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Career exploration in adulthood
Journal of Vocational
Behavior 20, 129-140 (1982)
Career Exploration in Adulthood SUSAN D. PHILLIPS State
University
of New
York
at Albany
The study described was designed to examine career exploration in the adult years, as seen from the perspective of decision-making behavior. Using conceptual models provided by H. B. Gelatt (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1962, 9, 240-245) and D. V. Tiedeman (Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1961, 40, 15-21), two research questions were posed: (1) To what extent does exploration occur prior to more terminal career behaviors? and (2) To what extent are exploratory and terminal career decision modes interdependent? These questions were addressed by examining the series of decisions made by 95 subjects over a period of 18 years. The results supported the expectation that decisions made at earlier stages of development are more likely to be of an exploratory nature and that decisions made at later stages are more likely to be of a terminal nature. In addition, support was found for the hypothesis that decision-making strategies at various stages of development are interdependent.
Career exploration has been widely recognized and endorsed as a necessary step in an individual’s career development. Presumed to occur primarily during adolescence and young adulthood (Super, 1963), the value of exploration is seen in the fruits of the effort: An individual who explores emerges from the experience with a clearer and more accurate assessment of him or herself (as an individual and in relation to the environment) and a realistic, justified basis for taking decisive action (Jordaan, 1963). Few would then argue that career-related decisions should be made without the benefit of prior exploration. Considering the value of exploration, a variety of interventions and opportunities are designed to enhance the exploratory activities of those individuals whose major developmental task is to formulate career preferences, decisions, and plans. Although the targets of these efforts are typically individuals at preimplementation stages of development, there This study is based in part on the author’s doctoral dissertation at Teachers College, Columbia University. The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of her committee, Professors R. A. Myers, J. P. Jordaan, and R. F. Gold. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Susan D. Phillips, Education 220, State University of New York at Albany, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222. 129 OOOl-8791/82/020129-12$02.00/O Copyright 8 1982 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
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have been some suggestions that exploration occurs at all ages and stages (Myers, 1978; Schlossberg, 1976; Super & Hall, 1978; Super, Kowalski, & Gotkin, 1967). What with the growing recognition that adulthood is not necessarily the period of stability, certainty, and commitment commonly assumed (Myers, 1978; Schlossberg, 1976), exploration has come to be expected not only in adults who are changing career directions, but also in adults who are responding to the demands of progressing in the careers they have chosen and in which they may wish to remain. Despite this recognition, however, little has been offered empirically about exploration during the years following initial implementation of career choice. Questions such as, “To what extent does exploration occur?“, “How does exploration relate to other theoretically expected career behaviors?“, and “What effect does exploration in adulthood have on career outcomes?“, remain largely unanswered. In an attempt to address these questions, current conceptualizations of exploration in the career literature may be reviewed. Such a review reveals that exploration is addressed by two very different approaches. On one hand are the traditional career development theorists (e.g., Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma, 1951; Super, 1957) who take as their focus the entire spectrum of behaviors and processes displayed during the course of a life span. Exploration, in this approach, is portrayed as a primary mode of normal functioning during early stages of career development. Although the suggestion is made that exploration may occur later in life (Super & Hall, 1978), the stage-appropriate notions inherent in this approach include the use of exploratory activity primarily in preimplementation stages of development. Furthermore, in that exploration is considered a stage-appropriate behavior, the manner in which one functions during later stages is presumed to be contingent on the extent to which one has adequately explored in earlier stages (Havighurst, 1953; Super, 1974). In contrast, the second approach to exploration appears in the writings of those who focus on the molecular level of the decision as a vehicle through which to view vocational behaviors and development (see, for example, Jepsen & Dilley, 1974). From this point of view, any decision (be it to choose a job or buy a car) goes through an exploratory phase in which available alternatives are generated, elaborated, and “tried on for size.” Since such decisions occur at every stage of an individual’s development, this perspective would appear to suggest that exploration would be an inevitable and entirely appropriate behavior throughout all points in an individual’s career. Providing a link between the career development approach and the decision-making approach are two theorists who examine decisions within the context of a developing career. Tiedeman (1961) suggested that a decision could be partitioned into two periods with corresponding
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stages in each period. The first period, “anticipation,” is composed of stages of exploration, crystallization, choice, and specification. The following period, “implementation and adjustment,” is composed of stages of induction, transition, and maintenance. Tiedeman further suggested that this process of making a decision is merely a first-order version of an identical process through which a career evolves. This formulation, when applied to a developing career, parallels Super’s (1957) stages of development. A major difference, however, is that exploration would be observable not only at early stages of development, but also at the onset of each decisional cycle. Gelatt (1962) also posed a cyclical model of the decision-making process: For each decision, an individual considers alternatives, gathers information, evaluates the options, and arrives at a choice. That decision may be investigatory-in which case the cycle is repeated-or it may be terminal, resulting in an implemented choice. Although Gelatt’s model does not deal with career development per se, it is similar to that described by Tiedeman and is easily applied to the developmental framework. A decision that is investigatory is one that precipitates further exploration. It would reflect repeated activity in Tiedeman’s anticipatory period. A “terminal” decision would reflect movement into Tiedeman’s period of implementation and adjustment. In this model, a terminal decision does not necessarily indicate conclusiveness; rather it indicates sufficient commitment to and satisfaction with a particular alternative for decisive action to be taken. From the perspective of these integrative views of exploratory behavior, two conclusions may be drawn: First, in contrast to traditional career development theory, exploration can and should occur at all stages of development; and second, similar to the traditional view, subsequent career behaviors (e.g., implementation) are, by definition, contingent on passage through an exploratory phase of decision making. In an attempt to reconcile these contrasting views and to provide some empirical validation of the presence of exploration in adulthood, the current study was designed. By taking the classifications proposed by Gelatt (1962) in combination with the developmental sequence proposed by Tiedeman (1961), decisions-or positions chosen during the course of a career-may be viewed, first, from their positions in a chronological sequence, and, second, from their positions relative to the proposed order of the cycle of a decision. This yields a perspective of exploration, first, in terms of the stage of development the decider is in, and, second, in terms of the exploratory or terminal decisional modes used by the decider at that stage. By examining the decisions of individuals, thus classified, over a period of years, it is then possible to address two of the unanswered questions about exploration in adulthood. This study attempted to examine (1) the extent to which exploration occurs and is
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followed by terminal decision modes and (2) the extent to which exploratory and terminal career decision behaviors are interdependent. METHOD Subjects The subjects of this study were 95 males who were part of the Career Pattern Study, a 21-year longitudinal study of career development (Jordaan & Heyde, 1979; Super, Crites, Hummel, Moser, Overstreet, & Warnath, 1957; Super et al., 1967; Super & Overstreet, 1960). Data used in this study were gathered in 1958, 1962, and 1973, when the subjects had reached the ages of 21, 25, and 36. The sample had an average IQ of 102.5 with a standard deviation of 10.3 as measured by the Otis Quick Scoring Test of Mental Ability, Gamma Form C. By age 36, they had an average of between 1 and 2 years of education beyond high school, and an average income of approximately $17,000. Between the ages of 18 and 36, the subjects had occupied a mean of seven full-time jobs or training positions. Their occupations were representatively distributed among all levels of Hamburger’s (1958) revision of Warner’s Occupation Scale. Instruments Data were gathered in this study from a variety of instruments used during the course of the Career Pattern Study (Jordaan & Heyde, 1979; Super et al, 1957; Super et al., 1967; Super & Overstreet, 1960). During each data collection subjects were asked to respond to a self-report work and training questionnaire. This questionnaire asks the subject a variety of questions about his past, current and anticipated job, education and training experiences, including (I) the onset and duration of the position, (2) the number of hours per week worked, (3) the nature of the position, and (4) the subject’s reasons for taking the position. Responses to these four questions were recorded for each of the subject’s positions over the course of the 18 years following high school. Only those pursuits which were full-time were used in this study. A full-time position was considered to be one in which the subject worked at least 30 hr per week for a period of at least 2 weeks. Full-time military service was included in this definition. In order to avoid duplication, the work and training history of each subject was checked against a chronologically listed time sheet. The validity of the self-reported work histories was established by a comparison of subject- and employer-reported work histories (Chatel, 1965). A median percentage of agreement of 88 was found between subject and employer reports, indicating that the positions, and the duration of those positions, reported by the subjects were reasonably accurate.
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Procedures
To establish a complete record of the decision modes in work and training choices, each subject’s responses to the selected questions at each data collection were recorded. This yielded a record of the series of full-time pursuits from age 18 to 36 and the reasons associated with each choice. The reasons for each choice were then judged to be of either an exploratory or a terminal nature. The criteria for assignment to each of these two groups correspond to those suggested in Gelatt’s (1962) conceptual model and to those measuring commitment and specificity of planning used in the Jordaan and Heyde (1979) analysis. In general, those reasons reported as tentative (e.g., “It was a way to hold off making a decision because I just wasn’t sure what I wanted”), investigative (e.g., “. . . see if I really liked that kind of work”), or based solely on financial necessity were assigned to the exploratory group; those choices which indicated permanence or certainty about the chosen activity (e.g., “It was a way to get started in a field I wanted to work in”) were assigned to the terminal group. These criteria were translated into a scoring manual (available from the author) which instructed judges to assign a given choice to the appropriate group on the basis of the subject’s response. To establish the reliability of such judgments, two judges were supplied with 20 randomly selected choices and were asked to assign each to the appropriate group using the scoring manual. This comparison resulted in complete agreement between the judges, and the remaining choices were equally distributed between the judges for assignment. Having thus categorized each decision in terms of decisional mode, it was then necessary to place it in the appropriate position relative to the subject’s chronological stage of development. By dividing the span of 18 to 35 years of age into stages of development according to Super’s (1963) formulation of life stages, a subject’s decisions could be assigned to the appropriate stage on the basis of his age at job entry. The stages of Exploration (15-24) and Establishment (25-44) were divided into the following substages on the basis of Super’s (1963) developmental tasks: Ages 18 through 21 formed the substage of Specification; ages 22 through 24 formed the substage of Implementation; ages 25 through 35 formed the substage of Stabilization. For convenience, these substages are hereafter referred to as stages of development. Thus, for example, any subject, whose decision to take a particular job at age 23 was judged “exploratory,” was credited with one incident of exploratory decision mode during the Implementation stage of development. In order to draw comparisons across subjects, decision modes, and stages of development, it was necessary to standardize the frequencies of decisions made by subjects at the three stages of development. To do so, a modal judgment was made for each subject at each stage of
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development, taking into consideration all of the decision modes displayed by the subject at any particular stage. A subject who displayed a greater number of terminal decision modes in a given stage of development was assigned to the terminal group for that stage; a subject who displayed a greater number of exploratory decision modes in a given stage was assigned to the exploratory group. Because modal judgments were made on varying frequencies, an average percentage of classification-consistent decisions was computed for each of the two possible classifications at each stage of development. The resulting percentages ranged from 80 to 95, indicating that a subject’s assignment to one of the two groups was based on a classification consistency of at least 80% of his decisions during that stage, while a maximum average of 20% of decisions were discrepant. These procedures yielded a record of the decision mode displayed by each subject at each stage of development. The resulting frequencies and corresponding proportions of subjects classified as exhibiting exploratory or terminal decision modes at each stage of development are as follows (proportions are indicated in parentheses): Spec@cation stage: Exploratory-76 (800); Terminal-19 (.200); Implementation stage: Exploratory-47 (.495); Terminal”8 (505); Stabilization stage: Exploratory35 (.368); Terminal-60 (.632). RESULTS In order to examine the extent to which exploration occurs and is followed by terminal decision modes, it was hypothesized that decisions made at earlier stages of development are more likely to be of an exploratory nature and decisions made at later stages are more likely to be of a terminal nature. In order to test this hypothesis, subjects were classified on the basis of their joint decision modes for each combination of two stages. This joint tabulation yielded frequencies and corresponding proportions of the following groups of subjects: those who maintained a terminal decision mode at both stages; those who maintained an exploratory mode at both stages; those who changed modes from exploratory to terminal; and those who changed from terminal to exploratory (see Table 1). If the hypothesis is true, then one would expect to observe a greater proportion of individuals changing from an exploratory mode to a terminal mode than of individuals changing in the opposite direction. In view of this expectation, therefore, a directional McNemar test for two dependent proportions (McNemar, 1969) was performed for each set of stages. The resulting Z statistic for each test, presented in Table 1, indicates that a significantly greater proportion of subjects changed from an exploratory to a terminal decision mode between the Specification and Implementation stages @ < .Ol), between the Implementation and Stabilization stages (p < .05), and between the Specification and Stabilization stages (p < .Ol).
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CAREER EXPLORATION TABLE 1 Results of Three McNemar Tests for Changes in Decision Mode between Developmental Stages (N = 95) Implementation
Specification stage Exploratory Terminal
stage
Terminal
Exploratory
32 (.34) 16 (.17)
44 (.46) 3 (.03) z = 4.90** Stabilization
Implementation Exploratory Terminal
stage
Terminal
Exploratory
27 (.28) 33 (.35)
20 (.21) 15 (.16)
stage Z = 1.85* Stabilization
Specification stage Exploratory Terminal
stage
Terminal
Exploratory
46 (.48) 14 (.15)
30 (.32) 5 (.05) z = 5.74**
’ Proportions are indicated in parentheses. * p < .05, one-tailed test. ** p < .Ol, one-tailed test.
To provide additional support to these findings, the hypothesis was tested from a second perspective. By determining the frequency of subjects whose developmental pattern showed exploratory decision modes followed by terminal decision modes, it was possible to compare the frequency of the expected developmental pattern with that of other observable patterns. Accordingly, subjects were categorized by the developmental pattern evidenced in the sequence of decision modes across the three stages. The frequencies in which the developmental patterns were displayed by these subjects are presented in Table 2. To compare the proportion of subjects displaying the expected pattern to those of each of the other possible patterns, four directional tests using normalapproximate 2 statistics were performed. In order to maintain a minimum .05 level of significance across all four tests, a level of .0125 was required of each individual test. The results in Table 2 indicate that of the four comparisons, three differences between patterns were significant at the .OOOl level and the fourth (Expected vs Constant-Exploratory) was significant at a JO05 level. The required level of significance 0, < .05) for
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SUSAN D. PHILLIPS
TABLE 2 Frequencies of Patterns of Decision Mode over Three Stages of Development (N = 95) Decision modes at each stage of development Stabilization
Frequency
Exploratory Terminal
Terminal Terminal
46
Terminal Terminal
Terminal Exploratory
Exploratory Exploratory
5
5.71*
Exploratory
Exploratory
Exploratory
19
3.39**
12
4.46*
13
4.31*
Specification
Implementation
Expected
Exploratory Exploratory
Reverse Constant-Exploratory
Pattern
Constant-Terminal
Terminal
Terminal
Terminal
Mixed
Exploratory Terminal
Terminal Exploratory
Exploratory Terminal
Z
* p < .OOOl, one-tailed test. ** p < .0005, one-tailed test.
the set of tests was not only reached but also surpassed (p < .0008). These results provide additional evidence to support the expectation that exploratory decision modes precede terminal modes. The second question addressed in this study was the extent to which exploratory and terminal career decision behaviors are interdependent. It was hypothesized, consistent with both developmental and decision theories, that such behaviors would not be independent. In order to test this hypothesis, the decision modes of subjects at adjacent stages of development were examined. If the decision modes at one stage of development are independent of those at adjacent stages, then the expected frequency of subjects displaying each pattern would be equal to the product of the estimated probabilities of each classification at each stage of development in the pattern, multiplied by the total number of subjects in the sample. The proportions of subjects classified as displaying each decision mode at each stage of development (see Procedures) provided the estimated probabilities of each classification at each stage. The expected frequencies of subjects displaying each of the various patterns of commitment under the condition of independence are presented in Table 3. In order to determine whether the observed distribution of subjects was significantly different from the expected distribution if the decision modes are independent at adjacent stages, a x2 test was performed. The results presented in Table 3 show that the observed distribution of subjects was significantly different (p < .05) from that expected under the condition of independence. The results support the
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CAREER EXPLORATION TABLE 3 Results of a x2 Test of the Distribution of Patterns of Decision Mode (N = 95) Pattern of decision mode Expected Reverse Constant-Exploratory Constant-Terminal Mixed Total
Observed frequency
Expected frequency”
46 5 19 12 13
48.03 6.99 13.84 6.06 20.07
95
95.00
NOW. x2 (4) = 10.87; p < .05; two-tailed test. ’ Expected frequencies were computed using the estimated probabilities of each decision mode at each stage of development in the pattern under the condition of independence.
hypothesis and suggest that decision modes at one stage of development are not independent of decision modes at adjacent stages. DISCUSSION This study attempted to examine career exploration in adulthood as seen through the individual decision-making behavior of 95 men. The first question addressed was the extent to which exploratory decision making occurs and is followed by terminal decision making. An analysis of the subjects’ decision modes at different stages of development showed that 80% of the subjects could be classified as exploring by age 21, 50% by age 25, and 37% by age 36. Furthermore, as predicted by the developmental approach to exploration, the proportions of subjects changing decision modes from exploratory to terminal between each pair of developmental stages was consistently greater than those of subjects changing in the opposite direction. Additionally, the proportion of subjects displaying the expected pattern of decision modes was found to be greater than those of subjects displaying each of the other possible patterns. The second question addressed was concerned with an assumption about the interdependence of behaviors among stages of development shared by both traditional career development and decision-making approaches to exploration. This assumption was supported by a comparison of the observed frequences of subjects displaying various patterns of decision modes and the frequencies expected if the decision modes were independent. By examining career exploration through the lens of decision-making behavior over time, two benefits are derived. First, the results of this study provide empirical documentation about the presence of exploratory activity in adulthood. Although the percentages of “explorers” decrease as the individuals age, the suggestion remains that exploration continues
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beyond the end of formal education. Furthermore, 19% of the subjects in this study had repeated exploration--after having made terminal decisions-by age 36. Considering that observation of these subjects ceased just prior to the expected period of midlife transition (Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson, & McKee, 1978), it is interesting to speculate about an increase in these percentages as the individual proceeds further into adulthood. The second benefit to be derived stems from the fact that career counselors typically find themselves concerned with the decision problems of their clients rather than the career development problems per se. An awareness of how decisions may be made differently at different stages of development would be of value in the counselor’s task of facilitating vocational decision making. That awareness on the part of the client, when combined with the information that his or her later decisions are likely to be contingent on the way a current decision is approached, might forestall premature closure and reduce decision errors. Although there is not yet sufficient evidence to favor one pattern of decision modes over another, there is, at least, some normative information available for the guidance of individuals who are addressing different developmental tasks. If the appropriateness of a decision mode may be inferred from its predominance in a given stage of development, then these results suggest the following guidelines: During the stage of development in which the task is to specify vocational preferences, exploratory decisions may be more appropriate than terminal ones; exploration may be expected for about half of the individuals for whom the task is to implement those preferences; although terminal decisions may be more apppropriate when the task is to stabilize within an occupation, exploratory decisions may be expected for more than one-third of the individuals at that developmental stage. The preceding discussion should be considered within the context of the limitations of the study. The first of these is the manner in which the 18 years following the end of formal education were divided. Although Super’s (1963) developmental tasks provide a theoretically based rationale for such a division, Peacock, Rush, and Milkovich (1980) have suggested that career stages are not necessarily age linked. Given sufficient rationale, the divisions used in future studies of this kind may be appropriately replaced with more individually defined career stages. In addition, by excluding part-time pursuits from consideration, this study may have overlooked potential sources of exploratory activity for many adults. Similar oversights may have occurred by compressing years of career decisions into three discrete stages. An additional limitation arises from the use of self-report instruments primarily designed for measurement of career-rather than decisionaldata. Additional longitudinal investigations, or analog designs in which
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sequences of decisions are observed, would profit from the construction of an instrument designed specifically to measure exploration in the decision-making process. In summary, this study represents an initial attempt to apply concepts of decision making to career development in adulthood. As such, it has provided documentation for the belief that exploratory behavior does occur in adulthood, although its incidence appears to decrease with age up to midcareer, and for the assumption that career decision strategies at various stages of development are interdependent. Further research and instrument development are needed to extend these findings into later adulthood and to investigate the consequences of adult exploration on career outcomes. REFERENCES Chatel, L. The effect of being in a longitudinal study of career development on certain aspects of early vocation behavior. (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1964). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1%5, 25, 4808. (University Microfilms No. 65 2267.) Gelatt, H. B. Decision making: A conceptual frame of reference for counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1962, 9, 240-245. Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S. W., Axehad, S., & Herma, J. L. Occuparional choice: An approach to a generul theory. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1951. Hamburger, M. Realism and consistency in early adolescent aspirations and expectations (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1958). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1958, 19, 1013-1014 (University Microfilms No. 58-2588.) Havighurst, R. J. Human development and education. New York: Longmans, Green, 1953. Jepsen, D. A., & Dilley, J. S. Vocational decision making models: A review and comparative analysis. Review of Educational Research, 1974, 44, 331-349. Jordaan, J. P. Exploratory behavior: The formulation of self and occupational concepts. In D. E. Super, R. Starishevsky, N. Matlin, & J. P. Jordaan, Career development: Self concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, Research Monograph No. 4, 1963. Jordaan, J. P., & Heyde, M. B. Vocational maturiiy during the high school years. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1979. Levinson, D. J., Darrow, C., Klein, E., Levinson, M., & McKee, B. The seasons of a man’s life. New York: Knopf, 1978. McNemar, Q. Psychological statistics. New York: Wiley, 1969. 4th ed. Myers, R. A. Exploration with the computer. The Counseling Psychologist, 1978, 7(3), 51-55. Peacock, J. C., Rush, A. C., & Milkovich, G. T. Career stages: A partial test of Levinson’s model of life/career stages. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1980, 16, 347-359. Schlossberg, N. K. The case for counseling adults. The Counseling Psychologist, 1976, 6(l), 33-36. Super, D. E. The psychology of careers. New York: Harper, 1957. Super, D. E. Vocational development in adolescents and early adulthood: Tasks and behaviors. In D. E. Super, R. Starishevsky, N. Matlin, & J. P. Jordaan, Career development: Self concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, Research Monograph No. 4, 1%3. Super, D. E. (Ed.) Measuring vocational maturity for counseling and evaluation. Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1974.
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Super, D. E., Crites, J. O., Hummel, R., Moser, H., Overstreet, P., & Warnath, P. Vocational development: A framework for research. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1957. Super, D. E., & Hall, D. T. Career development: Exploration and planning. Annual Review of Psychology,
1978, 29, 333-372.
Super, D. E., Kowalski, R. S., & Gotkin, E. H. Floundering and trial after high school. Cooperative Research Project No. 1393. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1967. Super, D. E., & Overstreet, P. L. The vocational maturity ofninth grade boys. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1960. Super, D. E., Starishevsky, R., Matlin, N., & Jordaan, J. P. Career deve/opment: Self concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, Research Monograph No. 4, 1963. Tiedeman, D. V. Decision and vocational development: A paradigm and its implications. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1961, 40, 15-21. Received: March 27, 1981.
Behavior 20, 129-140 (1982)
Career Exploration in Adulthood SUSAN D. PHILLIPS State
University
of New
York
at Albany
The study described was designed to examine career exploration in the adult years, as seen from the perspective of decision-making behavior. Using conceptual models provided by H. B. Gelatt (Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1962, 9, 240-245) and D. V. Tiedeman (Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1961, 40, 15-21), two research questions were posed: (1) To what extent does exploration occur prior to more terminal career behaviors? and (2) To what extent are exploratory and terminal career decision modes interdependent? These questions were addressed by examining the series of decisions made by 95 subjects over a period of 18 years. The results supported the expectation that decisions made at earlier stages of development are more likely to be of an exploratory nature and that decisions made at later stages are more likely to be of a terminal nature. In addition, support was found for the hypothesis that decision-making strategies at various stages of development are interdependent.
Career exploration has been widely recognized and endorsed as a necessary step in an individual’s career development. Presumed to occur primarily during adolescence and young adulthood (Super, 1963), the value of exploration is seen in the fruits of the effort: An individual who explores emerges from the experience with a clearer and more accurate assessment of him or herself (as an individual and in relation to the environment) and a realistic, justified basis for taking decisive action (Jordaan, 1963). Few would then argue that career-related decisions should be made without the benefit of prior exploration. Considering the value of exploration, a variety of interventions and opportunities are designed to enhance the exploratory activities of those individuals whose major developmental task is to formulate career preferences, decisions, and plans. Although the targets of these efforts are typically individuals at preimplementation stages of development, there This study is based in part on the author’s doctoral dissertation at Teachers College, Columbia University. The author wishes to acknowledge the contributions of her committee, Professors R. A. Myers, J. P. Jordaan, and R. F. Gold. Requests for reprints should be addressed to Susan D. Phillips, Education 220, State University of New York at Albany, 1400 Washington Avenue, Albany, NY 12222. 129 OOOl-8791/82/020129-12$02.00/O Copyright 8 1982 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
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SUSAN D. PHILLIPS
have been some suggestions that exploration occurs at all ages and stages (Myers, 1978; Schlossberg, 1976; Super & Hall, 1978; Super, Kowalski, & Gotkin, 1967). What with the growing recognition that adulthood is not necessarily the period of stability, certainty, and commitment commonly assumed (Myers, 1978; Schlossberg, 1976), exploration has come to be expected not only in adults who are changing career directions, but also in adults who are responding to the demands of progressing in the careers they have chosen and in which they may wish to remain. Despite this recognition, however, little has been offered empirically about exploration during the years following initial implementation of career choice. Questions such as, “To what extent does exploration occur?“, “How does exploration relate to other theoretically expected career behaviors?“, and “What effect does exploration in adulthood have on career outcomes?“, remain largely unanswered. In an attempt to address these questions, current conceptualizations of exploration in the career literature may be reviewed. Such a review reveals that exploration is addressed by two very different approaches. On one hand are the traditional career development theorists (e.g., Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad & Herma, 1951; Super, 1957) who take as their focus the entire spectrum of behaviors and processes displayed during the course of a life span. Exploration, in this approach, is portrayed as a primary mode of normal functioning during early stages of career development. Although the suggestion is made that exploration may occur later in life (Super & Hall, 1978), the stage-appropriate notions inherent in this approach include the use of exploratory activity primarily in preimplementation stages of development. Furthermore, in that exploration is considered a stage-appropriate behavior, the manner in which one functions during later stages is presumed to be contingent on the extent to which one has adequately explored in earlier stages (Havighurst, 1953; Super, 1974). In contrast, the second approach to exploration appears in the writings of those who focus on the molecular level of the decision as a vehicle through which to view vocational behaviors and development (see, for example, Jepsen & Dilley, 1974). From this point of view, any decision (be it to choose a job or buy a car) goes through an exploratory phase in which available alternatives are generated, elaborated, and “tried on for size.” Since such decisions occur at every stage of an individual’s development, this perspective would appear to suggest that exploration would be an inevitable and entirely appropriate behavior throughout all points in an individual’s career. Providing a link between the career development approach and the decision-making approach are two theorists who examine decisions within the context of a developing career. Tiedeman (1961) suggested that a decision could be partitioned into two periods with corresponding
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stages in each period. The first period, “anticipation,” is composed of stages of exploration, crystallization, choice, and specification. The following period, “implementation and adjustment,” is composed of stages of induction, transition, and maintenance. Tiedeman further suggested that this process of making a decision is merely a first-order version of an identical process through which a career evolves. This formulation, when applied to a developing career, parallels Super’s (1957) stages of development. A major difference, however, is that exploration would be observable not only at early stages of development, but also at the onset of each decisional cycle. Gelatt (1962) also posed a cyclical model of the decision-making process: For each decision, an individual considers alternatives, gathers information, evaluates the options, and arrives at a choice. That decision may be investigatory-in which case the cycle is repeated-or it may be terminal, resulting in an implemented choice. Although Gelatt’s model does not deal with career development per se, it is similar to that described by Tiedeman and is easily applied to the developmental framework. A decision that is investigatory is one that precipitates further exploration. It would reflect repeated activity in Tiedeman’s anticipatory period. A “terminal” decision would reflect movement into Tiedeman’s period of implementation and adjustment. In this model, a terminal decision does not necessarily indicate conclusiveness; rather it indicates sufficient commitment to and satisfaction with a particular alternative for decisive action to be taken. From the perspective of these integrative views of exploratory behavior, two conclusions may be drawn: First, in contrast to traditional career development theory, exploration can and should occur at all stages of development; and second, similar to the traditional view, subsequent career behaviors (e.g., implementation) are, by definition, contingent on passage through an exploratory phase of decision making. In an attempt to reconcile these contrasting views and to provide some empirical validation of the presence of exploration in adulthood, the current study was designed. By taking the classifications proposed by Gelatt (1962) in combination with the developmental sequence proposed by Tiedeman (1961), decisions-or positions chosen during the course of a career-may be viewed, first, from their positions in a chronological sequence, and, second, from their positions relative to the proposed order of the cycle of a decision. This yields a perspective of exploration, first, in terms of the stage of development the decider is in, and, second, in terms of the exploratory or terminal decisional modes used by the decider at that stage. By examining the decisions of individuals, thus classified, over a period of years, it is then possible to address two of the unanswered questions about exploration in adulthood. This study attempted to examine (1) the extent to which exploration occurs and is
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followed by terminal decision modes and (2) the extent to which exploratory and terminal career decision behaviors are interdependent. METHOD Subjects The subjects of this study were 95 males who were part of the Career Pattern Study, a 21-year longitudinal study of career development (Jordaan & Heyde, 1979; Super, Crites, Hummel, Moser, Overstreet, & Warnath, 1957; Super et al., 1967; Super & Overstreet, 1960). Data used in this study were gathered in 1958, 1962, and 1973, when the subjects had reached the ages of 21, 25, and 36. The sample had an average IQ of 102.5 with a standard deviation of 10.3 as measured by the Otis Quick Scoring Test of Mental Ability, Gamma Form C. By age 36, they had an average of between 1 and 2 years of education beyond high school, and an average income of approximately $17,000. Between the ages of 18 and 36, the subjects had occupied a mean of seven full-time jobs or training positions. Their occupations were representatively distributed among all levels of Hamburger’s (1958) revision of Warner’s Occupation Scale. Instruments Data were gathered in this study from a variety of instruments used during the course of the Career Pattern Study (Jordaan & Heyde, 1979; Super et al, 1957; Super et al., 1967; Super & Overstreet, 1960). During each data collection subjects were asked to respond to a self-report work and training questionnaire. This questionnaire asks the subject a variety of questions about his past, current and anticipated job, education and training experiences, including (I) the onset and duration of the position, (2) the number of hours per week worked, (3) the nature of the position, and (4) the subject’s reasons for taking the position. Responses to these four questions were recorded for each of the subject’s positions over the course of the 18 years following high school. Only those pursuits which were full-time were used in this study. A full-time position was considered to be one in which the subject worked at least 30 hr per week for a period of at least 2 weeks. Full-time military service was included in this definition. In order to avoid duplication, the work and training history of each subject was checked against a chronologically listed time sheet. The validity of the self-reported work histories was established by a comparison of subject- and employer-reported work histories (Chatel, 1965). A median percentage of agreement of 88 was found between subject and employer reports, indicating that the positions, and the duration of those positions, reported by the subjects were reasonably accurate.
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Procedures
To establish a complete record of the decision modes in work and training choices, each subject’s responses to the selected questions at each data collection were recorded. This yielded a record of the series of full-time pursuits from age 18 to 36 and the reasons associated with each choice. The reasons for each choice were then judged to be of either an exploratory or a terminal nature. The criteria for assignment to each of these two groups correspond to those suggested in Gelatt’s (1962) conceptual model and to those measuring commitment and specificity of planning used in the Jordaan and Heyde (1979) analysis. In general, those reasons reported as tentative (e.g., “It was a way to hold off making a decision because I just wasn’t sure what I wanted”), investigative (e.g., “. . . see if I really liked that kind of work”), or based solely on financial necessity were assigned to the exploratory group; those choices which indicated permanence or certainty about the chosen activity (e.g., “It was a way to get started in a field I wanted to work in”) were assigned to the terminal group. These criteria were translated into a scoring manual (available from the author) which instructed judges to assign a given choice to the appropriate group on the basis of the subject’s response. To establish the reliability of such judgments, two judges were supplied with 20 randomly selected choices and were asked to assign each to the appropriate group using the scoring manual. This comparison resulted in complete agreement between the judges, and the remaining choices were equally distributed between the judges for assignment. Having thus categorized each decision in terms of decisional mode, it was then necessary to place it in the appropriate position relative to the subject’s chronological stage of development. By dividing the span of 18 to 35 years of age into stages of development according to Super’s (1963) formulation of life stages, a subject’s decisions could be assigned to the appropriate stage on the basis of his age at job entry. The stages of Exploration (15-24) and Establishment (25-44) were divided into the following substages on the basis of Super’s (1963) developmental tasks: Ages 18 through 21 formed the substage of Specification; ages 22 through 24 formed the substage of Implementation; ages 25 through 35 formed the substage of Stabilization. For convenience, these substages are hereafter referred to as stages of development. Thus, for example, any subject, whose decision to take a particular job at age 23 was judged “exploratory,” was credited with one incident of exploratory decision mode during the Implementation stage of development. In order to draw comparisons across subjects, decision modes, and stages of development, it was necessary to standardize the frequencies of decisions made by subjects at the three stages of development. To do so, a modal judgment was made for each subject at each stage of
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development, taking into consideration all of the decision modes displayed by the subject at any particular stage. A subject who displayed a greater number of terminal decision modes in a given stage of development was assigned to the terminal group for that stage; a subject who displayed a greater number of exploratory decision modes in a given stage was assigned to the exploratory group. Because modal judgments were made on varying frequencies, an average percentage of classification-consistent decisions was computed for each of the two possible classifications at each stage of development. The resulting percentages ranged from 80 to 95, indicating that a subject’s assignment to one of the two groups was based on a classification consistency of at least 80% of his decisions during that stage, while a maximum average of 20% of decisions were discrepant. These procedures yielded a record of the decision mode displayed by each subject at each stage of development. The resulting frequencies and corresponding proportions of subjects classified as exhibiting exploratory or terminal decision modes at each stage of development are as follows (proportions are indicated in parentheses): Spec@cation stage: Exploratory-76 (800); Terminal-19 (.200); Implementation stage: Exploratory-47 (.495); Terminal”8 (505); Stabilization stage: Exploratory35 (.368); Terminal-60 (.632). RESULTS In order to examine the extent to which exploration occurs and is followed by terminal decision modes, it was hypothesized that decisions made at earlier stages of development are more likely to be of an exploratory nature and decisions made at later stages are more likely to be of a terminal nature. In order to test this hypothesis, subjects were classified on the basis of their joint decision modes for each combination of two stages. This joint tabulation yielded frequencies and corresponding proportions of the following groups of subjects: those who maintained a terminal decision mode at both stages; those who maintained an exploratory mode at both stages; those who changed modes from exploratory to terminal; and those who changed from terminal to exploratory (see Table 1). If the hypothesis is true, then one would expect to observe a greater proportion of individuals changing from an exploratory mode to a terminal mode than of individuals changing in the opposite direction. In view of this expectation, therefore, a directional McNemar test for two dependent proportions (McNemar, 1969) was performed for each set of stages. The resulting Z statistic for each test, presented in Table 1, indicates that a significantly greater proportion of subjects changed from an exploratory to a terminal decision mode between the Specification and Implementation stages @ < .Ol), between the Implementation and Stabilization stages (p < .05), and between the Specification and Stabilization stages (p < .Ol).
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CAREER EXPLORATION TABLE 1 Results of Three McNemar Tests for Changes in Decision Mode between Developmental Stages (N = 95) Implementation
Specification stage Exploratory Terminal
stage
Terminal
Exploratory
32 (.34) 16 (.17)
44 (.46) 3 (.03) z = 4.90** Stabilization
Implementation Exploratory Terminal
stage
Terminal
Exploratory
27 (.28) 33 (.35)
20 (.21) 15 (.16)
stage Z = 1.85* Stabilization
Specification stage Exploratory Terminal
stage
Terminal
Exploratory
46 (.48) 14 (.15)
30 (.32) 5 (.05) z = 5.74**
’ Proportions are indicated in parentheses. * p < .05, one-tailed test. ** p < .Ol, one-tailed test.
To provide additional support to these findings, the hypothesis was tested from a second perspective. By determining the frequency of subjects whose developmental pattern showed exploratory decision modes followed by terminal decision modes, it was possible to compare the frequency of the expected developmental pattern with that of other observable patterns. Accordingly, subjects were categorized by the developmental pattern evidenced in the sequence of decision modes across the three stages. The frequencies in which the developmental patterns were displayed by these subjects are presented in Table 2. To compare the proportion of subjects displaying the expected pattern to those of each of the other possible patterns, four directional tests using normalapproximate 2 statistics were performed. In order to maintain a minimum .05 level of significance across all four tests, a level of .0125 was required of each individual test. The results in Table 2 indicate that of the four comparisons, three differences between patterns were significant at the .OOOl level and the fourth (Expected vs Constant-Exploratory) was significant at a JO05 level. The required level of significance 0, < .05) for
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TABLE 2 Frequencies of Patterns of Decision Mode over Three Stages of Development (N = 95) Decision modes at each stage of development Stabilization
Frequency
Exploratory Terminal
Terminal Terminal
46
Terminal Terminal
Terminal Exploratory
Exploratory Exploratory
5
5.71*
Exploratory
Exploratory
Exploratory
19
3.39**
12
4.46*
13
4.31*
Specification
Implementation
Expected
Exploratory Exploratory
Reverse Constant-Exploratory
Pattern
Constant-Terminal
Terminal
Terminal
Terminal
Mixed
Exploratory Terminal
Terminal Exploratory
Exploratory Terminal
Z
* p < .OOOl, one-tailed test. ** p < .0005, one-tailed test.
the set of tests was not only reached but also surpassed (p < .0008). These results provide additional evidence to support the expectation that exploratory decision modes precede terminal modes. The second question addressed in this study was the extent to which exploratory and terminal career decision behaviors are interdependent. It was hypothesized, consistent with both developmental and decision theories, that such behaviors would not be independent. In order to test this hypothesis, the decision modes of subjects at adjacent stages of development were examined. If the decision modes at one stage of development are independent of those at adjacent stages, then the expected frequency of subjects displaying each pattern would be equal to the product of the estimated probabilities of each classification at each stage of development in the pattern, multiplied by the total number of subjects in the sample. The proportions of subjects classified as displaying each decision mode at each stage of development (see Procedures) provided the estimated probabilities of each classification at each stage. The expected frequencies of subjects displaying each of the various patterns of commitment under the condition of independence are presented in Table 3. In order to determine whether the observed distribution of subjects was significantly different from the expected distribution if the decision modes are independent at adjacent stages, a x2 test was performed. The results presented in Table 3 show that the observed distribution of subjects was significantly different (p < .05) from that expected under the condition of independence. The results support the
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CAREER EXPLORATION TABLE 3 Results of a x2 Test of the Distribution of Patterns of Decision Mode (N = 95) Pattern of decision mode Expected Reverse Constant-Exploratory Constant-Terminal Mixed Total
Observed frequency
Expected frequency”
46 5 19 12 13
48.03 6.99 13.84 6.06 20.07
95
95.00
NOW. x2 (4) = 10.87; p < .05; two-tailed test. ’ Expected frequencies were computed using the estimated probabilities of each decision mode at each stage of development in the pattern under the condition of independence.
hypothesis and suggest that decision modes at one stage of development are not independent of decision modes at adjacent stages. DISCUSSION This study attempted to examine career exploration in adulthood as seen through the individual decision-making behavior of 95 men. The first question addressed was the extent to which exploratory decision making occurs and is followed by terminal decision making. An analysis of the subjects’ decision modes at different stages of development showed that 80% of the subjects could be classified as exploring by age 21, 50% by age 25, and 37% by age 36. Furthermore, as predicted by the developmental approach to exploration, the proportions of subjects changing decision modes from exploratory to terminal between each pair of developmental stages was consistently greater than those of subjects changing in the opposite direction. Additionally, the proportion of subjects displaying the expected pattern of decision modes was found to be greater than those of subjects displaying each of the other possible patterns. The second question addressed was concerned with an assumption about the interdependence of behaviors among stages of development shared by both traditional career development and decision-making approaches to exploration. This assumption was supported by a comparison of the observed frequences of subjects displaying various patterns of decision modes and the frequencies expected if the decision modes were independent. By examining career exploration through the lens of decision-making behavior over time, two benefits are derived. First, the results of this study provide empirical documentation about the presence of exploratory activity in adulthood. Although the percentages of “explorers” decrease as the individuals age, the suggestion remains that exploration continues
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beyond the end of formal education. Furthermore, 19% of the subjects in this study had repeated exploration--after having made terminal decisions-by age 36. Considering that observation of these subjects ceased just prior to the expected period of midlife transition (Levinson, Darrow, Klein, Levinson, & McKee, 1978), it is interesting to speculate about an increase in these percentages as the individual proceeds further into adulthood. The second benefit to be derived stems from the fact that career counselors typically find themselves concerned with the decision problems of their clients rather than the career development problems per se. An awareness of how decisions may be made differently at different stages of development would be of value in the counselor’s task of facilitating vocational decision making. That awareness on the part of the client, when combined with the information that his or her later decisions are likely to be contingent on the way a current decision is approached, might forestall premature closure and reduce decision errors. Although there is not yet sufficient evidence to favor one pattern of decision modes over another, there is, at least, some normative information available for the guidance of individuals who are addressing different developmental tasks. If the appropriateness of a decision mode may be inferred from its predominance in a given stage of development, then these results suggest the following guidelines: During the stage of development in which the task is to specify vocational preferences, exploratory decisions may be more appropriate than terminal ones; exploration may be expected for about half of the individuals for whom the task is to implement those preferences; although terminal decisions may be more apppropriate when the task is to stabilize within an occupation, exploratory decisions may be expected for more than one-third of the individuals at that developmental stage. The preceding discussion should be considered within the context of the limitations of the study. The first of these is the manner in which the 18 years following the end of formal education were divided. Although Super’s (1963) developmental tasks provide a theoretically based rationale for such a division, Peacock, Rush, and Milkovich (1980) have suggested that career stages are not necessarily age linked. Given sufficient rationale, the divisions used in future studies of this kind may be appropriately replaced with more individually defined career stages. In addition, by excluding part-time pursuits from consideration, this study may have overlooked potential sources of exploratory activity for many adults. Similar oversights may have occurred by compressing years of career decisions into three discrete stages. An additional limitation arises from the use of self-report instruments primarily designed for measurement of career-rather than decisionaldata. Additional longitudinal investigations, or analog designs in which
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sequences of decisions are observed, would profit from the construction of an instrument designed specifically to measure exploration in the decision-making process. In summary, this study represents an initial attempt to apply concepts of decision making to career development in adulthood. As such, it has provided documentation for the belief that exploratory behavior does occur in adulthood, although its incidence appears to decrease with age up to midcareer, and for the assumption that career decision strategies at various stages of development are interdependent. Further research and instrument development are needed to extend these findings into later adulthood and to investigate the consequences of adult exploration on career outcomes. REFERENCES Chatel, L. The effect of being in a longitudinal study of career development on certain aspects of early vocation behavior. (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1964). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1%5, 25, 4808. (University Microfilms No. 65 2267.) Gelatt, H. B. Decision making: A conceptual frame of reference for counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1962, 9, 240-245. Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S. W., Axehad, S., & Herma, J. L. Occuparional choice: An approach to a generul theory. New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 1951. Hamburger, M. Realism and consistency in early adolescent aspirations and expectations (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University, 1958). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1958, 19, 1013-1014 (University Microfilms No. 58-2588.) Havighurst, R. J. Human development and education. New York: Longmans, Green, 1953. Jepsen, D. A., & Dilley, J. S. Vocational decision making models: A review and comparative analysis. Review of Educational Research, 1974, 44, 331-349. Jordaan, J. P. Exploratory behavior: The formulation of self and occupational concepts. In D. E. Super, R. Starishevsky, N. Matlin, & J. P. Jordaan, Career development: Self concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, Research Monograph No. 4, 1963. Jordaan, J. P., & Heyde, M. B. Vocational maturiiy during the high school years. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1979. Levinson, D. J., Darrow, C., Klein, E., Levinson, M., & McKee, B. The seasons of a man’s life. New York: Knopf, 1978. McNemar, Q. Psychological statistics. New York: Wiley, 1969. 4th ed. Myers, R. A. Exploration with the computer. The Counseling Psychologist, 1978, 7(3), 51-55. Peacock, J. C., Rush, A. C., & Milkovich, G. T. Career stages: A partial test of Levinson’s model of life/career stages. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1980, 16, 347-359. Schlossberg, N. K. The case for counseling adults. The Counseling Psychologist, 1976, 6(l), 33-36. Super, D. E. The psychology of careers. New York: Harper, 1957. Super, D. E. Vocational development in adolescents and early adulthood: Tasks and behaviors. In D. E. Super, R. Starishevsky, N. Matlin, & J. P. Jordaan, Career development: Self concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, Research Monograph No. 4, 1%3. Super, D. E. (Ed.) Measuring vocational maturity for counseling and evaluation. Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1974.
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Super, D. E., Crites, J. O., Hummel, R., Moser, H., Overstreet, P., & Warnath, P. Vocational development: A framework for research. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1957. Super, D. E., & Hall, D. T. Career development: Exploration and planning. Annual Review of Psychology,
1978, 29, 333-372.
Super, D. E., Kowalski, R. S., & Gotkin, E. H. Floundering and trial after high school. Cooperative Research Project No. 1393. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1967. Super, D. E., & Overstreet, P. L. The vocational maturity ofninth grade boys. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 1960. Super, D. E., Starishevsky, R., Matlin, N., & Jordaan, J. P. Career deve/opment: Self concept theory. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, Research Monograph No. 4, 1963. Tiedeman, D. V. Decision and vocational development: A paradigm and its implications. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1961, 40, 15-21. Received: March 27, 1981.