Centralisation and decentralisation in strategic municipal energy planning in Denmark

Energy Policy 39 (2011) 1338–1351

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Centralisation and decentralisation in strategic municipal energy planning in Denmark Karl Sperling a,n, Frede Hvelplund a, Brian Vad Mathiesen b a b

Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University, Fibigerstræde 13, 9220 Aalborg East, Denmark Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University, Lautrupvang 2, 2750 Ballerup, Denmark

a r t i c l e i n f o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 27 October 2010 Accepted 1 December 2010 Available online 5 January 2011

Denmark’s future energy system is to be entirely based on renewable energy sources. Municipalities will play an important role as local energy planning authorities in terms of adopting and refining this vision in different local contexts. Based on a review of 11 municipal energy plans, this paper examines to what extent municipal energy planning matches national 100% renewable energy strategies. The results indicate a willingness among Danish municipalities to actively carry out energy planning, and the plans reveal a large diversity of (new) activities. At the same time, however, there is a strong need for better coordination of municipal energy planning activities at the central level. It is suggested that the role of municipalities as energy planning authorities needs to be outlined more clearly in, e.g., strategic energy planning which integrates savings, efficiency and renewable energy in all (energy) sectors. This requires the state to provide municipalities with the necessary planning instruments and establish a corresponding planning framework. Consequently, there is a need for a simultaneous centralisation and decentralisation during the implementation of the 100% renewable energy vision. The paper outlines a basic division of tasks between the central and the local level within such a strategic energy planning system. & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Strategic energy planning Municipal energy plans 100% renewable energy systems

1. Introduction In October 2006, the Danish Prime Minister stated that the national long-term energy objective is to become entirely independent of fossil fuels (Rasmussen, 2006). The first analyses on how to implement such an objective were published a few months later (Lund and Mathiesen, 2006; Lund and Mathiesen, 2009). Since then, this objective has become part of the Government Bill (Danish Government, 2006). In September 2010, the Danish Commission on Climate Change Policy published a report containing specific policy recommendations for how to achieve this vision (DCCCP, 2010). Previously, a number of organisations had devised similar strategies for the future energy system of Denmark1 (Danish Energy Association, 2009; DN, 2010; IDA, 2009; OVE, 2009). A couple of studies, furthermore, document detailed energy system analyses of a 100% renewable energy system in Denmark (Mathiesen et al., 2009; Mathiesen et al., 2011). While the specific measures and targets differ in the proposed strategies, they have a number of general elements in common. First, it is usually proposed to reduce

n

Corresponding author. Tel.: + 45 9940 7219; fax: + 45 9815 3788. E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Sperling). 1 These strategies are in the following referred to as ‘‘national energy strategies’’ to distinguish them from municipal energy strategies and to clarify that they consider the whole Danish energy system. They include both governmental and non-governmental strategies. 0301-4215/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.12.006

energy demand in the long term and, secondly, to increase energy efficiency in general. Third, the strategies advocate for an expansion of installed renewable energy capacity as a replacement of energy supply based on fossil fuels. The fourth common element is the development of more intelligent energy systems, which can facilitate the integration of renewable energy sources through balancing energy supply and demand. The implementation of 100% renewable energy systems hence implies a transition away from energy systems with exclusively central power production, the separation of sectors as well as a central top-down energy policy. Instead, renewable energy systems incorporate a variety of distributed energy producers that utilise different energy sources, but are interlinked to achieve an optimal balancing between production and demand. Altogether, the shift to 100% renewable energy systems represents a new technological foundation for energy planning; i.e., energy systems that are tailor-made at the local level. This means that there is an increasing need to include local stakeholders and authorities in local energy planning, and especially municipalities are key actors in relation to the design and implementation of future energy systems. At the same time, there is still a need for the central level to manage ‘‘national’’ aspects of the energy system as well as to actively design, guide and support local energy planning. For instance, grid stability and overall balance in production and infrastructure need to be maintained by central actors. Furthermore, in order for municipalities and other local actors to be able to implement the specific aspects of future energy

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systems, appropriate institutional frameworks have to be set up at the central level. Examples include modifications of the building codes to encourage energy savings, or support schemes for specific technologies such as wind power, biogas or solar energy. The potentially strategic role which municipalities play in building the future energy system has also been recognised by among others the Danish Government, the Danish Energy Agency and Local Government Denmark (the association of municipalities) who state that ‘‘the municipal work with energy supply is of great importance to fulfilling the Government’s objectives of the fossil fuel free society and an increased and continuous security of supply’’2 (DEA and LGDK, 2010, p. 7). A recent action plan for heating technology, heat savings and district heating confirmed and elaborated this important role of the municipalities (Dyrelund et al., 2010a). Internationally, the role of municipalities and local authorities as important actors in the framing and implementation of sustainability policies and programmes has received increased attention since around the mid-1990s (Betsill and Bulkeley, 2007; Brugmann, 1996; Collier, 1997). Global environmental issues have led to initiatives that are targeted at enhancing the capacity of cities and/or municipalities as more active political players. A number of studies have, in this regard, focused on transnational networks between local authorities and the (new) types, scopes and levels of governance that these networks may entail (cf. Betsill and Bulkeley 2004; Bulkeley and Betsill, 2005; Bulkeley and Kern, 2006). It has been noted that these new forms of (climate) governance may, among others, challenge existing notions of ‘‘global’’, ‘‘national’’ and ‘‘local’’ environmental politics as distinct and well-defined entities (Betsill, Bulkeley 2004, Bulkeley, Betsill 2005). From a national and sub-national relations perspective, an increasing number of studies investigate the concrete scope, possibilities and barriers of local authorities within climate and/or energy policy, planning and implementation (cf. Aall et al., 2007; Baker and Eckerberg, 2007; Burch, 2010; Fleming and Webber 2004; Granberg and Elander ˚ 2007; Nilsson and Martensson, 2003; Palm, 2006). A third line of related research is concerned with cases of technology implementation at the local level (cf. Day et al., 2009; Khan, 2005; McCormick ˚ and Kaberger, 2005; Wessberg, 2002). One main issue in these studies is the influence of local, contextual factors on the outcome of specific projects. Much of the research of these two latter branches indicate an interdependence between the local and the national levels, where the national level often facilitates action at the local level, but is also seen as being responsible for limiting the possibilities of local authorities. An ‘‘appropriate dose’’ of governmental involvement in terms of, for instance, long-term strategies and clear guidelines and funding possibilities has been mentioned in several of the studies as a prerequisite for concrete action at the local level. (cf. Baker and Eckerberg, 2007; Fleming and Webber, ˚ ˚ 2004; Nilsson and Martensson, 2003; McCormick and Kaberger, 2005; St. Denis and Parker, 2009). While an increasing number of municipalities are exploring and developing their roles as climate policy and energy planning authorities, it is, at the same time, necessary to understand and investigate the potentially new role of the state with regard to these activities at the local level. Such a perspective calls for an integrated investigation of the transformation of climate and energy planning at both the central and local levels. In Denmark, concerns are being raised that the increasing number of well-intentioned municipal climate and energy plans might point into too many uncoordinated directions. It is, for the most part, still unclear how the initiatives of municipalities relate to and contribute to the overall national obligations, and also, which initiatives may be compatible with the existing institutional

2

Translated by the authors.

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framework (Wiegand, 2010). The first objective of this paper is to investigate to what extent the scope of municipal energy plans in Denmark matches the objectives and measures of national 100% renewable energy strategies. The second objective of the paper is then to discuss the relation between local and central energy planning in general. In Section 2, the ongoing transition of the Danish energy system is outlined to support the claim that an increasing amount of decentralised energy production requires the involvement of local actors, such as municipalities, in energy planning. Suggestions about how to continue the transition of the energy system towards full fossil fuel independence are then presented from a national point of view. The scope of 11 municipal energy plans and strategies is reviewed and compared against one national energy strategy to open up for a discussion in Section 3, regarding the extent to which municipalities are prepared to plan and implement 100% renewable energy systems. In the last part of the paper, the actual, formal room for manoeuvre of municipalities in terms of implementing energy-related initiatives is discussed. A synthesis of the insights of the previous sections is suggested by discussing how the energy planning system in Denmark may be adapted to the task of planning and implementing a 100% renewable energy system.

2. 100% renewable energy systems and municipal energy plans 2.1. Ongoing transition of the energy system in Denmark In Denmark, the transition away from an energy system that is completely based on central, fossil fuel dependent technologies started during the 1970s. It was partially induced by an open and flexible political process that resulted in long-term oriented and concrete energy plans. The outcomes were, among others, targeted programmes that supported the introduction and diffusion of CHP technology along with district heating, wind power and biogas (Lund, 2010). This transition has already impacted the design of the Danish energy system, as indicated in Fig. 1. While for instance the amount of central electricity production units was nearly kept constant, the majority of the current 415 collective, local CHP and district heating production units were built during the last 25 years (DEA, 2010a). This has led to a diversification of the electricity supply, an ongoing conversion of individually heated buildings to collective district heating systems, and an overall reduced dependence on oil in the heat and electricity sectors. Fig. 2 summarises the main steps of the beginning transition towards a 100% renewable energy system in Denmark. It can be seen that a number of key challenges remain to be addressed before such an energy system can be realised, and therefore, there is still a need for a strategic and concrete energy policy. Some of the technical challenges include the conversion of the transport sector and an improvement of the system’s ability to handle fluctuations in production and consumption. In general, such a transition may be less challenging if substantial reductions in energy demand can be achieved. 2.2. National energy strategies: main elements of 100% renewable energy systems Several governmental and non-governmental organisations in Denmark have proposed the main building blocks of the 100% renewable energy system and how these building blocks should be implemented. Table 1 gives a schematic overview of some main elements of the Danish future energy system, as proposed by the Danish Society of Engineers (Mathiesen et al., 2009; Mathiesen et al., 2011). This proposal was selected as it provides the most detailed overview of steps and focus areas in relation to a 100%

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Fig. 1. Transition from mainly centralised energy production to a decentralised energy production system with the Danish power infrastructure as an example (DEA, 2010b). The figure illustrates the emergence of a large number of small CHP plants and wind turbines between 1985 and 2009.

Transitional energy system (Denmark from 1975 - 20?) Partial coupling of electricity and heat sectors: Combined heat and power (CHP) and district heating (DH) Increasing distributed electricity production: Wind power and CHP Fossil fuel based energy system (Denmark until around 1975) Subdivided energy system: electricity, heat, transport

Long-term central energy policy, active local heat and wind power planning (until 1990's) Increasing fuel variety (natural gas, biomass, biogas), decreasing oil dependence

Centralised electricity production Limited, central energy planning and policy Limited number of fuels (mainly foreign coal and oil) Limited number of actors (few producers/ owners, many passive consumers) Increasing energy demand and demandoriented production

Larger number of actors, increasingly distributed ownership (CHP plants, wind turbines, biogas plants) Some remaining challenges: Transport sector entirely fossil fuel based, and not interacting with the other sectors Better integration of fluctuating energy sources, need for integrated energy systems Further decentralisation down to the individual level (households and appliances as active players), supply oriented energy demand

100% Renewable energy system (Denmark in 20?) 0 consumption of fossil fuels, including the transport sector Large variety and number of inter-linked production technologies and plants Full integration of electricity, heat and transport sectors, electricity as main energy source and sufficient electricity storage capacity in heat and transport sectors Increased ability of producers and consumers to respond in real-time to fluctuations in production and demand Energy demand reduced to a minimum, continuous improvement of energy efficiency

Complete phase out of fossil fuels, expansion of renewable energy capacity Reduction of energy demand and increased energy efficiency

Fig. 2. Simplified illustration of some of the main transitional steps away from a completely fossil fuel-based energy system towards a 100% renewable energy system. The illustration is based on the example of the Danish energy system, which has entered a transitional phase in the 1970s and whose main elements include a more efficient production of heat and electricity (mainly due to CHP) and an increased use of renewable energy (mainly wind power and biomass in CHP units). This development was initiated and sustained by a concrete and long-term oriented, central energy policy, which also led to an active and strategic heat and wind power planning at the local level. Another important element during this phase was a broad participation of various actors in energy policy and planning, which at the same time enabled and resulted in a more distributed ownership structure (mainly CHP units, wind turbines and biogas plants) (Mendonc- a et al., 2009).

renewable energy system. Its level of detail matches to some degree the level of detail in some of the investigated municipal energy plans and hence provides an appropriate basis for comparison. The strategy recommends a substantial reduction of the energy demand for heating, electricity and transport. Furthermore, it suggests that the capacity of renewable energy is more than

doubled in the medium term to reach a share of 50% in 2030 and to achieve a share of 100% renewable energy no later than in 2050. The strategy recommends a continued expansion of wind power and an increased use of biomass (mainly in CHP production). Another element is the increase in electricity production to replace fossil fuel use in general. It is also recommended to develop intelligent

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Table 1 Some of the main objectives and focus areas on the way to a future energy system, which is entirely based on renewable energy. The figure is based on some of the main suggestions given in a recent energy strategy by the Danish Society of Engineers (Mathiesen et al., 2009, 2011). The content of the different strategies can be organised according to the four main elements: energy savings, energy efficiency, renewable energy and system regulation and intelligent energy systems. The table shows overall objectives and (technological) focus areas. The specific (policy) measures and instruments within these focus areas still need further political definition.

Objectives

Energy savings

Energy efficiency

Renewable energy

System regulation and intelligent energy systems

Reduction of energy demand

Examples of objectives

Buildings: electricity savings: 50% in 2030, heat savings: 50% in 2050 Transport: fuel savings: 44% in 2050

Increase thermal and electric efficiencies at production units

Share of renewable energy in primary energy consumption: 100% in 2050 (47% in 2030)

Replace part of fossil fuel use with efficient electricity consumption Improved capacity to handle intermittent energy production Flexibility in energy production and consumption Synergy between electricity production and the district heating sector

Electricity supply in 2050: 63% supplied by wind power (expansion of onshore and offshore capacity) 22% biomass; 9% photovoltaic; 5% wave power; 1% synthetic fuels Individual heat supply in 2050: 67% heat pumps; 23% solar heating; 10% biomass

Electric vehicles with intelligent charging

District heating supply in 2050: 66% biomass; 25% heat pumps; 8% solar heating; 1% electric heating

Replace fuels with use of electricity in industry

Utilisation of domestic biomass resources in 2050: 79 TWh out of a total primary energy use of 123 TWh

Intelligent appliances; flexible electricity consumption Improved flexibility; decrease of ‘‘forced’’ electricity export Improved regulation capacity at production units

Industry: electricity savings: 45% in 2050, heat savings: 33% in 2050 Focus areas

Buildings: energy efficient retrofitting; low energy new construction; energy saving appliances Transport: improved public transport; integrated urban planning; intelligent traffic systems (ITS); changed taxation on private car use; road pricing Industry: optimisation of processes and appliances

Buildings: expansion of district heating (up to 65% of total net heat demand in 2050); use of heat pumps; phase out of indvidual boilers Transport: alternative propulsion (electric vehicles, plug-in hybrid, fuel cells, etc.) in passenger transport and rail; efficiency improvements in aviation and shipping Industry: use of surplus heat; electricity in heating (heat pumps and electric heating); expansion of district heating and cooling Production units: 100% of CHP units equipped with fuel cells in 2050; increase electric efficiency at waste incineration plants; flue gas condensation

energy systems that can efficiently utilise this higher amount of fluctuating electricity. Therefore, technologies and initiatives that can support such flexibility are a crucial element of the strategy. 2.3. Scope of municipal energy plans Since around 2008, a growing number of Danish municipalities have more or less voluntarily engaged in issues such as climate mitigation and adaptation as well as energy planning at a more strategic level. A survey conducted by the Danish association of municipalities (Local Government Denmark) in early 2008 showed that 63 municipalities out of 93 that responded3 were actively working with climate issues, while 22 municipalities had made a strategic decision to do so in the near future (Nielsen et al., 2008). Similar to this, a recent survey conducted among the municipalities of the Capital Region documented that the majority of municipalities had defined a climate strategy, policy or vision (COWI, 2010). To support and motivate municipalities in their efforts, the Ministry of Climate and Energy has designated six ‘‘EcoCities’’, which include municipalities known as role models in the field of climate and energy. Apart from that, a number of national organisations encourage municipalities to sign voluntary climate or energy agreements. Amongst these initiatives are the ‘‘Curve Breaker Agreement’’ with the Danish Energy Saving Trust and the ‘‘Climate Communities’’ agreement with the Danish Society for Nature Conservation. In this paper, the scope of municipal energy plans is assessed based on an in-depth review of energy and/or climate plans and 3

There are in total 98 municipalities in Denmark.

Heat pumps (including heat storage), flexible fuel cells and electrolysers at CHP units

strategies in 11 municipalities.4 The selected municipalities include the six EcoCities that were designated by the Ministry of Climate and Energy as of 2010.5 In addition to that, five other municipalities were selected that had otherwise become known for their energy-related achievements and ambitions. The intention was to cover a range of frontrunner municipalities in the field of climate and energy that had published energy strategies by the time the study was conducted. In doing so, the assumption was that the selected municipalities could be regarded as ‘‘critical cases’’ (Flyvbjerg, 2006), meaning that if none of these municipalities had devised an integrated 100% renewable energy strategy, then it is likely that no other Danish municipality is close to having such a strategy. The cases include two larger cities: ˚ Copenhagen and Arhus; two island municipalities: Bornhom and Lolland; and six rural or sub-urban municipalities: Albertslund, Frederikshavn, Herning, Kolding, Skive, Sønderborg and Thisted. All of the municipalities had signed the ‘‘Curve Breaker’’ and ‘‘Climate Communities’’ agreements by the time the study was conducted.

4 Citations of the municipal climate and energy strategies are as follows: ˚ ˚ Copenhagen Municipality (2009), Arhus Municipality (2009), AffaldVarme Arhus ˚ ˚ (2010), Arhus Municipality (2010a), Arhus Municipality (2010b), Regional

Municipality of Bornholm (2008), Regional Municipality of Bornholm (2009a), Regional Municipality of Bornholm (2009b), Bass (2008), Lolland Municipality (2009), Albertslund Municipality (2009), Albertslund Municipality (2010), COWI (2008), Lund (2009), Herning Municipality (2008), Herning Municipality (2009), Rambøll (2008), Kolding Municipality (2009), Kolding Municipality (2010), Skive Municipality (2008), Skive Municipality (2010), Sønderborg Municipality (2008), Project Zero (2009a), Project Zero (2009b), Thisted Municipality (2009a), Thisted Municipality (2009b). 5 ˚ These include Skive, Kolding, Copenhagen, Albertslund, Herning and Arhus.

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All of the strategies contain information regarding the municipalities’ motivations and visions within climate and energy planning. This can give an indication of how municipalities see their roles in relation to that sector. For instance, the most frequently mentioned motivational factors included previous commitment and expertise within the energy field (n ¼7); climate change and other environmental challenges (n¼6); to improve local welfare and quality of life (n ¼5); and an urgency to be proactive (n ¼5). Looking at the visions stated in the strategies, the most frequently mentioned elements are: reduced emission of CO2 and/or other greenhouse gases (n ¼10); green local growth and business development (n¼6); a greener energy supply and reduced dependence on imported fuels (n¼6); becoming CO2 neutral (n ¼5); and the necessity and willingness to involve stakeholders and public participation (n ¼5). A few strategies even reflected a certain awareness of the strategies’ feasibility as being dependent on external factors. Three municipalities view themselves as active players in relation to pointing out and overcoming (legal) barriers. Two municipalities are aware of their dependence on specific technological and institutional requirements. And finally, four municipalities point out concrete barriers or risks related to some elements in their climate and energy strategies. Regarding the specific content of municipal energy plans and strategies, 79 focus areas within 9 different sectors could be identified in total.6 The distribution of the focus areas among the 9 sectors is illustrated in Fig. 3. The largest variety of focus areas could be identified within the sector ‘‘energy supply’’, which includes focus areas related to the energy supply system. A relatively high variety of focus areas can also be found in relation to the transport sector and businesses and industry. A similarly broad focus seems to apply to ‘‘municipal infrastructure and processes’’, which include all focus areas related to the municipality as an organisation. Altogether, the measures and initiatives within these four sectors account for 56 out of 79 different measures. Looking at the frequency with which each of the 79 focus areas was mentioned in the plans results in a total number of 249 focus areas. A detailed overview of the focus areas and their distribution can be found in Appendix (Fig. 7).

2.4. Municipal energy plans and 100% renewable energy strategies To evaluate the relevance of the content of the 11 municipal climate and energy strategies in relation to 100% renewable energy strategies, the municipal plans were compared to the strategy of the Danish Society of Engineers’ Climate Plan of 2009. For this purpose, those municipal focus areas with direct relevance to energy planning were grouped in accordance with the national focus areas (see Table 1). The result of this cross-comparison is illustrated in Fig. 4. In total, 48 out of the 79 municipal focus areas could be related to the focus areas in the national strategy. 6 national focus areas were not mentioned in any of the municipal plans resulting in a total number of 54 energy-related focus areas. It can be seen that the most frequently mentioned municipal focus area is energy savings and reduction in municipality-owned buildings. Municipalities as building owners have relatively good opportunities to influence energy consumption and Danish municipalities seem to be motivated to reduce energy consumption within their own organisation in general (LGDK, 2010). These buildings, however, only account for a minor share of the total energy consumption in buildings, and it is therefore important that the energy saving measures in question can be applied to private 6 Only those focus areas that are related to climate mitigation and energy planning were registered. Some plans also contained focus areas related to climate adaptation.

Communication/dissemination and cooperation

5

Spatial development and planning

4

Citizens

5

Landuse and agriculture

3

Energy supply

20

Transport

13

Business/Industry

11

Housing

6

Municipal infrastructure and processes

12

0

5

10

15

20

25

Number of focus areas [N=79] Fig. 3. Overview of the number of different measures and initiatives in each of the 9 focus areas that were identified in the municipal energy plans and strategies. It can for instance be seen that the largest number of measures and initiatives were found with the category of energy supply. A detailed overview of all 79 identified measures and initiatives can be found in Appendix (Fig. 7).

buildings. Other frequently mentioned focus areas are wind power and expansion of district heating. These two areas, too, are already somewhat ‘‘natural’’ parts of municipal planning: municipalities have the formal planning authority of wind power and district heating is usually managed by (municipal) utility companies. Energy consumption in non-public buildings could be classified as a moderately well covered sector: around half of the municipal plans mention focus areas within this sector, but statements are usually vaguer and less concrete compared with the above-mentioned areas, for instance. The same applies to reduction of energy consumption in the transport sector. While ‘‘softer’’ focus areas, such as bike and public transport strategies receive moderate attention, ‘‘harder’’ and more restrictive instruments, such as road pricing and reduction of car demand, receive relatively little attention. The picture looks similar in relation to energy efficiency in the transport sector. About half of the municipalities are supportive of establishing the necessary infrastructure for alternative propulsion technologies, such as electric vehicles. However, only one municipal plan specifically mentions the introduction of electric vehicles in the private transport sector. Slightly more attention is paid to public transport, which at the same time is an area in which Danish municipalities are already formally involved. Around half of the municipalities express intentions to address individually heated buildings, for instance through supporting the use of solar heating and heat pumps (and apart from district heating expansion). Energy consumption in industry seems to be one of the relatively neglected areas: very few plans mention specific focus areas within this sector, although nearly half of the

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Heat savings

Production units

Electricity savings Intelligent traffic systems (ITS etc.) Road pricing

Transport

Reduction of car demand Mobility management/transport plans

Energy savings

Public transport strategy Bike strategy Use of surplus heat Energy saving targets Electricity savings (beyond legal requirements)

Industry

Densification, proximity etc. New building concepts (passive, zero, plus) Buildings (other)

Low energy standards in construction General energy saving retrofit/insulation Extensive energy saving retrofit/insulation

Energy efficiency

Buildings (public)

Production units

Passive house construction (outside DH) Low energy construction Energy saving retrofit/insulation Energy savings/reduction Flue gas condensation Fuel cells at CHP units Higher efficiency at production units Efficiency improvements in aviation and shipping Public transport CO2 reduction

Transport

EV/H2V infrastructure Hybrid cars/busses Introduction of electric vehicles Electric vehicles / hydrogen vehicles (public) More RE outside DH areas (incl. HP)

Buildings

Renewable energy

Transport

More renewable energy based DH (also HP) District heating expansion Biodiesel/biogas Bioethanol More RE in business transport Municipal transport on RE Afforestation, energy crops etc.

Biomass

District heating

Increased use of manure for biogas Biogas in processes (industry) Geothermal energy Biomass at DH plants Solar (heating at DH plants, PV panels etc.) Biogas (also in DH) RE electricity supply (industry)

Electricity supply

More (onshore) wind power Municipal RE fund

Intelligent energy systems

Municipal RE (photovoltaic panels, wind power) RE electricity supply (public) Improved regulation capacity at production units Intelligent appliances; flexible electricity consumption Electric vehicles with intelligent charging Hardware/software for dynamic energy system Expand energy storage capacity Flexible electricity/heat tariffs to integrate more RE Electric heating panels in DH Integrated energy system (balancing RE)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Number of municipalities [N=11] Fig. 4. Comparison of the focus areas mentioned in the municipal plans with the content of the Danish Society of Engineers’ national, 100% renewable energy strategy (see Table 1). Only those municipal focus areas are listed, which could directly be related to the focus areas mentioned in the national strategy. These national focus areas are given on the left hand side of the figure and are divided into the four main categories (energy savings, energy efficiency, renewable energy and intelligent energy systems) as well as similar sub-sectors as the ones used in Table 1. National focus areas that were not mentioned in the municipal plans were afterwards added to the list with a count of 0 (cf. ‘‘flue gas condensation’’). Abbreviations used in the graph: RE ¼renewable energy; DH ¼district heating; CHP ¼combined heat and power; PV ¼ photovoltaic; HP¼ heat pump; EV ¼ electric vehicle; H2V¼ hydrogen vehicle.

municipalities are prepared to provide energy counselling and/or cooperation with regard to new technology. The sector which has received the least attention in the municipal plans is intelligent

energy systems. Three municipalities state intentions to work with integrating intermittent energy sources, but only one municipality specifically mentions instruments to be developed.

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The municipal plans reflect the municipalities’ intentions and ambitions of being proactive in a number of different areas of the energy system. Fig. 4 indicates that the municipal strategies cover most of the focus areas mentioned in the national 100% renewable energy strategy. However, only few focus areas are covered by more than half of the plans. Furthermore, only 1 or 2 municipal energy strategies show a level of detail that matches the national strategy. This means that most municipalities only quantify some aspects of the energy system in their plans and mention specific instruments in only some of the focus areas. It is, therefore, not possible to arrive at conclusions about the feasibility of the municipal plans only by reading the plans. Most plans put an emphasis on previously rather well-established municipal ‘‘planning tasks’’, including public buildings and infrastructure, public transport, district heating system, wind power and renewable energy in the heating sector. Some municipalities have intentions to address energy consumption in private buildings; however, only very few municipalities mention specific instruments to do so in a strategic way. Areas that are neglected in the plans include private transport, energy consumption in industry and intelligent energy systems. The variation of the content of the plans can partially be explained by the different motivations, visions and objectives of the municipalities that were indicated in Section 2.3. Some municipalities stated that one main aim of the plan is to support growth, business development and job creation, and that the plans therefore focused mainly on these areas. In other plans, reduction of CO2 emissions was the main objective, which may have led to a different conceptualisation of the energy system in these plans. This suggests that municipalities understand their roles differently in relation to energy planning and in relation to different aspects of the energy system. One reason for this phenomenon seems to be the fact that the role of municipalities as potential strategic energy planning authorities at the local level has not been defined yet. The results show in general that most municipal energy plans insufficiently address the issue of a 100% renewable energy system. Based on how the plans were selected, it is therefore not likely that other Danish municipalities have made concrete and integrated plans for a 100% renewable energy system, either. This raises questions about the status and content of municipal energy plans in general. Municipal energy plans do not have the status of formal planning documents and are therefore not binding. Moreover, if municipalities currently do not strategically plan for 100% renewable energy systems, it can be assumed that they are limited in their possibilities. Thus, it is necessary to understand the actual, sectorspecific possibilities that municipalities possess in relation to energy planning and implementation.

3. The potential role of municipalities in strategic energy planning 3.1. Current possibilities of the municipalities The content of the municipal energy plans and strategies can give an indication of the ambitions of municipalities in relation to energy planning. The plans do, however, only contain little evidence with regard to the practical implementation of the various focus areas. Instead, the feasibility of the plans can be assessed indirectly by comparing the focus areas against the corresponding institutional framework, which is more or less clear with regard to how a focus area should be implemented. The assumption is that an unclear institutional framework may lead to conflicts during the implementation of a focus area, possibly resulting in a failed implementation. The status of each focus area can roughly be categorised according to one of three levels: (i) focus areas for which a clear institutional framework is in place and according to

which municipalities (and local utilities) have clearly defined responsibilities; (ii) focus areas for which the existing institutional framework is incomplete and responsibilities are only partially defined; (iii) focus areas for which the institutional framework is largely absent and for which the tasks and roles of municipalities and other actors remain unclear. In Table 2, this typology of the institutional status is applied to some of the focus areas mentioned in the municipal energy plans and strategies. A number of necessary tasks are distinguished for each focus area and distributed according to which actors (central or local) need to attend to them. The table does not represent an exhaustive list of all necessary tasks for each focus area, and it should also be noted that some of the tasks at the central level are not always direct prerequisites for corresponding tasks at the municipal level. Also, while the focus here is on the interplay between central and municipal energy planning, the actual implementation of focus areas usually depends on several actors. Energy savings in existing buildings, for instance, can be supported by setting incentives, removing existing barriers and defining clear standards, each of which may involve different actors in practice (SBi, 2009). As indicated in the previous section, the most frequently mentioned focus areas in the municipal energy plans and strategies are those for which an institutional framework already exists. These focus areas mainly correspond to category (i) mentioned above and include wind power planning and district heating. The existence of an institutional framework does, however, not necessarily mean that the respective focus area is actually implemented (cf. Sperling et al., 2010). Furthermore, in some cases, the existing institutional framework needs to be updated to be in line with a national strategy for the 100% renewable energy system. At the same time, the identification of concrete barriers and incentives can be more straightforward within these areas (cf. Grontmij/Carl Bro, 2009; PLAN09, 2009). With regard to district heating, for instance, municipalities and municipal utility companies do have some tools to convert individually heated buildings to district heating, but municipalities are not formally required to devise an integrated municipal heat plan and the conversion of areas supplied by natural gas is still not clarified legally (Dyrelund et al., 2010b). In relation to wind power, this means that although relatively clearly defined planning guidelines exist, following them may sometimes lead to local protests and, as a consequence, the delay or cancellation of projects. Some of the focus areas that were less frequently mentioned in the municipal plans (see Fig. 4) can be grouped under category (ii). These include relatively new areas in municipal energy planning. Biogas plants, for instance, count as technical infrastructure and municipalities are formally equipped to carry out spatial planning and environmental impact assessment. However, since for example the existing financial subsidy scheme and fiscal structure are insufficient, only few plants are being built and municipalities can therefore not gain experience in biogas planning. Energy savings can be mentioned as another example: municipalities already own or maintain public buildings and therefore have some room for manoeuvre in terms of implementing energy savings, but they only have few responsibilities with regard to private buildings. While some municipalities have started partnerships with entrepreneurs and credit banks to offer package solutions to private building owners, it seems that specific guidelines and subsidy schemes that target all building owners should be developed at the central level. Some tasks in category (ii) can also be considered as areas where municipalities would like to be given more responsibility, which may be the reason why they nevertheless are (vaguely) mentioned in the municipal plans. Electric vehicles seem to have the same ambiguous status: municipalities being formally responsible for public transport can support the introduction of electric vehicles and charging infrastructure, but cannot give direct support to

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Table 2 Division of responsibilities between the central level (Government, ministries and governmental authorities) and the local level (municipalities and municipal utility companies) in relation to a number of focus areas mentioned in the municipal energy plans and strategies. The table gives examples of what kind of ‘‘tasks’’ may be relevant within these focus areas, and at which level they should be dealt with. White fields mark tasks for which an institutional framework has been established and/or which have entered local planning practice. Light grey fields mark tasks for which an institutional framework is under development or for which the existing framework is insufficient, and for which local planning practice therefore is incoherent. Dark grey fields indicate that the necessary institutional framework for a task is largely absent and/or that it has not entered general local planning practice.

Focus area Wind power

Central level

Local level

Draft long-term policy with concrete expansion targets

Draft municipal wind power plans

Provide stable financial support scheme

Locate and plan wind power sites in cooperation with local population

Secure involvement of and acceptance among local population

Support local initiatives and deal proactively with protests

Develop appropriate planning guidelines District heating

Energy savings

Electric vehicles

Intelligent energy system

Establish appropriate DH tariff structure in favour of e.g. the complete conversion of DH to renewable energy; energy savings in houses located in DH areas as well as continuous energy savings in the district heating network; and ”wind-friendly” DH with heat pumps etc.

Carry out municipal heat planning in combination with e.g. strategic municipal energy plans

Clear policy on how to convert natural gas areas and all other individual, fossil-fuel heated buildings

Local subsidy and tariff schemes that accelerate connection of buildings to DH

Clear guidelines and necessary (spatial) information for integrated heat planning in the municipalities

Municipal utility companies as key players in implementing energy savings in the DH network

Continuous revision of the building code, spatial planning regulations and energy labelling of buildings standard in relation to national energy savings targets

Local spatial planning in accordance with highest possible energy efficiency requirements for new buildings

Clear plan for implementation of energy savings in existing buildings

Plan for reduction of energy demand in existing public and private buildings (as part of the heat plan/strategic municipal energy plan)

Financial support schemes, tax relief and green property taxes for energy efficient refurbishment

Build partnerships between local craftsmen, credit banks, utility companies, building owners and residents to offer straightforward solutions for energy efficient refurbishment

Long-term objectives for replacement of existing vehicle fleet (partially) with electric vehicles on the basis of an integrated strategy for a 100% renewable energy system, deadline for complete phase out of vehicles based on fossil fuels

Municipal electric vehicle charging infrastructure plans

Financial support schemes, tax relief, scrapping schemes etc.

Introduction of electric vehicles in public authorities, parking spaces for electric vehicles

Technical standards to support energy system regulation and balancing (e.g. smart charging and/or vehicle-to-grid charging)

Local plan and incentive programmes to shift to electric vehicles in private transport

General long-term policy on the integration of intermittent renewable energy sources into the energy system, general grid stability and maintenance of transmission lines

Strategic municipal energy plan with a focus on system integration

Technology-specific actions plans and standards regarding e.g.: intelligent household appliances, energy storage, flexible electricity/heat tariffs, smart grids Appropriate tax and tariff system to support handling of peak electricity production and integration with heat and transport sectors

Local utilities need to prepare for the introduction of flexible tariffs and expansion of regulation and storage capacity at production units

Guidelines for how to integrate the issue into strategic energy planning in the municipalities Biogas National long-term action plan for the sustainable utilisation of biogas (in relation with a general sustainable biomass strategy)

Draft local biogas strategy, assess local biogas (and biomass) potential in cooperation with e.g. the local utility and agricultural organisations

Financial support schemes (e.g. feed-in tariffs) and at least fiscal equality between natural gas and biogas, removal of barriers for distribution in gas grid

Locate and plan biogas plant sites in cooperation with farmers and the local population

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Current model: ”Parallel energy planning”

Future model: ”Strategic energy planning”

Objectives

Implementation

Objectives

Implementation

Fig. 5. Simplified illustration of the current energy planning system in Denmark and how this system could be adapted to facilitate the transition to a 100% renewable energy system in the future. While there is limited coordination between the state and the municipalities in the current system, in a strategic energy system, there should be a stronger integration of central and local energy planning.

private car owners. Besides their formal involvement in public transport, municipalities are limited, as the sector’s budget depends on state funding and usually does not allow ‘‘extra’’ investments. Due to the lack of a clear national strategy and specific support schemes, electric vehicles (in private transport) can mainly be grouped under category (iii). Tasks related to the intelligent energy system and system regulation for the most part fall under this category as well. Since only two frontrunner municipalities mention instruments related to this focus area in their plans, it may be implied that most municipalities do not consider themselves as having sufficient competences and responsibilities in this regard. Municipalities may regard it as an issue that is mainly to be dealt with at the central level. Municipal utility companies could, to a larger extent, participate in system regulation and implementation of, e.g., flexible electricity consumption in households; but without an integrated national strategy, a clear definition of (municipal) tasks and an appropriate (electricity) tariff system this is not very likely to happen. 3.2. Towards a strategic energy planning system for 100% renewable energy The above discussion and the findings in Section 2 suggest that the roles and responsibilities of both the state and the municipalities will require some thorough revision in order to contribute to the development of concrete strategies for the 100% renewable energy system. This concerns both upcoming technologies and, to some extent, also existing technologies such as wind power and district heating. It is proposed here that there is a need for both an increased ‘‘centralisation’’ and ‘‘decentralisation’’ within energy planning, through which a new synthesis between central and municipal energy planning can be formed. This point is illustrated in Fig. 5, in which the current model of ‘‘parallel energy planning’’ is distinguished from a possible future model termed ‘‘strategic energy planning’’. In the current parallel energy planning system, there is

little coordination and cooperation between the energy planning activities at the central and municipal levels, although the implementation of a national 100% renewable energy strategy depends on the concrete work at the local level. Both the state and the municipalities consequently have difficulties in fulfilling the longterm target of fossil fuel independence. In a future energy planning model, there would be more centralisation in the sense of defining a clear 100% renewable energy strategy with concrete focus areas that would serve as an umbrella for the energy visions of the municipalities. There would also be stronger central support in terms of providing the necessary legal basis to take (municipal) action within these focus areas. Finally, the central level would act more strongly as a coordinating body between the municipalities to support synergies and limit sub-optimisation in the energy system. The new role of municipalities would be to act as strategic energy planning authorities with both support from the central level and enough room in the institutional framework to incorporate municipal suggestions and experiences. Municipalities would more actively take part in the drafting of (national) energy policy and legislation and they would be given the flexibility to experiment with, for instance, new legal or economic incentives. Once strategic energy planning is institutionalised at the municipal level there should be a system in place, which would give room for the timely inclusion of municipal suggestions into the legal framework. In this way, it could be ensured that the concrete and practical implementation experiences of the municipalities would feed back into the institutional framework.

4. Discussion Based on the investigation of municipal energy plans and strategies, it is argued that there is a need for an integrated energy planning system that links national objectives (100% renewable

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energy) with all relevant, sector-specific goals (heating, electricity, transport, urban planning, energy savings and efficiency, etc.) in the long term, and where responsibilities and tasks are divided between the state, the municipalities, the utility companies and other important actors in a clear and action-oriented way. The necessary instruments and incentives should then be developed and provided according to such a straightforward division of responsibilities for implementation. A number of challenges have to be overcome during this transformation of the Danish energy planning system. First, the different sectors of the energy system (at the local level) must be integrated from an energy planning perspective. This means that energy-related projects should be implemented on the basis of an integrated, strategic energy plan, which forms the basis for sector plans and project plans. Strategic municipal energy plans should have the role of official strategies containing specific goals and guidelines on how to achieve 100% renewable energy systems at the local (and inter-municipal) level. They should provide for the utilisation of inter-sector synergies rather than sub-optimisation and inefficient, sector-specific prioritisations. The internal coordination of planning activities is important in this regard in order to secure the harmonisation of the sector-specific plans with the strategic municipal energy plan. Such internal coordination between municipal departments can take the form of an interdepartmental working group headed by a municipal energy planning coordinator, for instance. This working group can also be responsible for cooperating with and involving relevant external actors. The plans should be drafted and adopted at the highest political level in the municipalities and can then be followed up by more concrete sector-specific energy plans. In this way, it can also be guaranteed that the strategic energy plans are integrated with the overall municipal plans, and become an integrated part of the future development of municipalities in general. Building such planning competences in the municipalities will require support from the national level, since energy planning has comparably low priority in the municipalities, due to, among others, budget restrictions. In short, strategic energy planning as a formal task will have to be institutionalised in the municipalities. Second, the status and specific content of strategic municipal energy plans should be defined at the central level and in cooperation with the municipalities and other local actors. The prerequisite for feasible, integrated energy plans at the municipal level is a clear and coherent long-term energy policy at the national level that breaks down the vision of 100% renewable energy systems into tangible, sector-specific goals (as well as strategies and incentives, see below).7 The areas and sectors covered by municipal energy plans should correspond with the areas outlined in a national energy policy. At a general level, these areas include energy savings (heat, industry, electricity, transport, etc.), energy efficiency (transport technologies, production units, heat pumps, etc.), renewable energy (wind, solar, biomass, biogas, wave power, etc.) as well as system regulation and intelligent energy systems. The formulation of specific goals within each of these areas then depends on the resources and possibilities of each municipality, but should as far as possible reflect the vision of a 100% renewable energy system. To guarantee that all municipalities can acquire the necessary expertise to carry out such concrete energy planning, access to information, guidance, modelling tools, etc., will have to be provided at the national level. The status of municipalities as

7 Since an increasing number of municipalities and municipal energy companies already possess considerable expertise and knowledge regarding the status and potentials of municipal energy systems, it could be recommended to continuously refer to that knowledge at the national level, when devising a national energy strategy. In this way, some coherence between national and municipal energy planning can be ensured from the outset.

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energy planning authorities should be defined at the central level and strategic municipal energy plans should become official municipal planning documents to which all local, energy-related actors and activities refer. One way to achieve this may be to require that the strategic energy plan forms part of the overall municipal development plan, which has to be revised every 4 years. The third challenge concerns the involvement of all relevant actors in the development of strategic municipal energy plans. In order for these energy plans to have the necessary practical relevance and effectiveness, the involvement of relevant actors during the drafting of the plans will be important. This means that various municipal departments and external actors should participate in the drafting of strategies within the specific focus areas of the strategic municipal energy plan. An example is the heat sector, where typically local utilities can provide the necessary expertise to devise concrete long-term strategies. Other examples include the agricultural sector, which can assist in evaluating biomass and biogas potentials; or even other municipalities with which, for instance, district heating networks or renewable energy resources can be shared. Again, this requires that municipal energy plans have ‘‘official status’’ so that the necessary willingness to cooperate among the relevant actors can be secured. A fourth challenge is related to the specific legal or fiscal barriers that make renewable energy projects seem infeasible compared to other investments (Dyrelund et al., 2010b). In some areas, there is a need for a revision of (technology-specific) legislation or the drafting of (technology-specific) support schemes that can ensure the feasibility of renewable energy options (compare also Table 2). It is crucial that such a legal revision is done simultaneously to or shortly after the drafting of a national 100% renewable energy strategy. In this way, it can be ensured that the municipal energy plans, which may ideally be based on the national energy strategy, can be implemented in practice. This should, therefore, also better provide the municipalities and other actors with the necessary tools and prerequisites to adopt and implement the national energy strategy. Furthermore, as the municipal energy plans and strategies indicate, municipalities are willing to participate in testing and demonstrating an array of new technologies. Their experiences will therefore be valuable, when discussing technology-specific support schemes at the national level. It may also be necessary to reevaluate the tasks of municipalities in relation to specific technologies and activities, such as wind power, energy savings, biogas, heat supply, alternative transport, etc. (see Section 3.1). Simultaneous to this, it would seem natural to begin (re-)defining the specific tasks of all other relevant actors in relation to these focus areas in general (LGDK, 2009; Dyrelund et al., 2010b; DEA and LGDK, 2010). Fig. 6 summarises the above discussion by outlining an overall design of a strategic energy planning system. The figure is a suggestion about how one may begin to conceptualise such a planning system by defining specific planning tasks and linking them to the relevant actors. The illustrated tasks thus correspond with some of the challenges mentioned above and address essential questions such as: how should a national long-term 100% renewable energy strategy look like?; which role shall strategic municipal energy planning play in relation to this national strategy?; how can the implementation of the specific elements in the national strategy and the municipal energy plans be ensured?; who shall be responsible for the concrete implementation of the plans and in which way? A discussion of the related actors can then lead to a clear distribution of responsibilities between the central and local levels of government, as well as the private sector. Fig. 6 does not provide a comprehensive picture of all tasks and actors in the strategic energy planning system. The main point here is rather that there is a fundamental need to discuss and possibly restructure the current energy planning system in order for strategic municipal

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Fig. 6. Outline of a strategic energy planning system as an example of how the discussion of concrete energy planning responsibilities in the context of 100% renewable energy systems can be approached.

energy planning to be effective in practice. The outline shown below can form a framework for this necessary discussion. The composition of tasks and actors will change according to the specific technology or activity that is addressed. Also, some actors such as industry organisations, grass roots and research institutes will have an indirect influence on the political process. Furthermore, the roles of actors may depend on the specific issue at hand. A strategic energy planning system as it is outlined here is naturally dependent on the political processes that revolve around each of the four tasks and the technology- and activity-specific legislation. Due to the complexity of policy making in general, it is, however, beyond the scope of this paper to discuss the design of the relevant political processes. Examples of how renewable energy policy making should be different from traditional energy policy making are discussed in, among others, Hvelplund (2001) and Mendonc- a et al. (2009). The main point here is that the above planning system should be viewed as an outcome of and a frame for the political processes concerned with strategic energy planning. It should also be noted that this strategic energy planning system would be different from a pure top-down, centralised planning

system. The first difference is the fact that the municipalities themselves have called for more guidance and direction from the central level (cf. DCCCP, 2010). The second difference is the embedded two-way communication process through which municipalities contribute to the framing of strategic energy planning and technology-specific legislation at the central level. This communication process is essential, especially in relation to new technologies and solutions that need to be tested in the municipalities and therefore require flexible institutional frameworks. Such a strategic energy planning system would thus ‘‘operate’’ on the basis of concrete challenges and tasks, as the ones discussed in this paper, but whose outcomes would be subject to a continuous evaluation which requires inputs from both the central and the local levels.

5. Conclusion The Danish energy system has entered a transitional phase away from technologies entirely dependent on fossil fuels towards a 100% renewable energy system. The first sign of this transition is

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Communication and cooperation

Energy tours and tourism Think tanks, working groups etc. Coordination of internal/external activities/plans Public energy/climate communication/exhibitions Participation in other city/community initiatives Spatial development and planning Green spaces Energy efficiency and cultural heritage/architecture Densification, proximity etc. Coordination/integration of municipal plans Waste collection, separation, reuse etc. Citizens Local ownership Targeted education, research etc. Information campaigns and guidance Influence attitudes/behaviour GHG reduction Landuse and Afforestation, energy crops etc. agriculture Increased use of manure for biogas Hardware/software dev. for dynamic energy system Expand energy storage capacity Flexible electricity/heat tariffs to integrate more RE Electric heating panels in DH Energy H2 (micro CHP etc.) supply Integrated energy system (balancing RE) Geothermal energy Higher efficiency at production units Biomass at DH plants Solar (heating at DH plants, PV panels etc.) Biogas Heat savings Electricity savings More (onshore) wind power More RE outside DH areas (incl. HP) More renewable energy based DH (also HP) District heating expansion Energy saving loans (utility) Energy check of homes (utility) Energy saving plan (utility, legal requirement) Public transport CO2 reduction Transport EV/H2V infrastructure Intelligent traffic systems (ITS etc.) Road pricing Reduction of car demand H2 cars/busses Hybrid cars/busses Bioethanol Biodiesel/biogas Introduction of electric vehicles Mobility management/transport plans Public transport strategy Bike strategy business transport Business/Industry More RE inUse of surplus heat Energy saving targets Biogas in processes Public private partnerships Demonstration sites, show cases etc. RE electricity supply Support RE business development Electricity savings (beyond legal requirements) Green campaigns and involvement Information/guidance/counseling Housing New building concepts (passive, zero, plus) Energy guidance/counseling Involvement of residents Low energy standards in construction General energy saving retrofit/insulation Extensive energy saving retrofit/insulation Municipal RE fund Municipal infrastructure Municipal transport on RE and processes Internal information campaigns Green public purchase Municipal RE (photovoltaic panels, wind power) Municipal energy saving fund RE electricity supply Electric vehicles / hydrogen vehicles Environmental standards for vehicles Passive house construction (outside DH) Low energy construction Energy saving retrofit/insulation Energy savings/reduction

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

Number of municipalities [N=11] Fig. 7. Overview of the 79 different focus areas that were identified from the municipal energy plans and strategies. The graph illustrates the number of municipalities that mention a certain focus area. The measures and initiatives are grouped into 9 overall categories (focus areas). Abbreviations used in the graph: GHG¼ greenhouse gasses; RE ¼renewable energy; DH¼ district heating; CHP ¼combined heat and power; PV ¼photovoltaic; HP ¼ heat pump; EV ¼ electric vehicle; H2V¼ hydrogen vehicle.

the relatively large number of local CHP units and wind turbines which are also the result of an active participation of local actors in energy planning since around the middle 1970s. In addition to that, there currently seems to be a consensus that especially municipalities are to play a more pronounced role during the

implementation of the future energy system. While there is a general willingness among Danish municipalities to engage in energy planning, their role is not exactly clear. Due to an insufficient institutional framework municipalities may find themselves unable to implement parts of their climate and energy strategies. In

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absence of a concrete national strategy for 100% renewable energy systems, some variation regarding the content of municipal energy plans can be expected. The review of 11 municipal energy plans shows, indeed, that while a relatively wide range of areas is covered, none of the plans has a level of detail that would correspond with an integrated 100% renewable energy strategy. Only very few plans covered all of the areas that are suggested to be relevant in a 100% renewable energy system. It is argued that this can be explained by the absence of a national strategy for municipal energy planning, insufficient institutional frameworks for certain technologies and solutions and, consequently, the lack of the necessary planning expertise in the municipalities. The review also indicates that the most frequently mentioned focus areas in the plans also correspond to areas in relation to which municipalities already have been assigned clearly defined tasks. It is argued that, in order to achieve successful implementation of municipal energy plans (and national energy objectives), it is necessary to restructure the energy planning system. This entails a move from ‘‘parallel energy planning’’ to ‘‘strategic energy planning’’ in which an alignment of national energy objectives, municipal energy planning and the necessary instruments for implementation can take place on a continuous basis. The paper elaborates the idea that an effective decentralisation of strategic energy planning can only be achieved by a simultaneous centralisation within the institutional framework. This means that responsibilities should be handed down to the municipalities along with the necessary back up in the form of clear guidelines, access to information and instruments to carry out strategic energy planning. Such support needs to be established at the central level, where strategic energy planning as a formal task of the municipalities should be defined. The backbone of this centralisation– decentralisation process should be a concrete national strategy for how to achieve a 100% renewable energy system, in order to ensure that municipalities can carry out energy planning in an integrated way taking into account all aspects of the energy system.

Acknowledgements The research documented in this paper is supported by the Danish Council for Strategic Research through the research project Coherent Energy and Environmental System Analysis (CEESA) and by the utility company of Frederikshavn (Forsyningen Frederikshavn). Thanks to Mette Reiche Sørensen for linguistic corrections.

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