north.

Epirus

Imperial procurator

167 BCE

Nicopolis (capital) Butrint

3

Lycia

Senatorial former praetor

Letoum, Xanthus, Patara (capital), Phaselis

4

Lycaonia

Imperial

5

Achaea

Senatorial former praetor

167 BCE independent state. Joint province with Pamphylia in CE 43 160–64 BCE divided between Galatia, Cappadocia, Cilicia. 146 BCE and then formally in 22 BCE

6

Asia

Senatorial former consul

133 BCE (inherited). 129 BCE became a province

8

Crete and Cyrene

Senatorial former praetor

69 BCE

Ephesus (capital), Aphrodisias (free city), Miletus (free city) Gortyna (capital), Cyrene Knossos

9

Bithynia & Pontus

Imperial former praetor

64 BCE

10

Cicilia

Imperial former praetor

78–4 BCE, 67 BCE, 51–59 BCE (Vatia, Pompey, Cicero)

Iconium

Athens (capital) Sparta (free city) Corinth Patras

Nicomedia (capital) Nicea (capital) Byzantium, Prusa Apamea Olba, Seleucia-adCalyca, Dnum Tarsus (capital)

64 BCE Roman reorganization. Administration and borders often changing. Passed to Eumenes II of Pergamon then divided after Mithraditic wars. 146 BC attached to Rome after defeat in fourth Macedonian war. Corinth and later Athens sacked. Achaea subdued and peaceful. Trade, marble, cultural credibility Inherited from kingdom of Pergamum. first BCE mutinies, sacking of Ephesus and finally from Augustus onwards, strong economy and trade centers. Crete has initial resistance. Likely to have been taken with view of strategic stopover point for trade. Piracy is used in the sources as excuse. Timber exported from Crete. Siphnum (?) from Cyrene. Bithynia ceded to Rome in 75 BCE but joint province with Pontus after victories over Mithridates in 64 BCE

Issues with pirates and ‘uncivilized’ populations. A potential threat to the peace and stability of Empire. Various stages of subduing the province. Octavian finally succeeded in formalizing control.

Wealthy and prosperous

Mixture of cultures, Lycaonian and Greek

Cyrene was inherited by the Romans in 96 BCE. Originally a province on its own in 74 BCE then joined with Crete in 69 BCE.

As appendix to Syria, Syria was meant to deal with minor uprisings, etc.

Continued

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2

Economy: overland trade (via Egnatia constructed). Agricultural land, gold, iron, and timber exports Sided with Macedonia. Defeated by Romans in third Macedonia war (Aemilius Paullus). Central areas still had tribes. Coastal regions did well. Declared independent after Rhodes had attempted colonization. Annexed by Claudius formally.

Other

Province

Type of admin (by CE 211)

Date a

11

Syria

64 BCE

12

Cyprus

Imperial former consul Senatorial former praetor

13

Moesia

Imperial former consul

14

Aegyptus

Equestrian

30 BCE

15

Galatia

25 BCE

16

Pisidia

Imperial former praetor Imperial

17

Cappadocia

Imperial former consul

58 BCE 22 BCE became senatorial province under Augustan consolidation of East. 44 BCE split into two by Domitian

102 original Roman interest. 25 BCE

CE 17

Some key cities (incl b capitals and colonies)

Reason for inclusion and economic resources

Palmyra, Damascus, Beirut Antioch (capital) Paphos (capital), Salamis, Soli. No colonies established

Annexed by Pompey

Tomis. Nicopolis ad Istrum. Naissus (capital) Odessus, Viminacium Oescus Alexandria (capital), Cairo, Thebes, Memphis Ancyra (capital) Germa

Natural resources (gold, minerals and farmland). Military importance. Defence of Thrace. Danube: communication hub. Was important for shoring up the frontiers of the Empire.

Sagalassos, Selge, Antiocheia (and also capital), Olbasa, Cremna Caesarea (capital), Comana, Tyana

Annexed by Rome while taking advantage of the ambiguous nature of the inheritance of Egypt. Piracy provided another excuse.

Other

Certain cities (eg., Palmyra) given autonomous rights (economic benefits to the Romans). For a time it was part of the province of Cilicia.

Less noticeable change in population with inclusion in Empire. Problems with Scythians and Sarmartins

Annexed by Augustus

Augustus formalized Roman control. Originally given to Cappodacia to govern but this failed. Pisidia was then joined with Cilicia. Very slow to adopt Eastern Roman koine. Annexed by Tiberius. Changeable relationship with Rome. With Anticochus but against Philip V and Mithradiates. Managed to support the winning sides after this, Pompey, Caesar, Augustus.

Quite but steady and economically secure.

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Table 1 Continued

18

Thrace

Imperial former praetor

c. CE 46

19

Pamphylia

Joint province with Lycia in CE 43

20

Commagene

Senatorial former praetor Imperial

21

Judea

Equestrian

22

Arabia Petraea

Imperial former praetor

23

Dacia

Imperial former consul

c. CE 106

24

Armenia Inferior

Imperial

66 BCE initial Roman control. CE 114

Trapezus

Part of the Trajanic expansion to shore up gaps in the provinces.

25

Osroene

Imperial

CE 114 and CE 195

Edessa

26

Assyria

Imperial

CE 230

Nisbis

Originally part of the Trajanic expansion, became semi-autonomus and then annexed formally by Severus. Briefly controlled by Rome in 161 and CE 194. Difficult area due to heavy Parthian involvement.

CE 72 c. CE 100 finally brought fully under Roman control having been a client kingdom CE 105. Annexed by Trajan

Plovdiv (capital), Sardica, Philippopolis, Deultum. Adrianople Aspendus (neocorus), Perge (capital), Antalya, Side Samosata (capital) Jerusalem, Caesarea (capital), Sebaste

Petra (capital), Jerash, Philadelphia Philippopolis Bosra (capital) Sarmizegetusa (capital), Napoca, Apulum, Drobeta

Agriculture. Gold. Many areas functioned using Latin rather than Greek. Difficult provinces as always suffered from invasions and as battle ground.

Supported Pompey and then became client state under Augustus. Annexed by Vespasian. Originally annexed by Augustus in CE 6. Significant problem for the Romans. Originally under the governorship of Syria, several Jewish revolts.

Last independent kingdom in Asia Minor

Annexed from Kingdom of Nabetae.

Buffer zone, Danube, agriculture. Submitted to Trajan and then Hadrian divided the province.

Significant change with inclusion in Empire. Mixed population. Used Latin. Both free and occupied territories Always a difficult area due to incursions by neighboring tribes such as the Parthians (first–third CE)

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a The dates given are those which are commonly accepted for the creation of the Roman province. There are variations on the dates and work is underway to produce a coherent reassessment of the foundation dates. b Seat of the Roman Governor.

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the East. Notwithstanding, there are many shared common elements. In addition to the local existing architecture many provinces benefited from investment in new buildings, such as basilicas, amphitheaters, and heated baths. A range of housing from the urban domus, such as those multistoried buildings at Ephesus, to the rural villa, such as Herodes Atticus’ Villa at Loukou in the Peloponnese, to farmsteads, such as those identified in the Megalopolis survey was found throughout the Eastern Empire. Many of these buildings became showcases for the latest trends in art such as mosaics, wall painting, and sculpture. The somewhat laissez-faire attitude to religious expression in the provinces meant that in addition to the family and personal shrines a myriad of temples to different gods are found. In addition to temples to local gods (from Apollo to Baal) the temples of Imperial cult and the Capitoline triad were founded and, with the increased security of communication routes, came the spread of popular Egyptian religions such as Isis, Serapis, and other mystery cults such as Mithras. Although some cities continued to mint their own coins, provinces more often produced series of provincial coinage with the symbols and images of the ever-present Imperial ruler. Epigraphic evidence in the East provides insights into the nature of administration and economy (such as the tax code of Palmyra) and relations between Roman and local populations. It is clear that with a few exceptions and unlike the Western provinces, after an initial attempt to run the provinces using Latin as the official language, by the end of the first century CE, Greek had become the predominant language again, as seen in Corinth. A number of ceramic studies show similar patterns in densities of ceramic imports. As sites on Crete have shown, Italian forms were prevalent in the first half of the century but this gave way to a clear preference for Eastern Sigilliata B by the end of the century. Local wares and imitations remained a constant. A mixture of grave types is found depending on topography and population; lavish sarcophagi, rock cut tombs, and tile graves are just a few of the variety of types of mortuary evidence. New roads and aqueducts were constructed to facilitate communications and provide utilities. Current ceramic studies of the eastern Mediterranean (particularly in Corinth) are re-dating and presenting more refined chronologies. Additionally, more nuanced application of the ceramic evidence is leading to new theories concerning trade and economic, skills and technology in the East. To provide more detail about the archaeology of provinces, this section will examine four areas of the Eastern provinces in detail which will allow scope for a broad understanding. In presenting a brief survey of the Eastern Empire, allowance for the

nature of archaeological research should be factored in. The comparative dearth of rural evidence is slowly being addressed (as explained in the introduction). In the urban landscape, many of the Roman cities continued in use and are present-day occupied cities and thus much of their excavation has necessarily been patchy. In the following account, a range of areas has been chosen to reflect not only the different Roman establishments but also the diversity in archaeological material available for interpretation. Thus the areas are: . Corinth. Considered a new Roman foundation in a Senatorial province. . Knossos. A Roman colony created from a strongly anti-Rome city. . Palmyra. A key economic foundation in Syria, an Imperial province. . Paphlagonia and Achaea. The Rural Roman East.

Corinth in Achaea

With a few notable exceptions such as Sparta, the Achaean league was strongly opposed to Roman interference in the Peloponnese. Following powerful resistance Mummius sacked Corinth in 146 BCE during the Achaean war. Although the extent of depopulation of the city is likely to have been inflated somewhat in the sources, even so, the Roman investors had a reasonably clean slate from which to start in terms of constructing the new Roman city. Walbank notes clear evidence for the distribution of land, and settlers from Rome is evident with the establishment of the colony, Colonia Laus Julia Corinthiensis by Caesar in 44 BCE. Moreover, there was immediate investment in civic and domestic parts of the city. The forum with its stoas and shops, the Julian Basilica, Roman Temples C, D, E, F, G, and the Odeion were all established by the early first century CE. New houses, villas and baths were constructed and a fine collection of mosaics survives from the city. The success and wealth of the city is visible in the manifestation of conspicuous consumption seem in lavish buildings such as the Pierene fountain and the continuous investment in the Forum area. As a result of her position on the Isthmus and with some initial investment, during the Roman period, Corinth once again became a strong economic and strategic city. Her growing strength and position may have played a part in the reasoning behind Octavian’s foundation of the Colonia Aroe Augusta Patrensis at Patras on the western end of the Gulf of Corinth, intended to temper the potential power of Corinth. Extensive excavations have been undertaken at Corinth and contemporary urban development has

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been limited, allowing for detailed research. The archaeology of Corinth in the Early Empire clearly points to close ties with Rome and the West. Until the time of Hadrian, Latin was the language of choice, outnumbering Greek inscriptions by 101 to 3. As Alcock has discussed the ceramic assemblages and the overtly Roman coins which were minted in Corinth suggest clear westernized traits. The situation of the Roman temples with their frontal emphasis along the east side of the forum, one of which is likely to be the Capitolium and the epigraphic details for the Imperial cult support this connection with Rome. Simultaneously however, the Greek temple of Apollo continues in use. As the epigraphic evidence supports, with the initial foundation of the colony a clearly westernized city is constructed, however as with other cities in Greece, by the second century CE the original Greek roots appear to be the stronger force in the cultural koine of the city. Knossos in Crete and Cyrene

Under the veil of cleansing the Mediterranean of pirates, Crete became a focus of Roman attention. With the exception of cities such as Gortyn, the island was strongly opposed to Roman rule and during the early part of the first century BCE there were valiant attempts to dispel the Romans from the island. Crete’s resistance finally collapsed and the island was taken by Metellus. In 69 BCE Crete and Cyrene become joint province with the provincial ‘capital’ at Gortyn. By 25 BCE Knossos had become the praetorian provinces’ only colony, Colonia Julia Nobilis Cnossus and while there is limited evidence to suggest a significant ‘westernization’ of the city, she certainly appears to have flourished. Knossos has not been affected by contemporary urban growth, but the bias of archaeological investigation has clearly been on Minoan material. Even with detailed archaeological survey, research into the Roman remains has often been curtailed by the desires to focus on the Bronze Age material. Coupled with this is a dearth of historical sources for the province of Crete and Cyrene. In recent years, the increasing academic attention that is being paid to Roman Knossos with more research (rather than rescue) excavation and synthetic studies of the material culture, a more in-depth understanding of the nature of change from Greek city to Roman colony is viable. There is limited evidence for Roman occupation of the city in the first century BCE/CE, however it is clear that by the late first century CE Knossos has developed into a prosperous peaceful city with evidence for many of the architectural manifestations of an Eastern Roman city.

In the first half of the first century BCE, the epigraphic and numismatic data from Knossos clearly points to early attempts to run colony on formal lines: for example, with coins, Italian duoviri, and official administration documents in Latin. In the ceramic assemblage there is an initial favoring of Italian wares which by the mid first century CE are replaced by the Asia Minor-originating Eastern Sigallata B but all the time, domestic production continues. In contrast to the Latin public and official inscriptions in the first century BCE, all evidence thus far suggests that private inscriptions continued in Greek. Greek burial customs (such as rock-cut tombs and tile graves) persisted with no significant evidence for Roman burial customs. By the late first century CE a perceptible change in the material culture with the construction of the so-called Civil Basilica and the theater is visible. This is enhanced with evidence from a range of buildings representing a good cross section of society such as the Villa Dionysos and the small bathhouse close by and the town house complex at the Unexplored mansion with its associated industrial area. In terms of the sacred landscape, material culture is limited, but excavations at the Demeter Sanctuary have shown it to continue in use until the Late Antique period. The inclusion of Roman buildings, particularly administrative buildings in the late first century CE suggests a change in the Knossian landscape. It seems that finally, a century after the foundation of the colony, the city began to fit into the developing koine of the Eastern Empire, but this was taken on, a process decided on by both the local and Roman population, rather than forced. Palmyra in Syria

Syria played a number of roles in the Eastern Empire. She was a significant economic resource for Rome, at times she acted as a buffer zone to the more problematic tribes to the East and for certain periods she played the role of policing her more obstreperous neighbors such as Judea. In spite of her wealth and in many respects compliance to Rome, Syria is often perceived to be a province on-edge and this is partly due to the fear of attack from the unconquered tribes that edged in across her borders (Persian incursions were always problematic). This was the case throughout Roman rule. When the first Roman incursions occurred and Pompey began to annex the province, the Arab Nabateans begin to move in from the south and they were even able to hold Damascus for a period (around 85 BCE). Due to the constant threats three legions were originally posted in Syria (they were later moved to Judea (during the second half of the first century CE)).

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Given the potential wealth of Syria, some cities were given the right to retain a certain degree of autonomy (as long as they behaved) and Damascus and Palmyra are two examples. This arrangement was largely because of the benefits they provided for the Roman economy (trade in the case of Palmyra and production of luxury items in the case of Damascus). Hadrian granted free status to Palmyra. It was probably because of its unusual status that Palmyra did not become a colony until CE 217. The archaeology reveals a stunning diversity of culture and a flourishing city. Located in the Syrian Desert, in an oasis 150 km from the Orontes River and 200 km from the Euphrates, the full extent of her isolation was perceived as an advantage to the Romans. There is remarkable preservation of the Roman town and many of the surviving buildings are a result of a renewed investment in the town after Hadrian’s status change for the city. Like most cities of the Eastern provinces, Palmyra had a multitude of buildings; the forum represented the heart of the city with its lavish architectural colonnades. Rich residential houses have been excavated in addition to the theater, banqueting hall, baths, market place and temples. The range of temples at Palmyra, from the temple of Baal-Shamin to the temple of Bel, to the temple of Lat reflects the myriad of gods, local and foreign that were freely worshipped in the city. The tax code of Palmyra provides a wealth of evidence about local trade and the cost of living. From this inscription it is also clear what kind of material was being traded in and out of the city; basic items such as purple-dyed wool, scented oil in alabaster jars, and salt to more luxurious material such as spices, perfume, ivory, and silk from the East in addition to glass and other fine objects from Phoenicia. The tax code highlights the nature of primarily local trade. In addition to the tax code, a range of inscriptions from across the Empire reveal the extent to which Roman governors could extract tax; from property tax to income tax to inheritance tax to export and import tax. Provinces were taxed directly from Empire, controlled by the local governors. It was organized on the basis of a census and the increase in tax revenue was normally routed into the maintenance of the provinces. This worked as an incentive and ultimately economy growth in the Empire. During the third century Palmyra’s power increased while Rome’s stability waned. Palmyra grabbed the opportunity and she began to seek independence from both Rome and Persia. These attempts culminated in Queen Zenobia attempting to defy the Romans which resulted in the sacking of the city in CE 273. The city never recovered and became a

simple frontier stronghold. In all, the archaeology of Palmyra allows a good insight into daily life of a Roman provincial trade center; from public display to private life. The Rural Landscape

There are a number of issues concerning an understanding of the rural landscape in the Roman provincial East. The bias in the historical sources is firmly on the urban setting and when reference to the rural landscape is made more often as an aside. Survey evidence has saved the rural landscape from disappearing from the academic radar, however significant problems still remain. Not all areas of the Eastern Empire have been surveyed, so the full extent of regional variation and topographic diversity is not fully understood, often leading to unsupported assumptions. Not all field surveys have the opportunity to test their results with stratigraphic excavation. As such, pottery sequences and identification of context might not be completely accurate, so there is a reliance on potentially misleading data. Geophyiscal data, for example, evidence which has been brought to light in the Dichin field surveys in Moesia, undertaken by Poulter and Boyd, has the potential to provide vast quantities of evidence on the architecture of the rural landscape. Moreover, unless excavation is undertaken on the identified sites, gaps in the chronology and function will be rife. Survey data from some regions have allowed some generalizations to become popular assumptions which are recently being challenged. For example, as Alcock has shown, survey data suggests that there was a decrease in rural activity after the initial conquest of Achaea which has been interpreted as increased urbanization. An increase in the occupation and exploitation of the countryside was visible in the third century and there was a perceived increase in construction of villas, farmsteads, and rural villages. This pattern is often taken as being common to many, if not all of the Eastern provinces. Given the diversity as discussed above, and given the acceptance that towns and provinces could be vastly different, there is no reason to assume a coherent pattern in the rural landscape. The variety of topography, natural resources, fertility, and trade and communication potential leads to vastly different inhabitation and exploitation of the rural setting. In the Eastern provinces few generalizations can be made, but what is clear is that agriculture was exploited, routes were carved through the landscape and industries were founded where ores and minerals provided incentive. In addition, occupation ranged from simple one-room dwellings to farmsteads including home industries such as

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olive production to farmstead/industry/villa combinations to luxury villas. Although many towns such as Palmyra or Corinth gained their wealth through trade, the local population was still dependent on agricultural productions to sustain them.

Processes of Inclusion: Globalization Current research is expanding the application of globalization theories to the understanding of the development of the Roman Empire. In light of postprocessual, and particularly cognitive approaches to archaeology, globalization is an attractive concept and one which ultimately might solve many of the problems of terminology (with terms such as ‘Romanization’ now recognized as being problematic) and further understanding of the development of the East under Roman control. For Roman studies, such an approach allows further exploration of issues of cognitive elements (particularly aspects of intentional and non-intentional processes in addition to allowing an explanation of a progressive change in material culture (as seen in most of the East) rather than a swift cultural impact. The subject of globalization as a modern concept is not without its controversies and these debates largely center on different applications of globalization. A basic and commonly accepted definition could be read as: ‘‘A social process in which the constraints of geography on social and cultural arrangements recede and in which people become increasingly aware that they are receding’’ as stated by Waters. Waters’ definition does not rely on economic processes (notwithstanding they are a factor) nor does it preclude the concept of culturally independent states within a globalized world. Instead it allows social practices, unpredictable by geographical location and concerns, the development of a region relative to the globalizing power (rather than simply becoming a version of that state). In this way localization can prosper in parallel. Importantly for the Roman period, the latter element permits a situation where relative positive and negative preferences can be expressed for the potential of the globalizing power. To put it in terms of the Roman Empire, albeit simplified, Rome gradually became a ‘superpower’ in the Mediterranean, provinces were bequeathed, submitted and lost to her and eventually all displayed Roman cultural elements to varying intensities and as a consequence of different processes on the part of the Romans and on the part of the indigenous population. In this sense, this is one of the most attractive elements of explanations of globalization of the

Roman Empire, that it allows for the intentional and nonintentional influence and adoption of cultural elements for both sides.

Conclusion and Outlook As theoretical approaches are developed, so too are the practical aspects; ceramic studies encourage more refined chronologies, underwater archaeology is providing new evidence in areas such as the Black Sea and landscape surveys are correcting the urban-focus bias. For many years the foundation of colonies in the East has been viewed through a lens of the Romans imposing their designs for model establishments on local provinces. A comprehensive examination of the colonies of the eastern Mediterranean together highlights the range of diversity within the provinces. Not only is an imposed model of ‘Roman-ness’ no longer sustainable but future studies which approach the material from the viewpoint of the Romans and of the individual cities will continue to reveal the multiplicity of societies that existed in the eastern Mediterranean for the first two centuries of Roman Imperial expansion. See also: Europe, South: Rome.

Further Reading Alcock S (1997) The Early Roman Empire in the East. Oxford: Oxbow Monographs No. 95. Alcock S (1993) Graecia Capta: The Landscapes of Roman Greece. Cambridge: CUP. Bowersock GW (1998) Roman Arabia. Harvard: Harvard University Press. Bowman AK (1986) Egypt After the Pharaohs. London: British Museum Press. Bowman AK and Rathbone D (1992) Cities and administration in Roman Egypt. The Journal of Roman Studies 82: 107–127. Butcher K (2003) Roman Syria and the Near East. London: British Museum Press. Christie N (ed.) Landscapes of Change. Rural Evolutions in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Aldershot, Hants: Ashgate, 2004. ISBN 1-84014-617-6. Hingley R (2005) Globalizing Roman Culture. Unity, Diversity and Empire. London: Routledge. Millar F (1993) The Roman Near East, 31BC–AD 337. Harvard: Harvard University Press. Raddice B (1963) The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Penguin Classics. Walbank MEH (1997) The foundation and planning of Roman Corinth. Journal of Roman Archaeology 10: 95–130. Waters M (1995) Globalization. London: Routledge. Wells C (1984) The Roman Empire. London: Fontana. Whittaker C. R (1994) Frontiers of the Roman Empire. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Wiseman J (1979) Corinth and Rome 1: 228 B.C. – A.D. 267. Aufstieg und Niedergang der ro¨mischen Welt II.7: 438–538.