Individual and contextual factors in career exploration

Journal of Vocational Behavior 33, 203-216 (1988)

Individual and Contextual Factors in Career Exploration DAVID

L.

BLUSTEIN AND SUSAN

D.

PHILLIPS

State University of New York at Albany

Drawing from theoretical propositions about the nature of career exploration and career decision making, this study sought to identify individual and contextual factors that might contribute to exploratory activity in late adolescence. Specifically, differences in vocational decision-making style and contextual anxiety were proposed to account for variability in exploration of the self and the environment. Measures of vocational decision-making style, contextual anxiety, and exploratory activity were administered to 148 undergraduates (mean age = 18.52), and a canonical analysis was employed to examine the relationships between the individual and contextual factors, and exploratory activity. One significant canonical root was extracted, which accounted for 27% of the variance between canonical composites. This root suggested that individuals who rely upon thinking-oriented approaches to decisions and who experience stress with regard to the specific tasks of exploration are likely to engage in exploration of the environment, and to a somewhat lesser extent, the self. The results were related to theory, research, and practice on the role of individual and contextual factors in career exploration. 0 1988 Academic

Press. Inc.

That individuals should engage in exploratory behavior is a widely endorsed prescription among career development theorists and practitioners. Those who explore are thought to acquire the information about themselves and about the world of work that is necessary to make wise decisions (Jordaan, 1%3). While virtually all writers in the area of career development have advocated exploration and some have documented its advantages,few have offered evidenceabout why someindividuals explore more than others. Our investigation was directed toward providing such evidence. In this effort, we have drawn from some theoretical propositions about the relevant sources of variability that have been advanced by those who have discussed the nature of exploratory behavior (Jordaan, 1963;Stumpf, Colarelli, & Hartman, 1983).In addition, given the evident The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Kathleen Brennock, Luanna E. Devenis, Barbara A. Kidney, Elizabeth Lewis, and David Weller in collecting and scoring the data. Requests for reprints should be addressed to David L. Blustein, Department of Counseling Psychology, ED-220, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12222. 203 OOOl-8791188 $3.00 Copybht Q 1988 by Academic Press, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any fom reserved.

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consequences of exploration to decision making and the events that follow, we also sought the perspective of the decision-making literature to provide additional suggestions about those factors that would account for variability in career exploration. Career exploration has been defined as that set of activities that is undertaken in order to acquire information that will assist in the choice of, preparation for, entry into, adjustment in, and progress in an occupation (Jordaan, 1963). Such activities might vary across such dimensions as intentionality, source, method, time perspective, quantity, and clarity of focus (Jordaan, 1963; Stumpf et al., 1983). While it is recognized that exploration occurs at all ages and stages of development, it is considered to be most prominent during the late adolescence/early adulthood period (Super, 1957, 1980) as the first significant life decisions are approached (Grotevant & Cooper, 1988). In the context of decision making, exploration also has been described as a necessary precursor to crystallization, choice, and implementation (Tiedeman, l%l), as that which occurs after the need to decide is apparent and before a commitment can be made (Harren, 1979), and as the central activity required to produce a satisfactory decision (Gelatt, 1%2). However, not all individuals explore to the same degree. Further, empirical evidence suggeststhat those who proceed unequipped by the benefits of exploration are less likely to engage in effective career decision-making and job implementation behaviors (Grotevant, Cooper, & Kramer, 1986; Phillips & Strohmer, 1983; Stumpf, Austin, & Hartman, 1984; Taylor, 1985), and are less likely to incur positive decisional and developmental outcomes (Greenhaus & Sklarew, 1981; Phillips, 1982). Given the importance of exploration to decision making, it seems logical that those factors that have been identified as influential in facilitating the decision-making process would also be influential in facilitating exploratory behavior. In the review that follows, such factors are noted, and the likely role of these factors in promoting or inhibiting exploration is detailed. Taking a general view, Jepsen and Dilley (1974) defined the basic ingredients that are common to many existing models of decision making. These included assumptions about the presence of a decision maker, a decision situation, and relevant information. While the elements of the process that follow these basic ingredients have been differentially emphasized and detailed (cf. Jepsen & Dilley, 1974; Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1984), Harren (1979) suggested that variability in these basic ingredients plays an important role in decision making. More specifically, he argued that individual differences in the characteristics of the decision maker and differences in the context of the decision significantly influence both the process and outcome of a given decision. Following Harren’s (1979) delineation of the importance of individual and contextual factors in

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decision making, attention can be directed toward identifying the specific role of such factors, as described below. Of the individual difference variables that have been examined, the career decision-making style of the decider has emerged as a significant element in facilitating the decision-making process. Decision-making style refers to the manner in which the individual approaches, responds to, and behaves in a decision-making situation (Arroba, 1977). Several taxonomies of decision-making style have been offered (e.g., Arroba, 1977; Dinklage, 1968; Harren, 1979; Johnson, 1978; Krumboltz, 1979; Walsh, 1987). While the number and characteristics of decision-making styles vary for each taxonomy, two common dimensions of individual stylistic differences are evident across taxonomies (Gordon, Coscarelli, & Sears, 1986; Phillips & Pazienza, 1988). The first of these is reflected in the extent to which the individual approaches decisions in a thinking-oriented, rational, and deliberate manner, as opposed to a feeling-oriented, emotional, and impulsive manner. The second dimension is reflected in the extent to which the decider maintains an internally derived, active, and involved posture toward the decision-making task, versus a passive, dependent posture (cf. Harren, 1979; Phillips & Pazienza, 1988; Walsh, 1987). Individual differences in both stylistic dimensions have been implicated in adaptive decision making, such that the more thinking-oriented and internally derived the decider, the higher quality the decisional process and outcome (Blustein, 1987; Harren, 1979; Harren, Kass, Tinsley, & Moreland, 1978; Jepsen, 1974; Lunneborg, 1978; Osipow & Reed, 1985; Phillips, Pazienza, & Walsh, 1984). Given the definition of decision-making style (that which characterizes an individual’s approach to and behavior in a decision-making situation), one would expect that stylistic differences would be evident in that aspect of the decision-making process that entails the gathering of information. Such an expectation is consistent with theoretical articulations of exploratory behavior as being facilitated, impeded, or inhibited by a variety of factors, such as the objectivity and independence of the individual (Jordaan, 1%3). Further, some of Jordaan’s specific propositions about the vantage points from which to view exploratory behavior (for example, as systematic versus random, as self-initiated versus other-initiated) are conceptually analogous to the more recent articulations of decision-making styles. Taking together Jordaan’s analysis of exploratory behavior and the definition and characteristic dimensions of decision-making style, it seems likely, therefore, that the more thinking-oriented and internally derived the individual’s style, the more he or she would actively engage in a systematic search for information about self and environment, and, thus, would exhibit a greater quantity of exploratory activity. From the perspective of the context of the decision, several theories of decision making have suggested relevant situational influences that

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facilitate or impede various (e.g., Harren, 1979; Janis & Mann, 1977; Krumboltz, Mitchell, & Jones, 1976). A number of contextual influences have been documented, including time constraints, limited access to available alternatives, and the impact of significant others (cf. Hat-r-en, 1979; Krumboltz et al., 1976; Phillips, Strohmer, Berthaume, & O’Leary, 1983). One prominent situational factor that has emerged in the literature is contextual, or state, anxiety. Although anxiety can also be dispositional (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) and this “trait” anxiety is a possible individual factor affecting career decision making (Fuqua, Seaworth, & Newman, 1987), it is the anxiety that is produced from stress associated with a given task or activity that is thought to play a substantial role in the context in which various career decision-making behaviors occur (Harren, 1979; Stumpf et al., 1983). While there is little direct support for this proposition, Osipow, Camey, and Barak’s (1976)analysis of the dimensions of vocational indecision clearly suggested a “choice anxiety” factor. Further, Mendonca and Seiss (1976) found that decisional gains (including those relevant to exploration) were most evident among those individuals receiving interventions that included both an anxiety management component and a problem-solving training component. Viewing these findings from the perspective of the decision-making process, one might suspect that the individual who experiences contextual anxiety regarding the decisionmaking process would exhibit deficits in some of the behaviors thought to be necessary to effective decision making. Considering exploration to be a significant element in decision making, the role of contextual anxiety in facilitating or inhibiting exploration merits closer examination. Such an examination reveals theoretical propositions that exploratory behavior may be influenced by the necessity to function under conditions of urgency and interpersonal and societal demands, and to tolerate tension and uncertainty (Jordaan, 1963). Such conditions could be experienced as stressful, and thus result in contextual anxiety. Further, Stumpf et al. (1983) suggested that contextual anxiety might be expressed as stress associated with the decision-making process, in general, and as stress associated with the task of exploration, specifically. Given these suggestions, we would therefore expect that contextual anxiety, or the stress that is associated with the general task of decision making and the more specific activities of exploration, would be likely to inhibit exploratory behavior. The present investigation was designed to address the question of why some individuals explore more than others. Based on our review of literature relating to career exploration and to the decision-making process of which such exploration is part, we have suggested that both individual and contextual factors contribute to the extent of an individual’s exploration. Differences in decision-making style and contextual anxiety were identified

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as relevant individual and contextual factors. More specifically, we expected (a) that the more thinking-oriented and internally derived the individual’s decision-making style, the more exploration he or she would exhibit, and (b) that the more contextual anxiety experienced by the individual, the less he or she would be likely to explore. METHOD Subjects The sample for this study consisted of 148 undergraduates at a large northeastern state university. The subjects were obtained from a pool of students in an introductory psychology course; students volunteered for participation in order to receive credit toward their research requirement. The mean age of the subjects was 18.52 (SD = 1.31) and consisted of 72% freshmen, 23% sophomores, 3% juniors, and 2% seniors. Procedures and Instruments Measures of vocational decision-making styles, contextual anxiety, exploratory activity, and a demographic information form (requesting age and gender) were administered in randomized order to all subjects. Measurement of vocational decision-making style. The Vocational Decision Style Indicator (VDSI; Walsh, 1986) was used to assess individual variations in vocational decision-making style. In contrast to other measures of decision-making style (e.g., Harren, 1984; Johnson, 1978), the VDSI was constructed based on an explicit integration of decision-making theory and research on individual variation in each aspect of the decision-making process (e.g., Arroba, 1977; Harren, 1979; Janis & Mann, 1977; Tiedeman, 1961), and a coherent body of psychological theory regarding the characteristic ways in which individuals relate to others and the environment (i.e., Jung, 1923). This theoretical synthesis culminated in a descriptive taxonomy of two major dimensions of individual variation in decisionmaking style. The first dimension revolves around the thinking-feeling pole, while the second dimension pertains to the extent to which an individual relies upon an internal, active posture as opposed to an external, passive posture in decision making (Walsh, 1987). In operationalizing the first dimension, Walsh (1986) developed the Thinking-Feeling (TF) scale, which assessesthe degree to which individuals rely upon a systematic or rational approach as opposed to an intuitive or feeling approach in career decision making. The second dimension, entitled the Introversion-Extroversion (IE) scale, assessesthe degree to which individuals are oriented toward an internally derived approach versus an externally derived, dependent approach to career decision making. The initial item pool for these scales was developed directly from theory and research, and then assessed by practicing career counselors. Further modifications in the item pool, which were suggested by

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empirical analyses, yielded two relatively orthogonal scales. Subsequent studies revealed that scores on the VDSI were related to Harren’s (1984) measure of decision-making style, with correlation coefficients ranging from 59 to .72 between the relevant scales. In comparison to the conceptually similar scales on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers, 1985), the VDSI attained correlation coefficients ranging from .35 to .36. In addition, other studies by Walsh indicated that scores on the VDSI were generally associated with predicted behavioral outcomes in career decision-making simulation tasks. Finally, the VDSI has demonstrated discriminant validity with social desirability, intelligence, race, and gender (Walsh, 1986). In this study, a 40-item version of the VDSI was used which consisted of 20 items assessing each of the two dimensions. High scores on the IE and TF scales reflect an endorsement of the extroversion and feeling poles, respectively. Estimates of the reliability for this version of the VDSI suggest that the scales are internally consistent (IE: r = .85; TF: r = .77) and stable across a 2-week interval (IE: r = .85; TF: r = .89) (D. J. Walsh, personal communication, March 28, 1986). Measurement of contextual anxiety. Two dimensions of stress were used to measure contextual anxiety: stress in relation to career decision making and stress in relation to environmental exploration. We used the exploratory stress (ES) and decisional stress (DS) scales from the Career Exploration Survey (CES; Stumpf et al., 1983). On these scales, the subject is asked to report, on a 7-point scale, the relative degree of stress associated with various exploratory activities (ES) and decisions (DS). Evidence for the content and construct validity of these two stress scales is based on the relationships between the item content and career development theory, a factor structure that is consistent with the two proposed dimensions, and the empirical relationships between the two stress scales and conceptually related aspects of career exploration and decision making (Stumpf et al., 1983). Because the CES was developed primarily for individuals who are in transition from college to other educational and vocational endeavors, some minor modifications were made to the DS and ES scales to enhance their utility and validity for a somewhat younger population. Specifically, these revised scales reflect some minor changes in wording and the inclusion of one additional item (regarding exploring or deciding on an academic major) to each of the two scales. These revisions resulted in a 4-item ES scale and a 5-item DS scale. The internal consistency coefficients of the ES and DS scales that were used in this study were .72 and .86, respectively, which are consistent with the coefficients reported for the original scales (Stumpf et al., 1983). Measurement of exploratory activity. We measured both self and environmental exploratory activities, a strategy consistent with research

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and theory in career development that has indicated that a comprehensive definition of career exploration would need to incorporate self exploration and exploration of the external educational and vocational environment (Jepsen, 1984; Jordaan, 1963; Stumpf et al., 1983). Specifically, the self exploration (SE) and environmental exploration (EE) scales from the CES (Stumpf et al., 1983)were employed to provide an index of exploratory activity. On these scales, subjects are asked to report, on a 5-point Likert scale, the extent to which they have engaged in various self and environmental exploratory behaviors. Evidence for the content and construct validity of the SE and EE scales is based on the relationships between item content and career exploration theory (Greenhaus & Sklarew, 1981; Stumpf & Colarelli, 1980), a factor structure that is consistent with theoretical predictions (Stumpf et al., 1983), and findings that have related these measures of exploratory activity to predicted outcomes, such as job interview behavior (e.g., Stumpf et al., 1984). As in the case of the stress scales, minor modifications were made to the SE scale to adapt the instrument to a late adolescent population. Specifically, four additional items, which were derived directly from theory (Jordaan, 1963; Super, 1957), were added to the SE scale. These new items were designed to provide a more complete assessment of the range of self exploratory activities (e.g., thinking of oneself in various career roles) that characterizes the career development of adolescents. Thus, exploratory behavior was assessed using the original 6-item EE scale and the expanded 9-item SE scale. The internal consistency coefficients for the SE and EE scales that were used in this study were .81 and .86, respectively, which are consistent with the coefficients reported for the original scales (Stumpf et al., 1983). In a pilot study with a sample (N = 37) drawn from the same population, the SE and EE scales were found to have test-retest reliability coefficients (across a 2-week time interval) of .83 and .85, respectively. RESULTS In view of potential relationships between gender and age, and an individual’s scores on the various measures used in the present research, we conducted preliminary analyses to determine whether there were significant age- and gender-related differences in responses. (To control for Type I error, the .05 a level was held across all of these analyses.) First, we conducted simultaneous c tests (Miller, 1966) to evaluate gender differences on responses on the VDSI and relevant CES scales. None of the resulting t values achieved the level of significance required by this analysis, which allowed us to rule out the potential confound of gender in this investigation. Second, Pearson correlation coefficients were computed between each of the variables and age. However, age was

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TABLE 1 Means, Standard Deviations, and Intercorrelations for Age, Vocational Decision-Making Style, Stress, and Exploratory Activity Scale

Age VDSI: Thinking-Feeling (TF) VDSI: Introversion-Extroversion (IE) Exploratory Stress (ES) Decisional Stress (DS) Environmental Exploration (EE) Self Exploration (SE)

Age

TF -.I3

IE

ES DS

EE

SE

h4

SD

-.05 .22 .13 .25 .23 18.52 1.31 .0.5 .05 .I1 -.27 -.26 55.79 8.77 .OO .25 -.09 .Ol 56.54 8.38 .46 .34 .22 14.31 4.99 .04 .09 21.05 6.90 .41 13.37 5.53 28.19 6.70

Note. High scores on the IE and TF dimensions of the VDSI reflect an endorsement of the extroversion and feeling poles, respectively. High scores on the DS and ES scales reflect greater levels of stress associated with the general task of decision making and the more specific activities of exploration, respectively. High scores on the EE and SE scales reflect higher levels of environmental and self exploratory activities, respectively.

significantIy related to scores on the exploratory stress scale; consequently, age was included in the subsequent analyses to assess the extent to which it accounts for any shared variance that is identified in this study. Means, standard deviations, and scale intercorrelations for the sample are presented in Table 1. We performed a canonical analysis to examine the nature and extent of the relationships between age, the two dimensions of vocational decisionmaking style, contextual anxiety (assessed by two sources of stress), and the two dimensions of exploratory activity. Canonical analysis provides a means of assessing the ways in which two sets of variables are related to each other. By creating two differentially weighted linear composites of the two sets of variables, the maximum degree of association can be obtained. This measure of association is referred to as the canonical correlation. In addition, the canonical analysis yields a limited number of canonical roots, which facilitates the interpretation of the findings (see Pedhazur, 1982, for a review of this procedure). In this investigation, the individual and contextual factors (i.e., age, the two dimensions of vocational decision-making style, and the two stress variables) formed one set of linear composites, and the two dimensions of exploratory activity (i.e., environmental and self exploration) formed the other set of linear composites. In order to assess the relationships between individual and contextual factors and exploratory activity above and beyond potentially confounding influences of age, the procedure described by Burdick (1982) was used. Specifically, two canonical analyses were conducted. The first analysis was based on the full model in which age was included along with the measures of vocational decision-making style and contextual anxiety.

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FACTORS IN CAREER EXPLORATION TABLE 2 Differences between Full and Reduced Canonical Correlation Models Model

1)'

x2

df

P

Full model” Reduced model* Hypothesis model

.28 .08 .20

46.65 12.10 34.55

10 2 8

<.ool c.01 <.ool

a Full model refers to the canonical analysis in which age, the two dimensions of vocational decision-making style, and the two sources of stress were related toenvironmental and selfexploration. b Reduced model refers to the canonical analysis in which only age was related to the two dimensions of exploratory activities. c Hypothesis model refers to the difference between the full and reduced model, in which the unique variances of the two vocational decisionmaking styles, and the two sources of stress were related to self and environmental exploration, without the confound of age (Burdick, 1982).

The second analysis (i.e., the reduced model) assessed the relationship between only age and the two dimensions of exploratory activity. By subtracting the difference in the x2 values and the effect sizes (i.e., the eigenvalues) of the full and reduced models, a canonical model could be derived that controlled for the influence of age (see Burdick, 1982, for a review of this procedure). As summarized in Table 2, the full model accounted for 28% of the variance, while the reduced model accounted for 8% of the variance between linear composites of the variables under investigation. Thus, in the hypothesis model, when the effects of age are controlled, vocational decision-making style and the two sources of stress accounted for 20% of the variance in self and environmental exploration. In the fulI model, one significant canonical root was extracted that accounted for 27% of the variance between canonical composites (R, = ~52,p < 401). As presented in Table 3, this canonical root was characterized by a heavy positive loading of exploratory stress and a heavy negative loading of the thinking-feeling dimension of vocational decision-making style on one side of the model; the exploratory activity side was characterized by a heavy positive loading of environmental exploration and a modestly positive loading of self exploration. These loadings indicate that a thinking decision-making style and the experience of exploratory stress are associated with environmental exploration, and to a lesser

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TABLE 3 Canonical Weights for the Full Canonical Model Variable

Canonical weight

Individual and contextual factors Age VDSI: Thinking-Feeling VDSI: Introversion-Extroversion Exploratory Stress (ES) Decisional Stress (DS) Exploratory activity Environmental Exploration (EE) Self Exploration (SE)

.33 -.58 -.04 .71 -.17 .76 .4l

Note. High scores on the IE and TF dimensions of the VDSI reflect an endorsement of the extroversion and feeling poles, respectively. High scores on the DS and ES variables reflect greater levels of stress associated with the general task of decision making and the more specific activities of exploration, respectively. High scores on the EE and SE variables reflect higher levels of environmental and self exploratory activity, respectively.

extent self exploration. Thus, the findings suggest that a rational and systematic approach to decision making coupled with the experience of exploratory stress would appear to facilitate exploratory activity during late adolescence. DISCUSSION The results of this study provide support for the proposition that individual and contextual factors relevant to decision making are also relevant to exploratory activities. The individual factors considered in this investigation were two dimensions of decision-making style. Of these, the thinking-oriented dimension emerged as significantly related to exploratory activity. The canonical analysis suggestedthat the more thinkingoriented and systematic the individual’s approach to decision making, the more he or she is likely to explore. This finding is consistent with previous endorsements of a rational, deliberate strategy in decision making (Blustein, 1987; Harren, 1979; Harren et al., 1978; Krumboltz et al., 1976) and with analogous propositions regarding the nature of career exploration (Jordaan, 1963). Contrary to our expectation, however, those individuals whose approach to decision making is more internally than externally derived did not necessarily explore more. This finding is particularly surprising, given the advantages of an active, nondependent strategy that have been described in theory (Harren, 1979; Jordaan, 1963; Krumboltz et al., 1976) and empirical research (Hesketh, 1982; Jepsen, 1974; Phillips & Strohmer, 1983). It may be that the externally oriented decider, given an appropriate

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authority on which to depend, is as active in exploring self and environment as the decider who independently pursues such a search. Alternately, the internal-external dimension of decision-making style may be more critical in the later phases of decision making, when the gathered information is evaluated and alternatives are weighed. The contextual factor considered in this investigation was the anxiety expressed as stress associated with the general task of decision making and with the more specific events of exploration. Contextual anxiety emerged as a significant element in career exploration, albeit in a manner opposite that predicted. That is, while we expected that contextual anxiety would inhibit exploration, the results suggest that exploratory stress may facilitate exploratory activity. Taken together with the apparent irrelevance of more global decisional stress, our findings indicate that some forms of contextual anxiety may provide a necessary incentive for individuals to engage in career exploration. The more specific and immediate stressors-such as needing to acquire information about educational and vocational alternatives-may be more salient than the eventual choices to which such activities contribute. Alternately, those in late adolescence may not regard their exploratory effort as being an essential activity in a decisional process that leads to choice. The results of this investigation offer several implications for theory, research, and practice in career development. For future theory and research, our attempt to examine the phenomenon of exploration from a decision-making perspective appears promising. Given the limited study of exploration, the general agreement that exploration is a critical element of the decision-making process, and the comparative wealth of information about decision making, this study suggests that such attempts would be profitable to continue. Specific questions for these efforts might focus on the role of various dimensions of decision-making style in the quality or use of gathered information, on the extent to which more remote decisional events are affected by the anxiety associated with immediate exploratory behaviors, and on the optimal level of contextual anxiety needed to precipitate exploration. For practice, our results suggest that it might be useful to apply a decision-making perspective to the design of career exploration interventions. As suggested by Jordaan (1963) and supported by the findings presented here, any means of fostering a plan&l and logical approach to decision making would appear useful in facilitating exploratory activity. However, the present findings suggest that the information gathering process occurs most readily in a context in which individuals experience some degree of stress with regard to the specific activities of exploration. Consequently, practitioners interested in encouraging exploratory activity might provide some guided interventions that underscore the importance of the client’s behavior for the events that will follow.

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Although tbis study yielded results that were consistentwith propositions about career exploration and decision making, a number of limitations must be noted. One of these is that the findings presented here are correlational and thus preclude causal inferences. In addition, results based on single self-report measures may be subject to error. Further, the amount of explained variance is relatively modest; consequently, further research would be useful in enhancing our knowledge about exploration. Finally, because the coefficients of canonical analysis are susceptible to sampling fluctuations, cross-validation would increase the reliability of the findings. These limitations notwithstanding, this study has provided an empirical basis and a broader theoretical framework from which to understand why individuals engagein exploratory activity. REFERENCES Arroba, T. (1977). Styles of decision-making and their use: An empirical study. Brin’sh Journal of Guidance and Counseling, 5, 149-158. Blustein, D. L. (1987). Decision-making styles and vocational maturity: An alternative perspective. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 30, 61-71. Burdick, R. K. (1982). A note on the multivariate general linear test. American Statistician, 36, 131-132. Dinklage, L. B. (1968). Decision strategies of adolescent students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA. Fuqua, D. R., Seaworth, T. B., & Newman, .I. L. (1987). The relationship of career indecision and anxiety: A multivariate examination. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 30, 175-186. Gelatt, H. B. (1962). Decision making: A conceptual framework for counseling. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 9, 240-245. Gordon, V. N., Coscarelli, W. C., & Sears, S. J. (1986). Comparative assessments of individual differences in learning and career decision making. Journal of College Student Personnel, 27, 233-242. Greenhaus, J. H., & Sklarew, N. W. (1981). Some sources and consequences of career exploration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 18, 1-12. Grotevant, H. D., & Cooper, C. R. (1988).The role of family experience in career exploration: A life-span perspective. In R. M. Lemer & D. Featherman (Eds.), Life-span development and behavior (Vol. 8, pp. 231-258). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Grotevant, H. D., Cooper, C. R., 8z Kramer, K. (1986). Exploration as a predictor of congruence in adolescents’ career choices. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 201215. Harren, V. A. (1979). A model of career decision making for college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14, 119-133. Harren, V. A. (1984). Assessment of career decision making. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services. Harren, V. A., Kass, R. A., Tinsley, H. E. A., & Moreland, J. R. (1978). The influence of sex roles and cognitive styles on career decision making. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 25, 390-398. Hesketh, B. (1982). Decision-making style and career decision-making behaviors among school leavers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 20, 223-234. Janis, I. L., & Mann, L. (1977). Decision-making: A psychological analysis of conjfict, choice. and commitment. New York: Free Press.

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Received: December 14, 1987