Factors influencing food and beverage employees’ career success: A contextual perspective

International Journal of Hospitality Management 30 (2011) 997–1007

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International Journal of Hospitality Management journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijhosman

Factors influencing food and beverage employees’ career success: A contextual perspective Yao-Fen Wang a,1 , Jeou-Shyan Horng b,2 , Shu-Yun (Sophie) Cheng c,∗ , Letitia Killman d,3 a

Department of Food and Beverage Services, Tainan University of Technology, 529 Jhongjheng Rd., Yung-kang Disc., Tainan 71002, Taiwan, ROC Department of Hospitality Management, De Lin Institute of Technology, 1, Ln380, Qing-Yun Rd., Tucheng, Taipei County 23654, Taiwan, ROC Department of Hospitality Management, Southern Taiwan University, 1 Nan-tai Street, Yung-Kang Dist., Tainan 71005, Taiwan, ROC d Family and Consumer Sciences Education/Applied and Professional Studies, Texas Tech University, 2500 Broadway, Lubbock, TX 79409, United States b c

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history: Received 19 September 2010 Received in revised form 27 February 2011 Accepted 4 March 2011 Keywords: Contextual perspectives Ecology of career development Hospitality industry Subjective career success

a b s t r a c t This study explored the important influential factors of Food and Beverage employees’ career success in international tourist hotels and identified relationships among these factors from contextual perspectives. Data was obtained from a sample of 481 respondents drawn from 22 international tourist hotels in Taiwan and analyzed with the AMOS program. The structural equation modeling results showed that multiple contexts influenced the career success of F&B employees in international tourist hotels, such as the Micro-System, the Meso-System, including organizational psychological factors, the Exo-System, and the Macro System contexts. In particular, the Exo-System context was the most direct influential factor for career success. © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction A flourishing Food and Beverage (F&B) service industry brings a number of positive economic effects to a country; however, industry characteristics include high levels of stress, strenuous physical labor, long hours, and relatively low wages. It is a labor-intensive industry centered on the customer (Birdir, 2002; Wu et al., 2006). The high turnover rate is a major issue confronting Taiwanese hotels because as much as 95.1% of industry employees voluntarily exit; making it the largest turnover rate among all Taiwanese industries (Chen and Wallace, 2009). Employees, who remain in the hospitality industry in Taiwan, must follow a narrow path which generally takes seven to fifteen years to progress beyond middle level management (Wang and Horng, 2006, 2008). In addition, the industry has experienced dynamic rapid changes and high levels of competition which have had great impact on the career development of F&B employees (Arthur, 1994; Bloch, 2005; Finegold et al., 2000). Although a flourishing F&B service industry provides positive economic effects the problems encountered by employees, such as high lev-

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 921511800; fax: +886 6301 0978. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Y.-F. Wang), [email protected] (J.-S. Horng), [email protected] (S.-Y. Cheng). 1 Tel.: +886 6 253 2106x5126, fax: +886 6 243 3837. 2 Tel.: +886 2 2273 3567x788, fax: +886 2 2273 3995. 3 Tel.: +1 806 742 5050 256. 0278-4319/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.03.005

els of stress, low wages, long hours, high turnover rates, narrow career paths, slow career progression, as well as rapid changes and severe competition cause widespread low career satisfaction (Wang and Horng, 2008). This low career satisfaction is contradictory to the current trend of personal pursuit for achievement and self-direction; therefore, this study will examine the factors affecting the perception of career success for F&B industry employees. Career satisfaction refers to a personal subjective view of career success (Tu et al., 2006) which is the degree of personal fulfillment or feelings toward career achievements and future opportunities (Peluchette, 1993). Personal subjective feelings of success lead to greater happiness, motivation, and superior work performance (Peluchette, 1993). The personal success of employees contributes to organizational prosperity; therefore, career success is extremely important not only to employees, but to the organizations (Judge et al., 1999). Furthermore, career satisfaction or subjective career success has been found to have a positive correlation with employees’ loyalty toward the organization (Aryee and Chay, 1994; Bozionelos, 2008; Joiner et al., 2004). Career mobility is not company-directed in a steady progression, but rather it is individuals who wish to advance to higher-level positions and acquire transferable employability skills and take charge of their own development (DeSimone and Harris, 1998; Burgess, 2002). In addition, most individuals want to acquire not only career advancement but also psychological satisfaction and feelings of success (Burgess, 2002; Wang and Horng, 2008). Traditional career development followed a vertical path that is stable and is organizationally established. DeSimone and Harris

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(1998) believed that traditional career development theories were incapable of fully explaining the career development phenomena of modern people. In contrast, modern theorists attempted to explain individual career development through a system or contextual approach (Arthur and McMahon, 2005; Chen, 2003; Vondracek et al., 1986) that emphasized that the overall context should be used to view career development. Multiple factors had been found to influence career success which was highly correlated; however, most studies had used only a few factors. Instead, a holistic context is needed to explore factors that influence career success, thus, the purpose of this study is to utilize the overall context to explore different systems that play a role in influencing career success. This study used full-time staff employed in the international tourism F&B industry. The relationships between factors influencing their career success were examined in hopes of benefiting human resource management.

2. Literature review 2.1. Career success Career success refers to the positive psychological and workrelated outcomes accumulated from one’s work experiences (Lau, 2002; Seibert and Kraimer, 2001). Childs and Klimoski (1986) proposed that the main factors in predicting career success included income and future salary prospects, personal happiness and satisfaction, a sense of achievement, goals that match personal career plans, professional reputation, as well as a good family life. Stephens et al. (1998) believed that career success included three components: career achievement, career development, and career balance. Researchers usually categorized career success into two parts, namely objective career success and subjective career success (Judge et al., 1995; Peluchette, 1993). Objective career success was an external measurement, such as high salary, upper level position, and quick promotion. Subjective career success was typically an individual appraisal of career development, referring to an individual’s perceived and personal standards, such as job and life satisfaction, work and family life balance, career satisfaction, and having opportunities to fulfill one’s achievements. Once the perceived career meets the expectation or career standard, the individual will feel satisfied. Subjective career success included the perception of career satisfaction, achievement, and confidence in the future (Greenhaus et al., 1990; Kuijpers et al., 2006). Peluchette (1993) pointed out that personal subjective perceptions of success lead to greater happiness and motivation and superior work performance. Apparently, subjective career success included job satisfaction, perception of achievement, and career satisfaction. Employees who perceive career success will have attitudes of greater satisfaction, produce higher levels of commitment, and job involvement, thus reaching levels of productivity which will match or exceed organizational expectations. Careers are the accumulation of various activities and experiences related to work that an individual has over a lifetime, and career satisfaction refers to the attitudes and outcomes that an individual has toward one’s career development (Hall, 2002; Tu et al., 2006). Recently, researchers have shifted from focusing on subjective career success because they recognize that only focusing on external perspectives is incomplete. Measuring only objective criteria is deficient, since people value subjective outcomes, such as development of new skills, work-life balance, challenges, and purposes (Gattiker and Larwood, 1988; Heslin, 2005). In addition, having achieved objective career success does not necessarily mean people are satisfied with their careers (Hall, 2002). Thus, this study mainly utilized subjective career success to measure the results of career

development: this included job satisfaction, sense of achievement, and career satisfaction, which have been found to be important indicators in personal feelings of career success.

2.2. Impact factors of F&B employees’ career success Factors influencing career development of F&B employees can generally be divided into five categories: personal, family, organization, organizational psychology, and social. Personal factors included demographic background variables, such as gender, age, marital status, work division, and education attainment (Aukstikalnis, 1995; Iverson and Deery, 1997; Butler and Skipper, 1983; Hui, 1988; Lambert et al., 2001; Peluchette, 1993; Ladkin, 2000, 2002; Ladkin and Riley, 1996), work attitude (Pietrofesa and Splete, 1975; Ng and Pine, 2003; Ruddy, 1989; Brownell, 1994), personality or personal characteristics (Lounsbury et al., 2003; Ng and Pine, 2003), communication skills (Brownell, 1994; Ng and Pine, 2003), job knowledge, work experience, and motivation (Judge et al., 1995; Ng and Pine, 2003). Demographic variables, such as age, gender, education, marital status, and years in the industry, were used as the moderator variables to influence career success. The results varied based on sample differences. Work attitude is the personal beliefs and perspectives toward work which could be used to predict job selection and job satisfaction. The personal characteristics which included being careful, outgoing, confident, and vigorous were positively related to both job satisfaction and career satisfaction. Based on past research, positive work attitude, effective communication skills, job-related knowledge, and educational attainment were found to be influential to career success. Family factors included family structure, family and work role conflicts, and the level of support from one’s family (Judge et al., 1995; Peluchette, 1993; Ng and Pine, 2003; Li and Leung Wang, 2001). Family issues that had been found to make negative impacts on personal career development were the numbers of young children, duties, and/or personal responsibilities within one’s household, family and work role conflicts, as well as low support from family members. Organization factors incorporated company background (Melamed, 1996), leadership and management styles (Butler and Skipper, 1983), salary, promotion opportunities, and training (Finegold et al., 2000; Hinkin and Tracey, 2000; Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Pratten, 2003), the availability of mentors, networks, and resources (Peluchette, 1993; Liff and Ward, 2001; Ng and Pine, 2003; Li and Leung Wang, 2001), and the job itself and its characteristics (Aukstikalnis, 1995; Iverson and Deery, 1997; Lambert et al., 2001; Hinkin and Tracey, 2000; Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Ng and Pine, 2003). Salary and promotion opportunities were found to be the important factors that influenced job satisfaction. Training opportunities were found to help employees’ career development, and to decrease the turnover rate. The bureaucrat management style and a lack of empowerment were found to damage employees’ career development. Leadership with communication and motivation were found to increase the interactions between employees and management, which were found to be beneficial to personal career development. Within an organization, it was found that a lack of mentors, unequal rewards and promotion opportunities, low wages and compensation, inconsistent management methods, lack of training opportunities, and the job itself and its characteristics such as: poor working environment, monotonous duties, and rigid working shifts (Aukstikalnis, 1995; Iverson and Deery, 1997; Lambert et al., 2001; Hinkin and Tracey, 2000; Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Ng and Pine, 2003), were factors that impede the career development of F&B employees.

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Organizational psychology factors involved organizational culture (Liff and Ward, 2001), organizational commitment (Aryee and Chay, 1994; Bozionelos, 2008), person-organization-fit (Vancouver and Schmitt, 1991), and burnout (Reynolds and Tabacchi, 1993). Organizational commitment and career satisfaction were positively correlated. Employees adapting themselves to the organizational culture can add the advantage of work progression. Personal needs of career development and work value that were congruent with organizational goals improved career development. The feelings of dissatisfaction, frustration, stress, burnout, and isolation, such as poor relations with management and coworkers, were found to factors that hindered career development. The society factors included the condition of the labor market, job opportunities (Hui, 1988), social norms, and the occupation’s reputation (Pietrofesa and Splete, 1975). Individual’s career choice and career mobility were affected by perceptions toward employment opportunities and the occupation’s reputation. 2.3. Contextual ecology system of career development In the modern-changing society, theorists attempted to explain individual career development through a system or contextual approach (Arthur and McMahon, 2005; Chen, 2003; Vondracek et al., 1986) that emphasized that the overall context should be used to view career development. Furthermore, researchers inspected the effects of multi-environments, such as the internal microperspective and the external macro-perspective on personal career development. Vondracek et al.’s (1986) developmental-contextual perspectives emphasized the use of contextual views to analyze the context of career development and comprehensively study the relationships between these multi-environments. Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecology of career development theory proposed that the ecology of human development is a multi-environment composed of a Micro-System, Meso-System, Exo-System, and Macro-System, and these systems’ direct and indirect affect on personal career development. In addition, the reciprocal interactions between individuals and their environment within a certain timeframe, move in and out of each system making them boundary-less. The Micro-System was a pattern of activities, roles, and relations experienced or perceived by the developing person in a given setting; where people can engage in face-to-face interactions. This system included personal factors and family factors, such as the roles within the family, and the characteristics of the person and their motivation and expectations. The Meso-System, which has also been called the sub-system or middle system, was comprised of the interrelations among two or more settings in which the developing person actively participated. This system was the interactions between the roles of work and families or individuals, such as the organizational psychology factors. The Exo-System referred to one or more settings that do not involve the developing person as an active participant, but in which events occur that affect them. This system was composed of organization factors, such as leadership styles, organizational goals, regulations and rules, the organizational structure and management strategies. The Macro-System was composed of the societal factors, such as culture, sub-culture, the occupation’s reputation, social norms, technology, the labor market, and cohort effects that affect the other systems and thus directly and indirectly influence an individual’s career development. Wang and Horng (2007) used in-depth interviews to collect information about career development of senior managers or executives in F&B departments of international tourist hotels and found that multiple contexts influence executives’ career development. The researchers concluded that many factors influ-

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enced career development, such as personal characteristics, work attitude, perspectives of gender role, perspectives of career development, family life role, support from family, the job itself and its characteristics, management styles, wage perception, promotion opportunities, on-the-job training, person-organization-fit, organizational culture, organizational commitment, self-efficacy, work pleasure, interpersonal interaction, burnout, employment environment, reputation of the food and beverage industry, and demographic background, as well as company background. This study revealed that many positive factors help individuals increase their self-efficacy and promote organizational commitment. These factors include a sense of achievement, positive work attitudes, work pleasure, person-organization-fit, positive organizational culture, adequate wages, promotion opportunities, and positive interpersonal interactions. The study also found that negative organizational psychology factors, such as dissatisfaction, stress, and burnout, can impact a person’s willingness to remain in a career. The Micro-System’s influencing factors referred to personal factors and family factors (family structure, family income, numbers of young children, family life role). These factors were found to directly affect personal career development. The Meso-System’s influencing factors referred to factors formed from interactions among persons and organizations, named organizational psychological factors (such as organizational culture, organizational cohesiveness), these factors exerted direct influence on career development. The Exo-System’s influencing factors referred to organizational factors such as organizational background, leadership and management styles, the work itself and its characteristics, and indirect family factors (expectations from spouse and family members, parent’s socio-economic status). These factors were found to exert direct and indirect influences on career development. The Macro-System’s influencing factors referred to social and environmental factors that affect the other systems and thus directly and indirectly influence individual career development. The social context, as part of the Macro-System included occupational reputations, legislative policies, and the F&B industry itself. Based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecology of career development theory, Wang and Horng (2007) proposed the relationship structure between various systems, as Fig. 1.

3. Methodology 3.1. The research model The “Contextual–ecological relationship structure of career success”, shown in Fig. 1, proposed by Wang and Horng (2007) was based on Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecology of career development theory and related literature to represent the overall context perspective. This study utilized this relationship structure as the basis of the research framework, excluding the reciprocal interactions between two systems that was due to the fact that this study was a cross-sectional survey, and to validate it through empirical verification of the collected data. The research framework is as Fig. 2, and the hypothesis are as follows: Hypothesis 1. The career success of F&B employees in international tourist hotels is influenced by multiple contexts. Hypothesis 2. The Micro-System has a direct effect on career success. Hypothesis 3. The Meso-System has a direct effect on career success. Hypothesis 4. cess.

The Exo-System has a direct effect on career suc-

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Micro-System: Personal context and family context Meso-System: organizational psychology context

Career Success

Exo-System: organization context

Macro-System: social context Fig. 1. Contextual–ecological relationship structure of career success.

Hypothesis 5. success.

The Macro-System has a direct effect on career

Hypothesis 6a. system.

The Micro-System has direct effect on the Meso-

Hypothesis 6b. system.

The Exo-System has direct effect on the Meso-

Hypothesis 6c. system.

The Macro-System has direct effect on the Exo-

was used as the constructs for the survey questionnaire. These factors were: work attitude (WA), personal characteristics (PC), perspectives of gender role (PGR), perspectives of career development (PCD), family life role (FLR), wage perception (WP), on-the-job training (Tr), promotion opportunities (Pr), management style (MS), person-organization-fit (Fit), organizational commitment (OC), self-efficacy (SE), burnout (Bur), work pleasure (WPl), interpersonal interaction (Interper), employment environment (En) and reputation of the food and beverage industry (Repu1 & 2), and subjective career success (Car S) which included job satisfaction, sense of achievement, and career satisfaction. The survey questions were drafted based on the connotation of each impact factor and some items were adapted from current scales. For example, the questions pertaining to organizational commitment, family life role, job satisfaction, management styles, burnout, self-efficacy, and subjective career success were adapted from Allen and Meyer (1990), Bohen and Viveros-Long (1981), Smith et al. (1969), Lambert (2000), Maslach et al. (1996), Taylor and Betz (1983), and Greenhaus et al. (1990), respectively. The survey was divided into six parts: (1) personal background, (2) personal context, (3) organization context, (4) social context, (5) organizational psychology context, and (6) career success. The questions were Likert type using a scale from 1 to 4 points (4 = “strongly agree” through 1 = “strongly disagree”). To obtain content validity, eight academic and industry experts examined the survey to verify the wording of the questions. To pilot test the survey, 134 responses were collected from hotel employees; first-order confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the validity of the individual constructs and to simplify the items, which resulted in a finished survey containing 94 questions, divided into 18 subscales that included 17 impact factors on career success. The construct validity of each subscale was good, GFI > 0.94, AGFI > 0.90, SRMR < 0.05; 2 /df <5, RMSEA < 0.095, and standardized factor loading of each item >0.5. The Cronbach alpha coefficients for subscales were higher than 0.65 (˛ = .66− .92). According to Kettinger and Lee (1994) and Browne and Mels

Hypothesis 6d. The Macro-System has direct effect on the Microsystem. 3.2. Research sample This study used Taiwanese international tourist hotels’ F&B department, full time employees, of the restaurant and kitchen personnel of various levels, and managers or directors as research subjects, to obtain actual industry data. A convenience sampling method was employed to collect samples. This research sample was representative of the industry because surveys were distributed based on the proportion of employees in various levels that were tracked via telephone calls. Originally 781 surveys were distributed to 22 hotels, located throughout Taiwan, which included four resort-style and 18 business hotels; 647 completed surveys were returned giving a response rate of 82.8 percent. Of these, 166 were found to be invalid, resulting in 481 valid surveys which finalized a response rate of 74.3%. 3.3. Research tools This study combined items from former literature and interview questions used by Wang and Horng (2007); in order to fit the occupational culture in Taiwan, 17 factors were found to influence F&B departments employees’ subjective career success which

Micro-System

H2 H6a Meso-System

H6d

H6b

Exo-System

H3

H4 H6c Macro-System

H5

Fig. 2. Contextual relationship structure of career success.

Career success

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(1990), 2 /df <5 and RMSEA < 0.10 were acceptable. According to the examination, each subscale was suitable for the later analysis.

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Table 1 Profile of the respondents (N = 481). Variables

n

Gender Male Female Missing Age (years old) under 20 21–25 26–30 31–35 36–40 41–45 46–50 51–55 56–60 Missing Job title Senior managers Entry-level managers First line employees

4. Results 4.1. Sample profile

%

213 223 45

44.3 46.4 9.4

18 132 133 77 53 32 18 11 6 1

3.7 27.4 27.7 16.0 11.0 6.7 3.7 2.3 1.2 0.2

135 149 197

28.1 31.0 41.0

Variables

n

Salary (NTD) Under 20000 43 20001–29999 194 30000–39999 109 40000–49999 61 50000–59999 31 60000–69999 17 70000–79999 10 Above 80000 10 Missing 6 Marriage Married 154 Unmarried 310 Divorced 14 Widow/widower 1 Missing 2 Job duty Kitchen workers 121 Restaurant workers 338 Management of F&B Dept. 20 Missing 2

% 8.9 40.3 22.7 12.7 6.4 3.5 2.1 2.1 1.2

This study utilized Taiwanese senior managers, entry-level managers, and first-line service employees, working in F&B departments of international tourist hotels, as the research subjects. Senior managers were restaurant managers/assistant managers, chefs/sous-chefs as well as department managers, directors, and executive chefs. Entry-level managers were supervisors, captains, and group leaders, while first-line service employees were waiters and cooks. From the 481 valid participants, 310 (64.4%) were unmarried, 213 (44.3%) were male and 223 (46.4%) were female. Job titles were reported as: 197 (41%) first-line service employees, 149 (31%) entry-level managers, and 135 (28.1%) senior managers. The majority of the senior managers were male (59.2%) and married (63.8%). Entry-level managers were mostly female (57.1%) and unmarried (73%), while first-line service employees were also mostly women (53.9%) and unmarried (77.5%). The percentages for the age ranges matched the actual manpower distribution of the job market, with 21–35 year olds constituting over 70% of the work force. With regard to duties, 338 (70.3%) were front of the house restaurant workers, 121 (25.2%) were kitchen workers, and 20 (4.2%) department managers. The salary ranges were 194 (40.3%) made NTD 20,001–29,999 and 109 (22.7%) earned NTD 30,000–39,999 on a monthly basis. Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the 481 respondents. Overall the demographic data showed, based on the author’s knowledge of the local situation, that the sample fairly well represented the composition of the workforce in Taiwanese international tourist hotels.

personal, organization, social, and organizational psychology context. The higher degrees of Pearson correlation coefficients of variables to career success were: work pleasure (r = .60, p < .01), wage perceptions (r = .52, p < .01), managerial style (r = .51, p < .01), person-organization-fit (r = .51, p < .01), promotion opportunities (r = .50, p < .01), self-efficacy (r = .47, p < .01), training (r = .42, p < .01), positive industry image (r = .40, p < .01), burnout (r = .37, p < .01), personal characteristic (r = .36, p < .01), perspectives of career development (r = .35, p < .01), and work attitude (r = .32, p < .01). Cronbach’s alpha values for the individual constructs (see Table 2) were higher than 0.70.

4.2. Reliability and correlation analysis

4.3. Contextual relationship structure of career success

This study utilized Pearson correlation analysis to explore the relationship between the 17 factors and subjective career success, as presented in Table 2. All 17 variables had statistically significant relationships with the subjective career success of F&B department employees in international tourist hotels (r = − .11 to .60, p < .05). These factors were categorized into contextual areas:

This study was concerned with the relationships between various context systems and career success; therefore, further applied structural equation modeling (SEM) was needed to examine the linear relationships of the proposed model. SEM is a statistical methodology widely used in many disciplines. Once a theory has been developed about a phenomenon of interest, SEM can be used

32.0 64.4 2.9 .2 0.2 25.2 70.3 4.2 0.4

Table 2 Reliability and correlation (N = 481). Var.

˛

WA

PC

PGR

PCD

FLR

WA PC PGR PCD FLR WP Tr Pr MS Fit OC SE Bur Interper WPl En Repu1 Repu2 Career S

.80(6) .82(7) .88(5) .66(5) .78(2) .84(3) .91(3) .68(3) .92(9) .85(5) .74(6) .79(4) .88(5) .70(4) .86(4) .73(3) .82(4) .83(2) .87(14)

1 .41** .22** .31** .047 .14** .16** .08 .30** .26** .24** .27** .17** .27** .23** .22** .36** .07 .32**

1 .08 .28** .023 .05 .15** .12** .26** .29** .25** .54** .24** .23** .30** .11* .31** .16** .36**

1 .11* −.026 .02 .06 .03 .16** .10* .13** .05 .08 .24** .13** .12* .13** .02 .11*

1 .072 .10* .18** .16** .23** .34** .06 .39** .09* .24** .27** .17** .27** .03 .35**

1 −.07 1 −.09* .37** 1 −.03 .50** .57** 1 −.06 .36** .42** .39** 1 −.04 .35** .32** .27** .43** 1 −.06 .13** .25** .19** .22** .29** 1 −.06 .18** .19** .18** .30** .47** .16** 1 −.28** .26** .26** .29** .34** .35** .43** .20** 1 −.03 .04 .19** .13** .26** .37** .36** .25** .29** 1 −.04 .33** .35** .33** .45** .52** .28** .39** .44** .36** −.06 .22** .23** .21** .28** .31** .12** .16** .21** .16** .08 .22** .24** .23** .39** .30** .20** .30** .21** .28** −.20** .11* .17** .18** .20** .20** .17** .23** .29** .20** −.11* .52** .42** .50** .51** .51** .28** .47** .37** .26**

Note: numbers of item are indicated in parentheses. * P < 0.05. ** P < 0.01

WP

Tr

Pr

MS

Fit

OC

SE

Bur

Interper

WPl

En

Repu1

1 .30** 1 .37** .34** 1 .32** .21** .11* .60** .29** .40**

Repu1

1 .28**

Car S

1

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to quantify and test plausibility of hypothetical assertions about potential interrelationships among the constructs as well as their relationships (Raykov and Marcoulides, 2006). The validity of measurement structure was verified with second-order confirmatory factor analysis. Amos 17.0 statistical software was used to perform this analysis. 4.3.1. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of measurement structure According to Anderson and Gerbing (1988), confirmatory measurement models should be evaluated and re-specified before measurement and structural equation models are examined simultaneously. Thus, before testing the measurement model overall, each construct in the model was analyzed separately. This study used second-order CFA to estimate the measurement model of the Contextual system. This was done to first confirm the validity of each system then to estimate the reliability and validity of the overall instrument. According to Hooper et al. (2008), for validity the variables’, corresponding t-value should be above 2.0 to be considered significant factor loadings can be interpreted as indicators of validity. Items with low multiple r2 (<.20), was found on the basis of the standardized loadings as a result of square multiple correlation (SMC), and should be removed from the analysis. In the Micro-System, there were six items for work attitude, seven items for personal characteristics, five items for perspectives of gender role, five items for perspectives of career development, and two items for family life role. The goodness-of-fit indexes

for the model were as follows: 2 = 612.02, df = 270, 2 /df = 2.27, GFI = .905, AGFI = .885, RMSEA = .051. Although the indices indicated that the model is acceptable, the coefficient of family life role to the Micro-System was not significant (ˇ = .065, t = .882), WA and PCD each one had an item multiple r2 < .20. After deleting those unsuitable variables or items, the revised CFA showed a good-fit model (2 = 421.62, df = 204, 2 /df = 2.07, GFI = .927, AGFI = .909, RMSEA = .047) and all items with multiple r2 > .20, indicated evidence of good construct validity. With the same procedure and estimate method, the model indices of the MesoSystem, Exo-System, and Macro-System showed that they are at a good level. Meso-System: 2 = 537.71, df = 224, 2 /df = 2.40, GFI = .913, AGFI = .892, RMSEA = .054; Exo-System: 2 = 324.71, df = 131, 2 /df = 2.48, GFI = .926, AGFI = .903, RMSEA = .056; MacroSystem: 2 = 37.59, df = 17, 2 /df = 2.21, GFI = .982, AGFI = .962, RMSEA = .050. As a result, after deleting unsuitable items, in the Meso-System, there are five items for person-organization-fit, three items for interpersonal interaction, three items for work pleasure, four items for organizational commitment, four items for self-efficacy, and four items for burnout. In the Exo-System, there are three items for wage perception, three items for training, three items for promotion, and nine items for management styles. In the Macro-System, there are two items for employment environment of F&B, four items for positive reputation of F&B industry, and two items for negative reputation of F&B industry. After finishing the first step, then employing second-order CFA to evaluate the measurement model of the overall system (contex-

Table 3 Results of second-order confirmatory factor analysis for measurement model of contextual system. Measurement observables

Standardized factor loading

Item R-square (reliability)

CR

AVE

Latent factors (LF)

LF std. structure coefficient

LF R-square (reliability)

Goodness-of-fit

WA

.613 (–)b .624 (9.02) .238 (4.23) .506 (7.98) .596 (11.12) .701 (12.65) .724 (–)b .637 (11.77) .704 (–)b .451 (8.87) .566 (10.99) .547 (10.65) .514 (10.04) .727 (13.73) .485 (–)b .584 (7.88) .373 (5.99)

.38

.57

.27

Micro-system

.748 (–)b

.56

Overall contextual ecological system:

PC PGRa PCD WP Tr Pr MS Fit OC SE Bura Interper WPl En F&B Repu 1 Repu 2a

.39 .06 .26 .36

.76

.44

Exo-system

.686 (7.99)

.47

.76

.35

Meso-system

.964 (8.53)

.93

.48

.24

Macro-system

.906 (7.11)

.82

.49 .53 .41 .50 .20 .32 .30 .26 .53 .24 .34 .14

t-Values for item factor loadings and factor structural coefficients are indicated in parentheses. a Indicate the variable was reverse scored. b Indicates a parameter fixed at 1.0 in the original solution.

2 = 487.53 df = 115 2 /df = 4.24 GFI = 0.89 AGFI= 0.86 CFI= 0.82 NFI= 0.78 SRMR = 0.067 RMR = 0.02 RMSEA = 0.08

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tual system). For simplifying the overall system’s appearance, mean scores of items for each variable was used to conduct CFA. Table 3 shows the results. For these diagnostic indices, 2 /df is the recommended range from as high as 5.0 (Wheaton et al., 1977) to as low as 2.0 (Tabachnick and Fidell, 2007). RMSEA in the range of 0.05–0.10 was considered an indication of fair fit and values above 0.10 indicated poor fit (MacCallum et al., 1996; Browne and Mels, 1990). GFI, AGFI, NFI, CFI have generally accepted that values of 0.90 or greater indicate well fitting models. Values for the SRMR with well fitting models obtained values <.05 (Byrne, 1998; Diamantopoulos and Siguaw, 2000); however, values as high as 0.08 are deemed acceptable (Hu and Bentler, 1999). The model indices indicated an acceptable level: 2 = 487.53, df = 115, 2 /df = 4.24, GFI = 0.89, AGFI = 0.86, RMSEA = 0.08. For the measurement variables, Table 3 showed the factor loadings, their corresponding t values, and R-square values. With t values above 2.0 being considered significant, factor loadings can be interpreted as indicators of validity for the 17 variables. Most of variables had acceptable (>.50) and significant loadings on their corresponding factors. Composite reliabilities of indicators were .48–.76, indicating a fair level. But the average variance extracted (AVE) were not good (<.50), indicating the convergent validity of constructs were not well. For the latent factors, Table 3 presented the standard structural coefficients, their corresponding t values, and R-square values. Standard structural coefficients can be interpreted as indicators of validity of the latent factors as components of the Contextual System construct. With t values above 2.0 being considered significant, all factors have large (>.60) and significant structural coefficients, indicating good construct validity. R-square values for each of the four latent factors range from .47 to .93, indicating acceptable reliability for all factors. In conclusion, the results showed that although the fitness of the measurement model was not well, it remained within an acceptable range and thus had a credible degree of validity. The research framework based on the ecology of career development theory to represent the overall context perspective was confirmed. The contextual system is a multi-environment composed of the Micro-System, Meso-System, Exo-System, and Macro-System. Hypothesis 1 was supported.

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4.3.2. Structure model SEM with Amos 17.0 was used to examine the hypothesized relationships in the Contextual Relationship Structure of Career Success for F&B employees. Prior to proceeding to examine the path coefficients in the structural model, overall model fit needed to be examined. Diagnostic indices, as previously mentioned, were applied for evaluating the overall model fit. The indices showed a fair level of model fit with the data collection (2 = 781.03, df = 162, 2 /df = 4.82, GFI = .85, AGFI = .80, RMSEA = .089, RMR = 0.02, SRMR = 0.076, NFI = .75, CFI = .79, TLI = .75). Factor loadings of the contextual relationship structure model are presented in Table 4, and standardized path coefficients are illustrated in Fig. 3. Standardized path coefficients are estimated to test the hypotheses. Based on the results presented in Fig. 3 most of hypotheses were supported. According to Fig. 3, the Micro-System did not statistically have effect on F&B employees’ career success (Car S) at a significant level (t = .47, p = .663), Hypothesis 2 was not supported. The MesoSystem had a positive effect on Car S (t = 2.79, p < .01), Hypothesis 3 was supported. The Exo-System had a positive effect on Car S (t = 5.25, p < .001), Hypothesis 4 was supported. The MacroSystem did not have effect on Car S (t = − .37, p = .713), Hypothesis 5 was not supported. Both of the Micro-System and the ExoSystem had positive effects on the Meso-System (Micro-System: t = 7.51, p < .001; Exo-System: t = 6.78, p < .001), Hypotheses 6a and 6b were supported. The Macro-System had a positive effect on the Micro-System (t = 6.80, p < .001, r2 = .53) and the Exo-System (t = 7.0, p < .001, r2 = .38), Hypotheses 6c and 6d were supported. The results showed that multiple contextual systems influence the career success of F&B employees in international tourist hotels. These four systems accounted for 93% of the total variance in Car S of F&B department employees in international tourist hotels. Career success was directly affected mainly by the Meso-System (ˇ = .42) and Exo-System (ˇ = .61), Exo-System contributed more to Car S than did the Meso-System. The Micro-System had indirect influence on career success mediated by the Meso-System, and the indirect influence effect was .26 (.61*.42 = .26). The Macro-System indirectly influenced career success mediated by the Micro, Exo, and Meso systems, its total effect was .67 (.73*.61*.42 + .62*.61 + .62*.42*.42). The Exo-System

Table 4 Factor loadings of the structural model. Construct-contextual system

Measurement variables

Std. factor loading

t-Value

Micro

Work attitude (WA) personal characteristics (PC) Perspectives of gender role (PGR) Perspectives of career development (PCD) Person-organization-fit (Fit) Organizational commitment (OC) Self-efficacy (SE) Burnout (Bur) Interpersonal interaction (InterPer) Work pleasure (WPl) Wage perception (WP) Training (Tr) Promotion opportunities (Pr) Management style (MS) Employment environment of F&B (En) Positive reputation of F&B industry (Repu1) Negative reputation of F&B industry (Repu 2) Sense of achievement (Achi) Job satisfaction (JS) Career satisfaction (Car S)

.59 .62 .23 .51 .71 .43 .60 .53 .48 .74 .65 .66 .72 .62 .51 .66 .32 .46 .72 .69

– 9.26 4.13 8.13 – 8.67 11.79 10.58 9.61 14.35 12.64 12.66 – 12.11 – 8.06 5.27 – 9.29 9.14

System Meso System

Exo System

Macro System Career success

Note: – indicates a parameter fixed at 1.0 in the original solution.

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Fig. 3. Contextual relationship model of career success for F&B employees.

Micro System

Meso System

Career Success

Exo System

Macro System Fig. 4. Modified contextual relationship structure of career success for F&B employees in international tourist hotels.

had direct and indirect influence effects on career success, the total effect was .79 (.61 + .42*.42). The Meso-system only had direct influence on career success (ˇ = .42). In summary, the Exo-System had more influence on career success. 5. Conclusions and implications 5.1. Conclusions This study verified the relationships of the contextual systems for F&B employees’ career success in international tourist hotels. Fig. 4 shows the relationship of the contextual systems. The results of this study verified Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) career development ecology system theory. The factors affecting the subjective career success of personnel in the food and beverage departments of international hotels are multi-contextual. These contexts include the personal context (the Micro System), organization context (the Exo- System), social context (the Macro System),

and the organizational psychological context (the Meso-System). Four systems, which included 17 factors, explained 93% of the variance for career success and showed the importance of these factors. Results indicated that the Exo-System had the greatest influence on career success which included wages, promotion opportunities, training, and management styles. These findings were supported by the results of previous research (Butler and Skipper, 1983; Finegold et al., 2000; Hinkin and Tracey, 2000; Woods and Macaulay, 1989; Pratten, 2003) According to Kanter’s theory (1977, 1993), the structure of opportunity referred to expectations and future hope for mobility and growth for employees in F&B departments, this refers to opportunities for professional and personal growth. Examples of these are the availability of training opportunities, challenging tasks, and opportunities to think and reflect. Professional and personal growth resulted in increased self-efficacy and job satisfaction which helped employees to be successful in their future careers. If F&B employees receive more training opportunities, the opportunities for career success might be higher. Training was

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found to be an important factor in this study, which agreed with the findings in Greece, the UK, and Australia (Akrivos et al., 2007; Ladkin and Riley, 1996). In addition, Ladkin (2000) found that managers, in Australia, generally reported higher salaries as the least important reason for career advancement. Dries et al. (2008) found that managers, in Belgian, placed more emphasis on self-development when discussing career success and managers in Western cultures agreed. The results of this study, which found wages as an important factor may be the result of the current low-salary status in Taiwan, which may limit employees’ feelings of life security. Based on these findings, F&B management should value their employees, care for employees’ job and family life, provide training opportunities, control their own emotions, clearly explain job expectations, empower their employees, and increase salaries. Cameron (2002) and Roth (2003) suggested that leaders need to play mentor and facilitator roles in order to ensure the success of a sharing culture, and that management style and leadership roles can promote teamwork and employee involvement. From considering the correlation coefficient between impact factors and career success, factors such as wage perception (r = .52, p < .01), promotion perception (r = .50, p < .01), training (r = .42, p < .01) and burnout (r = .37, p < .01) had a moderate correlation with career success. Hotel top-level managers should satisfy the career expectations of well-performing employees, lower the feelings of work burnout and frustration, and further train successors for the organization by improving the work environment through strategies such as organizational reform, on-the-job training, and improved incentive programs: such as performance-based bonuses. The Meso-System, that includes six organizational psychology factors, directly affected subjective career success. Two out of the six factors, work pleasure, person-organization-fit, were more relevant to success. When people enjoy the work in an organization and discover occupational distinguishing characteristics and being recognized, thereby feeling joyful and energetic, they can work with pleasure, maintain enthusiasm, and experience success. Furthermore, when one’s needs, goals, expectations, and work values are compatible with the organization’s, then the ones will perceive comfort and gain a sense of commitment toward the organization, be willing to work diligently and contribute their endeavors toward the organization. Such a person will not leave the organization for personal benefits, instead, this person will continue to strive within the organization and naturally the organization will value the person; thereby, all concerned will perceive being successful. In the Micro-System, the one with intrinsic work values, respect for learning and having progressed in their work, compatible job duties, and the personalities of vigorous, enthusiastic, attentive, as well as being self-oriented in personal career development were found to promote higher involvement and organizational commitment and finally lead to career success (Joiner et al., 2004; Bozionelos, 2008). In the Macro-System, the results indicated that the turnover culture in the hospitality industry, carrying out the professional certification system by the government, the need for more education, and the reputation of the hospitality industry were all factors found to influence personal perspectives of career development and organizational training and management systems, then, had indirect influence on career success.

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vocational training, and personal growth and self development. In addition, the organization should provide on-job training, as well as education that advances employees’ personal growth and professional development. Employees should establish a philosophy of self-responsibility in meeting personal career goals. Once the philosophy is determined, employees should create a personal professional development plan that will advance their career within the organization. 5.2.2. Implications for management According to the results, shown in Fig. 3, the Exo-System had more effect on career success than did the Meso-System. Based on these findings, hotels should revise their salary packages to make them more reasonable, focusing on employee training to improve skills, knowledge, and development so that employees can improve their promotional prospects. Most importantly, organizational management should have a human-centered focus, in which managers value, care for, and respect employees. From this, employees will perceive the management as trustworthy, open, supportive, fair, and feel empowered. In addition, the organization should offer cross-training so that employees can enhance their personal interest, skills, and abilities and improve their career promotion opportunities. 6. Limitations and future research This study utilized convenience sampling to collect data. Although various contacts, resources, and hard work was used in attempting to make the sample distribution approach actual workplace conditions, the number of effective samples was 481 individuals. It is still recommended that following studies use a more structured sampling to verify the career success contextual model. This study was conducted at the international tourist hotels’ f department in Taiwan; therefore, the generalizability of the results to other countries is unknown. Future studies are suggested to extend the research to a cross-cultural study to compare F&B employees’ career success with other countries such as China, United Kingdom of Great Britain, and the United States. The results of this study showed that the family system (ex. family life roles) had little negative correlation with career success (as shown in Table 2), and the coefficient of family life role to the Micro-System was not significant. The two questions used to measure the family life roles were originally developed from interviews which focused on parenting and housework responsibilities. A significant effect may not have been found due to a lack of information obtained with the few number of items. The lack of significance contradicts previous literature on the impact of the family on many women’s career development. Therefore, this researcher recommends that future studies should revise the family living role scale to reevaluate the relationship between family context and subjective career success. Acknowledgements The authors thanks for the financial support from National Science Council, Taiwan. Grant number: NSC. 95-2516-S-165-001MY2.

5.2. Implications References 5.2.1. Implications for employees According to the results, the Micro-System had a direct effect on the Meso-System and an indirect influence on career success. F&B employees should value gaining new knowledge and skills by participating in continued educational opportunities that offer

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