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Municipal strategic planning: The reshaping of Israeli local government
Municipal Strategic Planning: The Reshaping of Israeli Local Government D. JANNER-KLAIJSNER 4.2 Koreh Hndorot
Street, Tulpiyot,
9X339-3.~ermakrn,
Isrud
PERGAMON
~lllllllllllllllllllllll~l~l~llll 0305-9006(1994)41:3;1-2
To Laura,
With Love and Thanks
Biography
204
Vol. 41. pp. 20_%306. IYY4. (Q 1YY4 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved. 1~3OS-9006/94 $26.00
Progress in Piannittg,
03059006(94)EOOOl-X
Contents Abstract
208
Acknowledgements
209
1.
Introduction
211
2.
Changes in the Role and Responsibilities 2.1.
2.2.
3.
of Locat Government
T$e ~p~?ortl~~~~t.~ for DecentraIiz(~t~on 2.1. I. 1967-1977: Wars, risiig expectations and econo~li~ crisis The direct election of mayors 2.1.2. The 1977 ‘turnaround’: new leaders, new agendas, 2.1.3. new lines of accountability Project Renewul: decentralization gets an underwriter 2.1.4. The Implications of Decentralization for Local Government Administration
Developing ~unic~pa1 Strategic Planning and Information Evolution of the Concept .?.I. .?.I. i The institutional scene
3.2.
3.3
Units
3.1.2. inventing MPU,r 3. I .3. Guidelines for the prototype MPUs Cuse Study: The Pilot MPU in Yavne Becomes Entangled in It?fhrmation Systems 3.2.1. Conditions in the two piloting towns 3.2.2. The Yavne model The Move to Di.~semini~tio~l More lessons from the pilot projects 3.3.1. 3.3.2. The fra~~e~~or~for coiintry-abode ~mpiemeni~tio~ of MPCis 205
215 215 215 216 217 218 220
225 775
WI-
22s 227 229 231 211
233 2% 2% 236
206
Progress 3.4.
in Planning
Working
Purtertts
of the AlPUs
3.4.1.
The
3.4.2.
Preprrru~im
.I.J..j.
Retideritlg A
3.4.4.
cttlergetw
oJ’ utl Itolislic of strute@c
polic,!
platit~itr~
pructic.c
plans
explicit
‘trolrble-silootiti~’
.scr\~iw
liar rtirrtiicipirl
polic?,
ittitl
plmtitlitic~
4.
3.3.5.
Usitig
.?.4.(1.
The
dirlrr ‘prodirct
tt1i.v’
31’
MPUs in Action: Three Further Cases 3.1.
‘17 74’
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
5.
Theoretical Perspectives: MPUs and New Organizational Directions for Local Government 5.1. The Theowricul C‘ottw~ jor I.oc~trl Strrrrtyic~ Plcrtrt~rtr,q S0uttyic plutrtiitt,q iti t/itJ Mt’C1.s u1ii1 it1 1ht, hlrsitics 5 5.1.1. ,-
.scclor ltrflttt~tic~itt,~
5. I.,‘. 5.2.
The
Challenge
Perceptions
111~1tttcrchitic,
of N Nm* for
the Fl‘lrlirrt’
5.2.1.
Po.s~triodtwr
5._7..?.
Ncn,
5.2.3.
MPlJ.s
locul
.strwrlrrul uttd
o/ loc~irl ,qo~‘crtittictft
Purudi~tn:
Dt~~~c~lopitt~ ~\‘tw~
oj’ 1~0~~~1 ~~o\~~~rtittwtit ,qowrtiutiw
purrrdigtm
irriil
ttiiittits(‘tfil’tit
liar loc~rl cqowrttttwtrt
11ttJ 'pr,.stttt/,~lt,t-tr purudi,~m
2’0
municipal 6.
Conclusion:
Making Sense of Change and Befriending
Appendix
1. Choosing
Appendix
2. Notes on the Evolution of the Director-General Israeli Local Authorities
Appendix
the Future
MPU Directors
3. The MPUs and Local Democracy
Bibliography
Strategic Planning
207
293 297
Role in 299 303 305
Abstract As the traditional role and practices of Israeli loc~rl govcrnmcnt \\CI.C rcntlcrctl ,I 1n;1101re\h2ping \\;I, inappropriate by decentralization from central government. set in motion. The gap between the responsil>ilitics of loc;~l authoritiC.4 and ~IICII managerial resources prompted the development ot ;I IICM suppo~n nlcch;lnl\ln Municipal Strategic Planning and Information LJnit. l‘hcw unit\ and thclr \\cjrh through C;I~ 4fiidi~‘4. hen\ ~IICC’ arc the focus of this monograph which cxamincs. their inception in 19X5. local planning and management ha4 dc\ clopcd ;I more comprehensive and coordinated approach. The \ludv finds that the \\itlci 4rr;ltcFlc’ the
agenda
has implications
for
the skills
and trainin
208
g of local ~c)\crnnlc~llt
l’l~lnnLT\
This monograph
was written
during
a year‘s leave-of-absence
Israel office of the American Jewish Joint Distribution to the JDC for the opportunity to reflect on practice,
from my work at the
Committee. I am grateful and for their financial
support during this period. I reccivcd warm hospitality at the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and I am especially endebted to Professor Don Schiin and to John Davies for their helpful inputs. I am very grateful to Professor Derek Diamond, for encouraging me to write abou, my work and draw some wider conclusions from it. At the JDC partnership with my colleagues, especially Joel Siegel and Haia Jamshi. has been enriching and vital. The thoughts developed in this paper arc the result of several years of intensive work with many partners in Israeli local government. too numerous to list here. 1 wish to acknowledge their exceptional openness and collaboration, while of course holding none but myself responsible for the paper’s content.
CHAPTER
1
Introduction
In the past 15 years, the horizons of Israeli local government have broadened dramatically. The expansion of local government activities which reflects a profound change in Israeli society, places considerable strains upon the leaders, managers, planners and staff of local authorities. Israel is turning from being a centralized state, engaged in nation-building and dedicated to maintaining a unifying vision for its citizenry, to a more pluralistic, less austere and more westernized pattern of government. Increasingly, good government means not only forceful national leadership, but competence in local government, the tier increasingly responsible for the services which define the quality of everyday life. The development of local planning and management has not paralleled this broadening of local responsibility. Characteristically, management and planning in local authorities have been conservative and reactive, fragmented along departmental lines and geared to administrating services shaped largely by central government. These conditions have shaped the attitudes and vested interests of many local politicians, managers and officials. These traditional practices have, however, been rendered inappropriate by the demands of complex, multi-service organizations - into which Israeli local authorities are evolving. The gap between the responsibilities of local authorities and their managerial resources prompted the development of a unique entity to support local planning and management - the Municipal Strategic Planning and Information Unit (MPU). These units and their work arc the focus of this monograph. Planners in MPUs are operating as in-house consultants in a growing number of local authorities. Their mission is to co-ordinate and support the making of policy at both the senior staff level and at the departmental, line-management level. A major challenge for the MPUs is to redirect policy thinking towards longer-term and integrated goals, and to base decision-making on an improved analysis of available and newly-generated data. Since their inception in the mid 19XOs. MPUs have contributed to the development of an innovative approach to planning in local government one which is holistic in its scope and management-orientated in its relationship to decision-makers. The relevance of this approach to contemporary local 211
Progress
212
government
in Planning
cstcnds lxyond
the horders of Israel.
since the hlPl
1 al5cl
dcmonstratea more gcncrail? ho\\ planning and managcmcnt 111local Fo\ct-nmc’nt arc increasingly The
intcrt\vincd.
developtncnf
of \tratc$c
planning.
Mith
agenda. calls for ;I rc~apprai4al ot the skills Addressing
;I \tratc$c
its holistic.
gcncralist\
planning practices. p;ir;illcl and theit-
local authorities frontrunners
cspcctctl
It i\ ;I more
to rleli\,ct-
among private-4ector
government
and
Ill
cllatlges
tIleIt-
critical
providers.
At
contest and of the quality of service-provision contemporary
theoretical
thinking
in M htch
conip;iral~lc to the (imc. Ioc;iI
willc
the
I~~sc’snc>neof its political significance as the ;ircn;i
dctnands on public rc4ourccs must he arbitrated.
h,ct\+cctt
t-clatiotwhip.
in ;I tnimncr
set-vicch
scrvicc
I11;lll;l~c’lllcllt
the emcrgcncc of new rclationshtp\
local authoritic\. arc
in Ist-aeli IOGII planning.
academic curricul;i.
oil
The adoption of MPI I\ II! IOLYII authorities citizens
\ct-viccx. I‘hrough the \korl\ ot
ha\c I~c~~~memore prominent
trend which i\ beginttin g I0 have an impact and
ot planncxt-\
agenda takes town planners far hcyond cu\tom;tt.> ctnph;t~~~
on cithcr land-use or the dc\clopment of individual the MPlis.
mitlti-clt4cilllirl~tt-\
apfitudc5 quit-cd
and
in bhich contlicting
The dichotc>my 01 pc’litical
forms a hackdrop to much ot the
on local government
tnanagemcnt. rc‘\ ic>bccl tn
Chapter 5 of this monograph. In Israel.
the
change
in the
role
of local
govcrntnent
ha\ been pt-ccipitatccl I>!
the decline in the once-pcr\,asi\,e intluence of central govcrnmcnt. therefore which
hegins with an analysis of this decline
it crcatcd
Following idea
for
the
expansion
this scene-betting.
and idcntitie
lhrough
role of MPU\.
the
cy>pot-tutlifie\
~role of local govcrnmcnr.
of the
I will turn to describing the gcncsi\ 01 the ILIP
and its application in ;I \.ariet!’ of local authorities.
be illustrated
‘l‘hc nic~nr)graph
The \\ork of 1\-11’1 14 V,III
shot-1 CIISC 41udic4 from tivc town\. Thc\c \iill ckiimtnc the
their tactics for gaining influence and some 01 the topto N hich
have hccn addressed. The!
ako demonstrate
the
scope
in creating ;I form of planning which. although directly needs of managetnenr, nonetheless
maintains
of MPl’
IinLcd
IIILOIL cmcrlt 10 tlx
c\ et-! da!
it5 indepenclenc~ and long-tct-m
perspective. Following
the GISC studies.
I will look at ~mc
de\~cloptnent and on local g)\‘ernmcnt structure the MPU
program.
In particular.
challenge of cohesion-httil~ling decentralization providing quality.
of the thtnktng
which tinds &I practic:tl cchc) in
I will focus on litcraturc
in incrcasingl)
on or~;tnt/~ttic)rl;ti
dcccntralizcd
v hich c\;~m~tlc‘~the c,t.gani/atic)tl4. ‘I‘hc
of local govcrnmcn1 management and the cnip~~~kering of \taft
services to the public. i\ ;I direct requirctnent At the satnc time. if the conventional
for tmpro\ing \CI-Lice
command structut-c i\ diffused.
new ways must he found to detine goals and ensure their assimilation increasingly
independent workers.
government
is moving in this direction.
I>\ the
I will argue that the tnanagcmcnt of local and that MPU-type
structure\
\vill lx_~~~me
Municipal
increasingly devolved
central
to maintaining
organizational
a commonality
Strategic
of purpose
within
Planning
213
more
structures.
Since 1988. I have enjoyed a unique vantage point from which to observe the changing of Israeli governance. As national co-ordinator of the MPU programme at the JDC I have had the opportunity of seeing the everyday application of planning to a diversity of settings and issues. At the same time, working at the national Icvcl, I have had the opportunity to be involved in evaluating the institution of local government and its transformation. My writing is, therefore. influenced by two very different levels of abstraction: from the level of national policy on the role of local government. it zooms in onto a single issue in a particular setting and then back again, to frame the single event in its broader context. The cast studies, in particular, show how local events take place against changing backdrop, sometimes only partly understood by the local players. 1 will turn now to setting the national scene, by examining the process of decentralization which has taken place in Israel over the past 20 years. and its impact on the role of local government.
a
CHAPTER
2
Changes in the Rofe and Responsibilities Government 2.1.
THE
OPPORTUNITY
FOR
of Local
DECENTRALIZATION
In the past 20 years, Israeli local government has undergone an historical transformation. It has become instrumental in defining and delivering human services, as well as taking an increasingly active role in economic development. This expansion in the role of local government corresponded in its timing to a decline in the effectiveness and authority of central government. The process has not been one of planned substitution. There has been only one major change to the relevant legal framework. There has been no drastic change in fiscal policy and, while some transfers of responsibility were planned and premeditated, many have been ad hoc. A prominent expert on Israeli local government, Nahum Ben-Elia, coined the phrase “decentralization by default” which aptly describes the process which has taken place (Ben-Elia, 1988, describes the process). Four factors precipitated the almost concurrent decline of central government’s influence and the corresponding move by local government to fill the vacuum. These factors are the outcome both of long-term trends and of more immediate changes in policy, and combined to create the opportunity for a rapid change in the balance between the central and local tiers of government.
2.1 .I. 19674977:
Wars, rising expectations
and economic crisis
Following the victory in the 1967 Six Day War, the embattled Israeli society began to open up to the world and enjoyed a leap forward in economic growth. The sense of military siege eased and standards of Iiving improved. Exposure to the outside world increased through wider overseas travel and was brought home by a significant inlmigration from affluent Western countries (cf. Avruch, 1981, on American immigrants). Television, introduced in 1968, facilitated comparisons between IsraeI and other advanced countries (which supplied much of the programming). There was also a macro-economic imperative: Israeli firms expanded
their exports
and, in a gradual 215
quid pro quo, local markets
were
Municipal
their communities,
there was also a sense of alienation
Strategic
between
Planning
communities
217
-
particularly smaller and more peripheral ones - and their transient leaders. The change in the law enabled communities to express their frustration with Labour, a frustration which was growing since the mid 1960s. Increasingly, in smaller towns and development towns, a new generation of young leaders, mostly of Scpharadi origins, was emerging under the wing of the Herut. the main right-wing opposition party (and the dominant party of the Likud block). These ambitious young politicians, determined to challenge the Ashkenazi-dominated Labour establishment, were more populist reformers then ideological right-wingers. However. their sense of indignation at, and protest against, the hegemony of the Labour Party found a natural home in the Herut Party of Menachem Begin, itself a political underdog for nearly three decades. With the higher echelons of central government blocked to them, with the Labour Federation and the Jewish Agency controlled by Labour, the new generation of politicians turned to local politics as the remaining arena in which they could gain influence and government experience. Direct election made the aspiring local leaders more visible. Almost by definition, they were highly charismatic individuals, charisma and natural leadership qualities being essential given the lack of backing from a government party. So, as the Labour Party’s hold on central government faltered. the new leadership was already developing in the wings. Its claims on power were multiple: empowerment of Sephardic Jews who had not become an integrated part of Labour’s constituency; reallocation of resources in favour of development towns and deprived neighbourhoods; their youth, and their being untainted by contact with the corruption of establishment politics; their role-model qualities as self-made politicians who succeeded in an autocratic, centralized and paternalistic political system (for a recent review of issues of ethnicity in Israel, see Ben-Rafael and Sharot, 1991). Last but not least, the new leaders brought a promise of somehow giving government back to the people and making it more accountable to communities - as they, as directly elected mayors, were themselves. To summarize. the lY7Os saw a devolution of state power from its traditional holders. facilitated partly by more independent local government. The weakening of the old order and the emergence of a new, alternative leadership, converged in the May lY77 election which became known as ‘The Turnaround’ (‘Mahapach’) which ousted Labour from power.
2.1.3.
The 1977 ‘turnaround’:
new leaders, new agendas, new lines of accountability
Following the May 1977 election the Likud block was able to form a majority coalition government, supported by some of Labour’s erstwhile political partners
2.1.1.
Projecr
Renewal:
decentralizatiott
gets atr trttderwrifet
~~ni~;pa~ c~~mrnuniti~s. without
For
the Israelis,
the strings
of urban
development.
well-established exposure
and committed
central
ideas.
Further
government.
of the locality Teicher, ieaders,
Project closely
rcsourccs
with
lucky
community,
resources if these
provided
could
study
of twinning
Renewal.
the new ~ =eneration
to twin
the arrangement
available
a detailcd
to new notions
enough
to implctncnt
new ideas set ;I collision
community
resources
as exposure
communities
diaspora
more.
this,
Among notion
tied to their
ct~mtnitnit~cs
and the legitimacy
Through
;I
new and with
help tip the balance
arrangement\,
with
provided
course
in favour
WC Iqpin
the mandate
of combined
local additions
to existing
curricula:
and ideas and social
rind locat residents’ of resources.
physicat
specific
and
of multi-di~ciplin~lry and more.
social
services. this
hcterogclle~)us The
notion
setting
up affiliated budget.
charities
as opposed
through to handle
involved
social
was
in planning
support
young; child
was the
fundt~i
and informal
one-stop
with
the
dclivcry.
participation
Rcncwal
patterns
and dccisi~~tl-nlitkillg of partnership
and became commonplace
of a ‘closed‘
actively
Pro,@
and the vury
including
Rcncwnl
Citizen
such as formal
emphasis,
oht2ineJ
to focal service
by Project
of neighbourhoods;
Through
became more
were
level.
such as the cldcrty
decentralized. dcvcloped
committees
state scrviccs
and ncighl7oitrtlot,ct
was t-c-written.
fostcrcd
development.
On a wider
improvement
populations
new approaches
of local government
physical
the altocation
of mavors
and c~)l?lrn~ttcd lo than.
to develop
the new approachcs
encouraged
towns
as well
219
Planning
1990).
Through
centres,
Israeli
the diaspora
(for
~trr~lngement
government,
F’or those
to new paradigms,
innovative
for
the twinnjng
of centralistic
Strategic
distinctive education
programmcs
the setting-up
~icvcloptllcIit
of c;crviccs and ~lc~/cl~)I~tnent a!Jout than.
noti-govcrnmcnt the work individual
inevitably. agcncics
of Project
more also with
Rct~uwal,
programmcs
on the basis
to being part of the municip;tlity’s
regular
funding
arrangements. The
dynamics
government’s
of Project
grip
an agent of central officials, of services These
to move
and reprcsentativc
on its management
changes structures
on the actual structure turn
to discuss
made acute.
Israeli
government,
local g(?vernment profound
Renewal
combined
governed
took
on more
the rclax:ttion
of ccntr;tl
to ;I new plain.
by vertical
iinks
of the character
to diverse
I;t-om
hcing
niinisteriat
of ;t hub for a Iocul \vcb
~)rg~~nis~tti~)ns. in the way
local
and practices
and operation
the specific
Gth
tocal govcrnnicnt
inadequacies
govcrtilii~~lt
operates
intpactcd
and, did not have an immediate
of individual which
local authorities.
clecentralization
slowly imp;tct
I will
JIOVI’
highlighted
and
Progress
220 2.1.
‘I’IIE
in Planning
IMPI.l~‘A’I‘lONS
OF
I~~:~‘I’N’I‘H.\I,I%:\
1‘10\
k’Ol< I.()(’
\I.
G 0 v PIH h hl K Y ‘I‘ .A I) hl I N I s ‘I’ K A ‘I’ I 0 u
I’hc
admini~tt-atit,n
groLtp5.
One
dcli\,erc
of
scconcl
groLrp
service
rcspc~nsihiltty
gt-0Ltp
to
ttlc
;I t\pic:il
comi\t\
specific
policy-making. division
of
of
wrvico.
consist\
of
thaw
bitt.
functioning
‘direct of
;I\
lega
c,iii
;ind
cdLlcatlc~ll.
clcp~irtinctit~
t-athcl~.
c;It-t~\
~llld
‘I1C;ICt~~Ll;lt-tc’t-~’
authot
ttic4
po\itic)n\
I\\(1
I c~\lx)tt\ttllc \\ Iitc,lt
ha\c
Ioc~il
;ittthr~r’ttic\
I\
the .Ihc,
no \LlCh
c,ct-i,rttiiiati~,ti tLltlcltoll~
ILltlctlc~tl~ll
tot
hc~;IIltl
trlllc’ttot14
cc~iiiniittc~c I-or-
Illto
01 ptdlc~
‘tlc,I~Ic~Ll;ll~lc‘t~\
and
Ioc;it
ni;~n~i~~~t~--
;inc1 OLlt
11ctt
\\Cll~ll~C
I counsct
wt-\.icc’ 14raeli
;ittthc~t.tt\
clc~p~irtnietit~
\LlCh
budgeting. twtwccn
toc;it
tl1tcc3 ;I\
I he
tLIItIl;II11c~ttt~ll
to
c.ti,;itc
;I
Municipal
management establish
structure
policies
appropriate
for the development
Strategic
to their level of responsibility, of services
Pianning
221
they must
which reflect financial
resource
development and the impact of physical development. However, the traditional structure of Israeli local authorities strongly mitigates against such organization-wide cohesion. In a typical Israeli local authority, it is precisely the ‘headquarters’ functions, so necessary for developing successful local strategies, which are weak. Because of centralized &overnment, many of the duties of the ‘direct service’ departments remain heavily in~uenced by the corresponding ministry. In the past, departments such as education and welfare would have been more accountable to their respective ministries than to the local ‘headquarters’ staff - the mayor included. The government csscntially paid local departments to be its field agent in providing services according to a centrally-determined policy. This duality of allegiance remains, with government departments seen as representing the professional interest more clearly than the local ‘headquarters’. The ‘headquarters’, topped by the mayor, is seen as a political entity, biased towards the politically tenable, while the ‘direct service’ departments present themselves as driven by more professional considerations. The division between the functions of the ~headquarters’ ‘staff’ level and those of ‘direct service‘i’line’ reflects. therefore, divided lines of accountability. Put very schematically. the politicians topping the pyramid, primarily the directly-elected mayor. answer primarily to public. the city council and their political party. The senior ‘headquarters’ staff - typically, treasurer and town clerk - answer primarily to the mayor, although they can also lean back on their statutory role definitions to help assert some independence. The lint departments have a dual allegiance - to mayor and to ministry. There is an ambivalence at times as to which of these lines is stronger. Summarizing. the typical components of local government administration are as follows: Executive ‘headquarters’~~st~~f~ Mayor Deputy Mayor (Chief Executive) Treasurer Town Clerk (Comptroller,
responsibilities:
Legal Adviser)
Hybrid staffllinc roles: City Engineer (town planner) Personnel Director
222
Progress
‘Direct
in Planning
service’/‘linc’ Education.
departments:
Social
Environmental Ktxrcation
Services.
I>evelopment In this to -
while
actual
into
As the
the
and
funds
the
can
optional
group
I will
~~ ;I point
ot rcsponaihilitics
t’or- csample.
of local
author’itie\
ear-!
4ei-\ice4
hccome~
from
from
one
rctui-ll
loc;rl
2s cducxtioii
\uch
moot.
;intl
local
L)c’p;~rtmcn1~
can appl\
\uch
ot <)utGclc
anal
;I\ cduc;ltiorl
r)t 4ignilic;lnt
10 intra5tructurc
in ii position
tlecis~onx
the dcvclopment
the balance
incrc’;I\c\.
;~nd t hc influence
they are alho irccipicnt5
;ii-c therefore
to intluencc
\er-vice
managcrh
‘l‘lic wiiic
govci-nmcnt. dcpartmcntx
inipcdc
local
tar
‘headquarter‘
de&ions.
These ministries
patterns
arc
iiclt onI> major hpcndcr\:
are
development.
alkattion
ot local
on local
transferred
in hrackct.\
division.
authority
ser\,icc\
l~ixxd
Some.
;I single
authoritie\
with
titles nest.
llealth
~tncl C‘ontrc~l
roles
responsibility
hctwccn
social
the
to the
welfare
Public
Pl;inning
listing.
authority
Services
Service5
(0 CI\C their allocation.
on rc\;ourcc
r)f mlinicipalit~-\\,icle
tic4
I hc\c
pcjlicie\
and
their
implementation. Further
contributing
ambivalent the
role
of the planner
of town
However. theil-
to the
position hy law
planning
could
role
the
law.
This
closely The
main
the
the
tit\
:idopteti esccutive -
to central
organization
Israeli
oftcil
‘headquarters
while
Icvel.
taking
and
10 o\‘c‘I-~c*c laid
dc~ii
the cnglnccr’\
rather
than
not
dctu:ill\ lhu4
IlerMccn
the ni;l\or
It i5 d t‘;ir ~73 ironi
\\;I\ on
ciivcrgcnt
;go\ crnnicnt
thu4 nc\f lint*\
ircquircd role\.
.I‘hc
clerk.
10 the
1~
~rolc l~orni;itic~n
c,xiht
~upplcnicntcti ‘1%~; c>ui\tcncc
14 dctcrminc~d
rcllect\
il\ iiiclcpcilclcnt
/oc;iI
politic~;II.
of town
although
csccuti\,c>‘.
dots
cffcctibc
local government
management
qualification5 enipha4i5
ai-c tlicretorc
of cc>mptr-oiler
authorit\
ni~ikin~
gokcrnmcn1. which
the tllng
cock5
while
Thus.
IO p’omoling
conin:<
restricti1.e.
incorpoi-ate\
‘h~;ldc~~~~~~~t~r~~
as :I planncl-.
lack
the
builciing Icvcl
‘chief
local
i4 split
often
of 1rcaurci-
and
ol
authoritics. Israeli
authoritv
cach component
poht
of the
cnginecr-
5lratcg!
ad\iscr
I‘hc
of the
and
part
ot cith
inv;~luahlc
from
i\ in it\clt
roles
of Icgal
Ix
the!
to \tra\
of /cjning
position
hc qualitied
cnginecr\
at ‘hcacl~lll~rrt~r-4’
hy local
structure
not
dcvclopment
force\
authorit)
citv
on land-ux
statutorily-dctiri~L1
position\
local
focus
not
planning.
tend
to cnforccment
of an overall ly
anvway.
need
make
holistic
and.
‘l‘he
can. therei’orc.
and
nl;~n;~gcmerlt i\ the
ot ‘hcadquartcr\‘
enkjnecr.
the cnginucr
cross-depnrtment~ll. planning
wcahness
tit),
I)\ the \i/c
it i\ Incrc;i\inyl\ in tlic
\talutc
department\.
~~~l)c~litical
the cc)he\i\c.
I’lic
herlt;lgc:
and indi\~irlual ;ippro;lcli
ot the being
hoo1\4.
the ccntr;lli\tic
ot
the M ith
oi- pi-ote44ion~il
~u41oiiier~~o~~l~~~l
nii14( I~CCOIIIC~ IO cte~~lol~ aclniini4trati~c
ot accc~unt:ilGlit\
and
new
planning struc1urc.
\fcah
and \vith
its ~cah
01 non-c\iatent
~un~~~pa~ Strategic Planning
key executive not designed government.
positions
in both strategy
planning
to carry its own weight independently Small wonder, then, that the change
and executive
oversight,
of an interventionist in the roles of central
223
was central and local
government threw the traditional structure out of balance. Since the imbalance became apparent in the early 198Os, an effort has begun to evolve governance structures which can more readily adapt to future needs. In the following section I will show how the MPU programme was conceived as a catalyst and component for the strengthening of local government management.
CHAPTER
3
Developing Municipal lnforma tion Units 3.1.
EVOLUTION
OF THE
Strategic Planning and
CONCEPT
3.1. I. The institutional scene The decentralization process which started in the mid 1970s had, by the mid 1980~~ led to an acute noun-synchr~~ny between the growing responsibiIities of local government and the ability of its traditional administrative practices to discharge them. The delay in producing remedies while the non-synchrony widened, reflects how far local government was moving into uncharted territory. The formal framework of Icgally-sanctioned powers remained in position, as did the formal administrative structure of local government. These powers and structures, however. no longer reflected the day-to-day reality of local government. While the need to introduce changes to the operation of local authorities was becoming clearer, there was no clear leadership in grasping this nettle until the late 1980s. The bodies which may have been expected to address the need for change early on. such as academic institutions and the Union of Local Authorities in Israel, were preoccupied elsewhere. In academia. the widespread view of local government was of a backwater of little significance, a view reflected in the relative dirth of local government research up until the late 1980s (typically, two comprehensive and well-regarded books on Israeli society which appeared in 1989 ignore local government almost completely - see Kimmerling, 1989; Horowitz and Lissak, 19XY). The Union of Local Authorities, the national umbrella organization of the urban local authorities, was embroiled in political leadership battles and failed to develop a coherent outlook on the state and future of its constituent members. The Ministry of the Interior, until the mid 1980s. seemed more interested in preserving the status-quo and its own control over IocaI government, than in facilitating decentralization. Project Renewal, although very active in its local programmes, did not see local government change as a high priority. Its emphasis was on clrban rather than on municipal development.
Indeed,
in shaping 225
its operations
Project
Renewal
seemed
Municipal
fight the trend,
the Ministry
developed
a new policy:
autonomy by raising the quality of local government unnecessary the Ministry’s daily involvement. While
Strategic
to facilitate
Planning
greater
227
local
to a level which would render maintaining its traditional
role of regulating local government. the Ministry set about developing ways of carrying out its new policy and looked for potential partners. Among the partners and programmes it considered, was the JDC’s fledgling effort to effect the quality of local government management through the introduction of Municipal Strategic Planning and Information Units.
3.1.2.
Inventing MPUs
The professionals at JDC who were turning their attention to local government the early 1980s and came up with the MPU concept, had all had previous ties with Project Renewal. They had observed that Project Renewal was expanding the superstructure of services rapidly, using its own resources. This growth was outpacing the capacity of the existing municipal infrastructure to adapt and support it. The JDC staffers saw a very real risk of collapse once Project Renewal withdrew and left the local authority to fend on its own, with inadequate budgets and sometimes inadequate staff, for the newly expanded services and newly erected public buildings. As a result of this analysis. JDC staff targeted the ‘headquarters’ level of local government as the crucial element for intervention. Implicitly at least. it was assumed that line-departments could change, provided that the political cues, the leadership and professional support all pushed them in the right direction. in
However, without an impact on leadership, no such cue, no such impetus, would evolve. Add to this the centrality of the figure of the directly-elected mayor, and it became clear that an effective intervention would have to involve the mayor and be positioned above departmental divisions. With no officer at ‘headquarters’ level in charge of decision support. decision-makers were rarely supplied with background information, statistical analysis or financial analysis in connection with their decisions. This situation reflected the nature of typical decision-making: routine, year-on repeated decisions or decisions relating to service provision where the boundaries were often influenced by national government and. sometimes, by prior political agreements. Furthermore, most municipalities lacked an appointed chief executive. In its absence, the civil servant with the most comprehensive overview is almost always the city treasurer. However. the treasurers do not carry responsibility for the overall co-ordination of municipal activity and for the attainment of set goals. Thus, any kind of action which crossed departmental lines and required a modicum
of co-ordination
was either
a matter
for the mayor,
or chance.
228
Progress
in Planning
The upshot of these shortcomings was an absence of cvcn nascent notion3 of planning which would address the full range of local authority concerns in an holistic and strategic manner. ‘Holistic’ is a key concept which underpins much of the approach which came to be the hallmark of MPUs. ‘Holistic planning’. as I explained earlier, takes into account the interlinking of three essential component\ in the dynamics of city development. These are. physical development. economic development and the development and maintenance of human scrvicea. (A fourth component. although it is part of the balance between the previous three. 15 maintaining environmental quality by linking the pace of growth to the carrying capacity of infrastructures and to the character of an individual to&n or city.) The statutory planning system. with its role as regulator of land-use. directly addresses just one of these three components. Indeed. it might he \aid that in being the ubiquitous planning mechanism. land-use planning ha4 become ~111 end in itself. In an holistic framework. the goal of the local authority ix to underpin the welfare of its citizens and that is the primary focus of planning. Land USC in this framework becomes a means to an end - either through ensuring appropriate physical development. or through guiding development so as to benefit the public purse through tax incomes. or both. The JDC team concluded that the planning paradigm needed to be radically changed, with planning evolving into a management tool for clarifying. sharing and pursuing more broadly-defined local development goals. In this role. planning takes on a strategic concern with mustering a variety of forces in pursuit of :I common path. In terms of Israel’s centralized state, this was quite far-fetched. Consider, for example, that urban development, particularly in new towns and development areas. is carried out mainly by the Ministry of Housing ;111ci Construction. The Ministry must act in accordance with known zoning guidelines. but is not obliged to bow to the local authority in deciding how much to build. or where within the appropriate zones to start - two issues which can make or break a municipality’s cashflow. The goal of land-use planning was, therefore. to produce a plan - ;I spatial expression of land allocation for future needs. Holistic planning, in contra\t. aims to provide broad guidelines for more detailed sectional planning proccssch which subsequently take place (including, but certainly not confined to. land-use planning). The case study of Rehovot in the next chapter demonstrates how such ;I transformation of the local planning process can be achieved. The structural weakness of local government organization was first felt not so much through the planning side as through the executive action side. Mayors tried hard to be their own policy advisers and chief executive. but by the mid 1980s many of them were reaching a common conclusion. The burden was simply becoming too great to be handled without a supporting management structure. For a mayor
to realize
the shortcomings
of the local government
organization
Municipal
is one thing. quite another. threatens
To admit to it and to solicit assistance Indeed,
to undermine
rationalizing
local government
the buccaneer
Strategic
in trying planning
Planning
to change
229
it, is
and management
image which many mayors
cultivate.
This
image is politically and psychologically important. It keeps alive a fundamental and unifying ethos of Israeli society: the ethos of development. The story of modern Israel is one of overcoming odds of demography, location as security through aggressive development. It is an ethos which considers the development merit in its own right. It also tends to excuse mistakes. overlook opportunity costs and mitigates against long-term or holistic planning. Planning, alas, produces fewer heroes than development, and fewer usefully heroic moments. Its empowerment therefore threatens the evocative development ethos. An anecdote may help illustrate the prevalence of the development ethos. In 1991, I was explaining the MPU programme to a veteran official of the Ministry of the Interior. Having listened to the goals of the programme, he suggested a measure for the Units success: “The MPUs will be deemed successful”, the official opined, “if all they’ve managed to do is, every once in a while, cast doubts in the mayors’ minds as to their omnipotence, and slow them down . .” Even allowing for the Ministry’s instinct to control local government, there is truth in the observation about the haste in which local decisions are made, a haste which frequently attests to the superficiality of the decision-making process. Once JDC had identified the ‘headquarters’ level as a key to the performance of local government, the alternatives for intervention were either the planning and policy functions, or the need for stronger executive leadership. The MPU programme addresses the former of these two areas. There were two reasons for this choice. First, the planning task was judged more accessible to outside intervention. Compared with direct intervention in the daily executive management of local government, it was a less threatening approach and hence more likely to gain a foothold. Second. it was hoped that creating a platform for generating new policies would eventually help prompt the creation of executive structures capable of carrying out such policies. This is particularly planning and inter-departmental
3.1.3.
the case where coordination.
policies
might involve
long-term
Guidelines for the prototype MPUs
Once the arena for the intervention in local government had been established, the JDC prepared initial programme guidelines. These reflect the concept of the MPU, and served as a basis for discussion of the idea with local government and Ministry officials. The guidelines are as follows:
230
Progress The
in Planning
woulct
MPU
long-term
and
municipal
agenda.
trends
and
It would The
tocu\ and
making
It was to lx> 4tafted and
.ID(‘
MPUs
would
where
prior
populations
17) in~lividual4
and
suggcstc‘d
not
set it up themsclva
done.
after
were
local authoritk. i-ather
hilt
;I taxhion.
and
the
Mt’L[
point
scrvicch
ITL. niavor\
to local
it w;i\ wol-h.
2 unit.
Larger
If the!
did.
and tlaita
(E\entuallv.
authoritic\
had
howcvcr.
of 211 type4
.---- Iargc
)
council\.
5pccificall~
towns.
location\. 4ul’licient
Tel-A\i\
or another-.
and
an ~nlpact.
of \uc.h
as irui-21 regional
\I hich
v,oulti
l\raeli
Smaller it with
.Icrusalcm.
progr;ininic
al40 cstahlished
requc\tecl
to midtllc-\i/c
100.000.
the
which
to ha\,c
OI- pro\,idc
;I\ indeed
at one
whcrc
opportunitv
rclc~ant
require
tou n4. ;I\ bell
c~i~~aiii/atic)iiaI
4upport.
ba4is.
;I fair
Il.000
did
high-lc\cl
linancial
to IW rno\t
would
Guidclincs
office
~I-~~~~-;~II~II~c dircctor:\tc.
;I national
ot k-tmcen
sniallcr
on the
emcrginy
dftaii.5.
~~nal~leto \u\ta~n ~111MPlr
and
high
cbt’ th
Ic\cl
municipal
combining
pi~otcssion~~l
it w;14 a4~~1nied.
cities
‘4tatt~
\cnior
ot urixin
e\tal~lidi
demand has takcii
in particulal~.
topics
~tructiirc~.
W;I\ asumed
were
each
ot the
bc set up on ;I L c~luntar\
felt.
the\:
part
;l\xsvncnt
with
and
target
ayciida t7v identit’ving
thi4
replace ;in\ c.ii\ting
!5 \\ith
concept
cities.
to shape
;I knowlctf~~c
would MPI
provitlc
analyai~
It would
projectionz.
the esihting
cxpcrience
The
4cck
tutui-c
WOLIIC~ not
supplcmcnt
policy
angle\.
to hc an integral
MPll
The
on intormation.
interdi4cipli”;tr~
refcrrcd
to the
pr~~yaiiinic
directorate: would
.lDC‘
oItcl
zc,inl’i-~hc~rl~l~c
lin:tocial
and
prote\vonal
\uppcji-t
10 the
units . at leaht at tii-\t. An
t‘ffort
senior
~vo~ilri
Authorities The limited
The
nest
for
had
one
selected
for
MPUs
15. ‘l‘hc
and
pirtlb
choice the
and
ot the and
Intci-ioi-
the
I ‘n10ii
ii1 ;I\ ;I 01 I .oc;iI
prograniiiic
it4 pi-ogre44
cupcrlnierit
asxbd
pi-ior
in ;I
to deciGcbn5
had
the
from
in one
to h;r\e
advocate
pilots
wcrc the
pilot
13). the
on
the
overall to\Vns.
MPU
and
Yavne.
guidelines. Y:i\
support:
tjoth
~;Ivo~-\
nc.
ni~rna~cnient:
M ho c0~1lcl txconic
his pcc’rh.
clcmonstratc
I will
b\ I hc%
nia\ror To
o! two prtl\
4t;itt
ot municipal
id<-a among
L\;I\
unit\
pi-ogr;ininic
:r~~cl political
:iiid changing
khovot
t\\o
t\vo
;I n~i~ioii~illv-linoan for
basic
of the\C
\\;I\
I’or the
ot solicitation
updating
tllc selection
pr~~grarnme
of olq>ortunit>
to the
credible
ot the of location
rc\ult
conGderation\
location
evolved
experience
hlinibtr!
g ;IS 2 cloxl\-\~;rtchcd
op,i-atin
of locations.
MPI
reflected
and
the
of the
start
111 the de\c’lopmcnt
point
to he committed
;I strong
decelopnient ~c~uld
nuinber
pilot
at least
to bring
dissemination
self-selection. choice
in the
prograninic
wider-
sitcs
hc niatlc
and aIs0 to iii\ ol\,c xxkniia
partnci-.
now
turn
The the
towns
way
to look
the at the
Municipal 3.2.
CASE
STUDY:
INFORMATION
3.2.1.
Conditions
THE
PILOT
MPU
IN YAVNE
Strategic
BECOMES
Planning
ENTANGLED
231 IN
SYSTEMS
in the two piloting towns
From 1985 to 1988, the pilot MPUs in Rehovot and Yavnc were the focus of the programme. Through the pilot units, the hypothesis about the need for an intervention in policy could be tested, and new tools-of-the-trade developed. Rchovot and Yavne are close neighbours. located some IS miles southeast of Tel-Aviv. Although very different in character, each was typical in its own way. Rehovot is a veteran settlement, established as a farming community in 1890. The settlers were mainly from central and eastern Europe, although in 1906 a group of immigrants from Yemen created the settlement of Sharayim which became a neighbourhood of Rehovot. The city became famous first for its citrus, then for its academic institutions which include the Weitzmann Institute of Science, the Faculty of Agriculture of the Hebrew University. the lnstitutc for Settlement Study and a major hospital. In recent years, the town’s population has been stable at around 80,000. Unusually in fast-changing Israel, Rehovot urbanized in a fairly organic process of expansion and development, with a distinct civic and architectural heritage. It was the appearance of a mature, leafy. somewhat sedate town. The main drag retains a semblance of the village high street; some two miles long as it crosses the city from cast to west, it is lined with trees and low-rise building accommodating mainly small shops. Yavne, in contrast, is a typical development town, one of many towns and neighbourhoods of near-uniform appearance built all over Israel in the 1950s and 1960s to provide housing for the immigrants who swelled the country’s population. Its site has a long history. having been a major Jewish settlcmcnt in Talmudic times, in the first and second centuries CE. By the sixth century Jewish presence had all but ceased and Yavne became an Arab scttlemcnt by the name of Yibne. Yibne, in turn, was abandoned by its Arab inhabitants in the lY48 War and was resettled with Jewish immigrants. Yavne neighbourhoods were built in standard apartment blocks, yielding a monotonous and crowded urban scapc. The town was almost homogcnous in its class and ethnic composition, and until the 1970s was considered an undesirable residential backwater. Its location did. however. attract industry. at first mainly textiles and engineering. These provided employment and some municipal income, albeit at the cost of environmental damage. Yavnc pcoplc were an available pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour for the industries, services and agricultural enterprises of its region. including nearby Rehovot. By the early 1980s the fortunes of both Rehovot and Yavne were reaching a turning-point. Rehovot was, in devclopmcnt terms, meandering, unable to choose between preservation of its traditional lifcstylc and an impulse to cash
Progress
232
In Planning
in on its location retail
consultant :I new
Shitrit.
success
Shitrit housing. location
in the
and
cicinity
of
Tel-Aviv
the
education
proposed
in
provide
ncb
build support and
the
The
interchange Mot
Kcncwul
to
Fol- teaching of the Shitrit‘s
plan
in suburban deprived 1985.
microcosm
the
L\ bile
Yavnc’4
tactol-4.
aII,
Shitrit
an
to
the
;I
wix*
nial-kcting
ail-tot-cc. [or-
olYer_ccl
the
The
\+‘a\4
10
land~to
SC,! Ihe
mlrhct
11h appt-o\,in and
with
for
initi:illb
go\‘crnmcut
to
nei~hhourhot~~~~
go\
emplo\
Ilccc~s;II-\
the
/onlng
\~‘;IL IIC
huh
to
c*rnnicnt
rhc
;tncl
\\ould
\Vhich
children
to
the
;I diI-cct
the
sytcni
planned
g
I71 rcloc:lting
pcrwxicd
education
school\
and
looking
to
the
relocate.
meeting-place
new
4~1 about
\r’a\‘nc
to
tcjr
turn;i1-ound
Iwcoming
;I\
:i~-ui\
wcrc
uncicrtooh to
L\
, Shitrit
clout
ncighhourhoo~t~
was \trategicall!
of the
three \ulwrl>
match
ot .c)lcl‘ and
c’oa\tal t’rojccl
the
‘nc’\\‘
~cll-etlucatcd
the
bc\t \‘:I\
in
nc
4l”)usc4
pcrscjnnc1. cohe\ivc
It ~2s
an oppcjrtunity town.
It\
interchange
committccl
nc
maax
political
co-opcratcd
nc\\
the
cle~~clopment.
govcrntncnt
p(x)’
a\wl.
high-prcjtile
~~ police.
pcr\onnc1.
the
l’orces
Ya\
tortes
rnortgagc\:
ot
hecome tot-cc4
But
01 ;in
on
ncwcomcT\
critical
their
seeking
in creating
staffs.
security
Iargc
;I
l’rorn
Inhcr-cnt
ahsenc~c
and
ot
wcurit\,
\vith
part.
the
significant
and
and
w)cI;il
attracting
11 \ul’fcI-ccl
dorniitc)r\~
that
t’ol-ccs
for
thoce its
mass
thi4
the
subsidized
invcst
countrv
By
for
to pro\,idc
highway.
to\\
depcndccl
;t \ iahlc
;I cc)n\incing
wcurith
sccurit\
for
\,ision
Yavnc
obtain
the
hcnctits
authorizing
tli4
in lsracl
to\vn‘\ I>\
114 onl!
t>!, the
contidencc
Gncc’
‘T‘hc
govcrninent.
changes:
mayor.
rlcl~hhotlr-hoot14. ‘l‘he
. b214 niarrccl Shitrit‘s
dwellings.
loans
in the
low-tlensitv \ysteni.
a critical
7‘0 to
proicct.
change
limitations.
education
prcwidc
;I home.
hundred
uncierwritc
the
Third. to
non-salary
several
clccterl
Lihud
leaders
W;I\ to be achic\cd
Yavnc’\
Second.
R;IS timel!.
iclca
chapter.
town
of redc\clopmcnt.
municipal
;I dramatic
making
market.
nei~hbout-hoods
marketing
the
charismatic
procca
known
‘l‘hi\
realizing
svstcm.
to invcst new
1071.
high\va!,.
dcveloptncnt.
place
of
highway.
Iahoul-
and
and as ;I polio
In ;I later
In
(15)
nc~~,Iv-d~velc,petl ;I poor
limitations,
to the
cv~~l\cd
exemplar!
best
image.
Y‘el-Avi\
coastal
thew
access
huge
scrvicc\
adjxcnt
Given First.
his
into awrc
approach ;I turnaround.
an
01 housing in an MPLI
politics. and
contingent
the
Icad
of the
expansiotl
interested
young
stipulatcti
;11so acutely
poor
the
one
Yavnc
its charx?er
was
with
for
I,!
lor
rapid \va\
thi\
wt
\V;IS to him
to national
vision
rniddlc-class
at how Id
Shitrit made
2 move
composition.
look
N;IS getting
Soon.
Shitrit‘s
bv wc>king of Kehovot
ot Icadcl-4,
in Yavnc
facilitated
image
mayor
I will
meanwhile.
gcncration
Mcir
good ‘I‘hc
function:
Yavne.
of
and
development.
in atlcirc\sing politicallv
to dcmonstratc
enipowcring transforlii~ltion
four
also
elements
;I lwr;lgon \~a4 well
the
astute.
how
prc-wquisites
its poiicie4
cx~ultl
of it\
up-allci-~clrnili~
uriclcr
wa!.
of clecentrali/~itic,n
li\tecl
it gave
in that
‘I‘hc
tar
the
transform
\ucc‘c’\\
I.ikud ;t
Icdclcrxhip.
tom n \\;I\
cat-liar-:
the
;I change
in
Municipal
population
was leading
was visibly
in charge
was politically
to a pressure
of attempting
empowering
for better to transform
the mayor;
services;
Strategic
a directly-elected
the town;
and Project
Planning
the Likud
Renewal
233
leader
government
was providing
the funds necessary to overhaul the education system and rehabilitate older neighbourhoods. While the town of Yavne forged ahead, propelled by charismatic leadership and favourable political winds, much of its municipality seemed relatively unaffected by the changes. The development process was managed by the mayor personally, helped by his own associates. Municipal departments were used when they were needed, but their routine operation was not systematically reviewed in light of the needs of the redeveloped town. In seeking to establish an MPU, and do so early, mayor Shitrit hoped to achieve a number of goals. First, to help his municipality catch up with the development of the city. Second, to continue the momentum of innovation and maintain the town’s newfound progressive image by being at the leading edge of municipal development. Third, the mayor’s vision of MPU work included developing an information network which would keep him better informed on the municipality’s performance, in line with the dominant personal role which he played in everyday management. Shitrit’s high national profile and his personal interest in the MPU idea, as well as the changes the town was undergoing, made Yavne an ideal location for one of the two pilot MPUs. The personal interest, also shown by the mayor of Rehovot, was essential but also carried a price. Both mayors saw the new units as a means of pushing forward their agenda for city and municipality. Hence, the MPUs fortunes and character were to be closely tied to those of their patrons. The task of developing a more general, generic model. based on the two pilot studies, would be sensitive and complex. I will now turn to describing the MPU model which was developed in Yavne, and the lessons from the two pilots which underpinned the subsequent development of MPUs.
3.2.2.
The Yavne model
The pilot project municipal -
in Yavne
decision-making,
was underscored readily
expressed
by a specific approach by the following
to improving
syllogism:
Planning is a tool for support of decision-making. Planning, like decision-making, had to be based on hard data on municipal trends and conditions. The best source for real-time data on the city is the municipality’s own operational systems and records. Therefore, a pre-condition for comprehensive planning perspectives is access to the information derived from the operational level.
234
Progress
in Planning
Available
~-
from
the
Making
--
-
recor&.
availahlc
from
bitsine\s
the
ahout had
effort
conditions
MPU.
A4cr
team
trusted
mavor.
bv the
foundatic;n
for the
work
to design mayor.
for
statistical
graphic
the
reprcaentation IS-3
accurate course.
expediting
the
put
to get tlic
operative.
L‘0111p1-011114c~
ni;iti;igc’mcnt
I I‘ to \\crrk.
‘Hit
the
SLYY)II~. ~1htc~h tcjrJl\
;I\ LSC~II ;I\ tthttig
,~IIr~~tla\ctl
the
(;~K.~.I~IoI~;I~
lhc
\\\ith
d:it,i
iI\ cntplt;i\i\ tI;ItNIct-
cl;it;ttxi~c\. bc
planner’\
accttt.;itc,
iLlI’
oil
\pcn(
t\ IO
u ttti m~tint~~intti~ li‘lttlcl
tl1;111
Itl~~t-dill;llc~
cc~ti\tttc~t-;iblc
;incl l)cr\u;l\ltng
211
iornl~rc‘hcn~i\c
10 ~‘lllc’tt;1lt1.
dircx?oi
it
t1;1\\ CT.
trolc
1llC hll'l hold 10 tll;lhc
w tth thclm
II pl;~nntny
1hci1~ C’O-O~~C~I~;III(~II
t \: ClUld
c \Lt[~pot
tl1\t;IlIcYI
iII1CI
rt4k.
II ttttout
\\\tc’m\:
\rtpport.
trottt,lc-sh~)c,tin~
Lhctii
ttmc
10 \\ot-I\
L\ trh
computer. Furthermore.
tc)
nc moclcl.
tti I\r;rcl
through
con\til~~i-:tt)tc
trom
(1 rc~iaott;tt~l~
)‘a\
kind
1~ ~1~1~ to appl\
h;ltdL\;iI.c
c\ccltti\
\IICIl
d4 ti:i
bt-ou$1t
munic.ip;lltt!. uxc.
dcpat.tmcnt\. ;ltlrl
01 it\
t-clcot-(Ix.
in\oI\t,x!
in mcbt
gathcrtn,
lll~ldc
and
(’
~ii~~ntiltcii
ot computert/in,g
(I< the
\\oultl
3tup
and \\;I\
d;tta.
ixlied
esi\ts
The
1.1‘.
planning
simply
into
time. ot
It aI\0
opcrationat
17‘. plannin,
\\a!\
opcr;ltii,nal
to pro~~nt
on inuot-mation
impert’cctions
effort
orfic~ct-\
L~;I\ hit-cd.
c%\~~cIu\ \\c’t-c
~- ;I ‘lir4t’
W;I~ L\ trittcsn.
ct‘l‘ort.
of the
use ot new
response
efforts
to
~~lltiat~l~~
t;iught
(1~1’) h;tcl tlccii
;lppropt-i;ltc
to CL\ i\c
10 the
mapping
pi-ofilc
hostage
implementation
chasing
and
niunictpdlt!\
n~t~ht~ottt-hooi!4
fc)t- ‘ticacl~~tt;trtct~\’
xlectcd
\oftwarc
nc\\
dcpatdment~
ptx~,icction
IWS
high
such the
effective
(Ipet-ation;ll
pcrniit\
planner.
to\\11
the
mutticipalit! l’it-\t.
tool4
othc,r
and
antI
to tlepcnd
made
balance
ot the
11 01 httildtn~
cspct-inic,nt
tcchnolog!
t\\ofold.
analvtical
1 awl
ot the
in \r’avnc.
operational
analysi\ and
was assumed and
clat;~
deci~ioii-maI\cr~
ic)niptttct-i/cd
plannd
of the
was
and
it was ii costly.
Of
~tt10r
\ucc‘c\\.
information
cli\,crsc
MPI
had
operation
computerization
of the
Between
was also
grantin,
an accomplished
Stup.
Since
task
progt-c\x
an Ml’L”\
which
MPII‘\
interfaces
the
-
the
specialist\‘
routine
and
c%\ cotnl~ttteri/;tttott
tht-oitgh
the
for
ot the
IT
coI~c’~~t~on ot trc,tl-time
;I ioiii~~t-~licttst\~el!
to ct-catc Uouttdcred.
the
the
in to plan
quit
registration
was a member
The
Iacilitatc
use by planncrz
in real-ttmc
school
eventually
Icssons
could for
IicctrGng.
Although
To
tcchnolog!,
data
levels
in Yavne
computer operational
it had
been
hcjpcd
that
local
the Atttotnatic)tl ct_xnernmcnt. authorities) ~,ould support the
local
dccentrnlization the
Yavnc
coalition
of coniputin,g devclopnicnt
with
the
were
unhelpful
their
bailiwicks.
force
to compete
to\vn‘s The uith
troasurcr’s his own,
ncb
m;lin
ot ic~tll[~~ltlng
sulyjlict-
(c)\\nctl
nc c~xpc~riment Iti~tc~td,
the
Automation
\\ytc‘tii
bith
out
01 ;1t1 tntc>rc\t
it ircy~ondccl
intcret and
hi\
\V;IS to prevent intercxt
\cr\
in stallins
computcri/cd the
ICC’\
c)t in
clctcn5t\~cl!,
<‘c)t-pc)r~ttiott’\
cuisting
\L‘l\
I)\ ,I cx)tt\ot-ttuttt
to it\ OL\ ii rii~tinI’t-~tiii~-t~a~~~~l
treusurcr. g the
\‘a\
function\.
115 ;I tht-cat
in linkin
the
(‘orpor;tttc)tl
ice-..
t-~l,t-c~~‘nt~ltt\c’, Iunction
ri\cb ot ;I ‘\t;lt’t‘ the
MPl.1
\ccitig III tti Icwl
coal~~~xd
\\tth
Municipal
the competitive
needs
of the Automation
Corporation
Strategic
Planning
235
of whom his department
was a major client. With the software and hardware installed but only partly operational, the IT experiment lost its main client with the resignation of mayor Shitrit following his election to the Israeli parliament. With his departure. the energy and powers of persuasion which might have eventually facilitated the ‘computerized municipality’ were lost. The respect commanded by Shitrit and the local loyalty to him were such that he was able to push through his agenda for development which often bypassed the traditional municipal structure. That the staff of the municipality still co-operated with the mayor is a tribute to the pride in Yavne’s new direction which Shitrit instilled in veteran residents and in municipal workers. In reality. though, staff training was haphazard at best; the benefits of the new system were not clear to people used to doing their work manually; no incentives, in prestige of salary, were offered for incorporation of the new technology. In short, the ambition proved too great for Yavne’s municipal government of the time. Shitrit’s successor was not sufficiently convinced of the benefits of the system to place his clout behind it and risk confrontation with his workforce. While imprcsscd with the technology. he was realistically sceptical as to whether the MPU would ever have the time to ovcrscc the system and actually provide him with planning support. In the end, the work which the MPU had done which was not related to IT, proved more enduring and influential. Clearly, the MPU in Yavne exposed the boundaries to introducing innovation. Yet the innovation being resisted was not so much the MPU, as the new technological platforms which came to be identified with it. The complexity of changing the routine operation of established departments required greater resources and authority than the MPU was cvcr intended to muster. The effort to directly induce change through the MPU rcvcaled the need to build an acceptance of the MPU’s role before it could start having an impact on the way things are done. Subsequently, far greater emphasis was placed by the programmc’s directorate on identifying key staff and ensuring that they are consulted prior to establishing an MPU. In Yavne, the MPU depended on the aura of authority bestowed by the involvement of a powerful mayor. That proved an insufticient basis for a concept of planning which involves networking senior and middle-level managers across departmental lines. Co-operation within the municipality was shown to be crucial, and it became clear that to be empowered, an MPU would have to be seen to offer some advantages to those collaborating with it. The broader support base would also help sustain the status of the MPU at times of political uncertainty and change. A second lesson concerned the distracting effect of data collection. The Yavne MPU’s relationship with the municipal agenda became that of a sophisticated camera present at the photo-opportunity - with no tilm. Following Yavne. far JPP4,:3-c
236
Progress
less
emphasis
W:I\
subsequent of
fhc
MPU.
difficulty
the
thee
elcmcnt\.
hlO\
More
The
Each
pilot
been
and
mayors’
from W;I\
-
the
neu
the
co-operation
the
mayors
was
itsclt
each
h\;
watch
for
of
municipal
3.3.2. The agrcemcnt
one
urgent
the
tte~rl
ruIc\
:
tot-
the
WA\
leadership MPI
OI
Irtdecd.
IOI-
‘I hc
~m~gt-~~t~~t~lc.
Mf’L1\.
.lIX
and
I \\iil
10
non
turn
for
future
in
with
the
mayor.
the
and units
WCI-c
wet-C.
ho\{
administratic,n
and
lo
of
Ministry
the
the
unit\
hich
the
t\+o trc~ot.
trc)ttt IIlc
ptIot
CIIW
IX
\ou~ht \~cIcottlI~
~I-OICC‘~~ uttcqui\oc;tl
;11tc1
~~ it the
01
core
\‘:I\
\\()I-I\
I>! p~~littcal
ttlow
ir,lplprrIptltatiolI 111 1’;r\,nc
IWS.
inlcgt-altoit.
populattc~rt
UIII~\
C~II\LIIC
:rgcttd;~
01 the% munictp;tI
tic.
track
the
in
RIPI”\
wppt-c~~c~i.
anchot.
Intct-ior
c‘c~nccpt C\CIl
the’
cittc\‘
I’~~tctiicbt
gloat-arltce the UIII~\‘ inHuCnc,c.. IIOI ;Ictmini\tt-attc)tt. I tic ;I\\oci;ltic)tt V, ith
otf
10
the the
hll’ll
\b\tctii.
ho\\
\\tth Yet.
g ;iti int’ormaliott
cspcrimcnt\ of
1~
;\t the
c’;iw
thrown
for country-wide
~uccc’ss the
i\\uc’\ the
huilclin
utltt\
tc> ;i~~c,nitiic,~l~itc
c\pcdicncc
it could
in
gap
t;the
it\elt.
political
idcntif!,ing
of
MPLl.4
to in
tnunictp:tl
the
pl;iii~iitl~
y~oii\ot~\.
number
unit\
h!,
distraction
the
hilling
Icaon
g)vcrncd
in
that
not.
01’ the
ndtional
\\crc
IKW
01 the
interaction
\\;I\
did
growth
The framework qualilied
continuing pt-o,ct-~itiitiie’~
the
pact-\
though. the
the
m;tvorh
cIcti1uti1~
‘I hc C\pct-icncc\ I\ C‘I C’ dn;iI\ /cd III 4 II! .II>(’ (I lellcrm~rn ,~ttd fiankiri. I OSS) ot it> \pon\otCn, cr ttt;i~~~t: I-0Ic dctinttic~rt~
imprint
Houcvcr.
directing
not.
Ma!;c)r\
emharras\
case,
the
project
succecdccl
of
\+ hich
did
the
enc.
W:I\
the
unit5
Ynvnc.
the
it
with
to
In
pilot
real
of
threatoncd
in
and
the
hard
issues
of
pt-~yt;~tt~tnc’_
the
q)ttntl
c~omrni4xiottc,d
through
;I
hich
bore
instrument.
association
Both
tot-
capat>ilitie~
offer.
rcchnc)log~
MPLI ho\+
\tt-;ltCgy
or~~lniz;ltion;lI
L\
t-cport
agendas
address
ho\v
core
on
profcaional
and
demon4tratcd and
MPIl\
shapccl
to
-
pro.jcct\
pilot
conclusion
was
the the
planning
I)ISSE\lI\\I.\‘I’IO\
well
evaluation the
had
ot to
highlighted
Y’avnc
cliacmination and
P: ‘IO
worked
of
I’aiIut-c
tix‘
MI't!, Inste~~d.
the
genct-IC
‘technical
no
clatn~~e
ot
the
lessor~~s,frorn the pilot projcv.ts
two
cletailcd
the
limited
:I
tool5
THE
was
~rdmtntatration
generic
cxaminc
concept
develop
htt-csd
there
17‘ to
component
.Int’ormation
that
onl!
soverntnent
to
3.3. I.
prograntmc
noting
introducing
local
proceeded clarifv
the
that
caused
of in
on the
emphasizing
pilots
change
.3 .3
of
it is worth
two
to
placed
marketing
Finally. the
in Planning
th;ll
change\ The>
t\io
\cc,ut-cxl\
thcit
tocu\
III
i\
and. point4 the
10
fabric
ntaint,ttned.
oj’ ,MPl’,$ ;ItlcI
to
t
\ct
up
\c\ett
led
to
mot-c
;1tt hlPI!\
M.inicipai
For the total of nine units,
tripartite
funding
arrangements
Strategic Planning
237
were made involving
the participating local authority, the Ministry of the Interior and the JDC. The three would pay the running costs of the units for the first three years, after which, subject to review, the units would be integrated into the local authority. From the tenth unit on, the agreement stipulated equal funding by the Ministry and the local authority for the first three years, with JDC providing professional support. In each location, the MPU would be guided and monitored by a committee chaired by the mayor and composed of the partners’ reprcscntativcs and senior local managers. The role of the JDC as the professional leader and implement~~r was confirmed, while the Ministry became the major funder and political hacker. Crucially, this partnership enabled the MPUs to establish a ‘dual allegiance’. On the one hand, the units owe primary loyalty to the cities in which they work, to the mayor and their professional colleagues. But, on the other hand, there is an allegiance to the broader ideas and ideals of the MPU programme, and to the group formed by the personnel involved in the MPU programme country-wide. Furthermore, the JDC emerged as a powerful external anchor for the units in day-to-day work by dint of the combined clout of professional backing and funding. JDC support enabled MPU directors to pursue a direction which may have been unpopuIar locally. by claiming they were doing so at the JDC behest. JDC had an (~pp(~rtunity to express its position in the local overseeing committees. JDC confirmed its professional role by undertaking the task of staff selection, placement and training for the programme as a whole. By so doing, it could continue to ensure that MPU professionals were selected on merit and retained a measure of indepcndcncc within the local authority structure. The post-pilot agreement with the Ministry of Interior reflected the programme’s transition from fully-customized products to a partly ‘mass produced’ approach. In Rehovot and Yavne every move was particular since it was being undcrtakcn for the first time. Based on this experience, subsequent MPUs could fail back. at the very least. on a more generic ‘what to look out for’ list. The programme directorate at JDC took a number of steps to support the quality of MPU work as the programme expanded. Setting up staff-selection parameters and testing procedures was one way to build-in quality. Another was the local preparation of local authority staffs prior to the establishment of a new MPU. The professional support provided to MPU staff in the field aimed to ensure that units do not lose valuable time and credibility by fumbling for answers. Through the programme headquarters at the JDC, each unit has access to planning expertise. to details of topics addressed in other units and to a network of contacts in the worlds of local government, academia and other planning organizations. The pilot projects inf[~rmed the evolution of an ideal-type (~perati[)n~l~ model.
Progress
238 It is this reflects
in Planning
everyday
operational
the distillation
of the pilot
In practice. blurs
management.
I will
luvc
the MP1Js they
Second.
effective
begin this
mentioned
contrihutcd
time.
of the ncut chapter.
starting
with
and timely
carlicr.
planning
It
the practice\
which
I Lvill
upon
planning.
to local
‘I‘hcir- l~litnnttl~ planning
comlx)\itc
for
policy-making
ot holistic
the intervention
2nd
model
go~errinient
the notion
dtxrtbe
IOGII ~o~~r-r~r~~~r~t
hctwccri
;I unique.
input\
b!, elaborating
after
holistic
MPUs have c~olved
the
in I\rxli
and houndaries
boundaries.
chapter
to planning
have opcrationalizcci
departmental
delivering
is the subject over
of an holistic planning practice
on two levels. First. work
which learnt
units.
The emergence
3.4.1.
model
of the lessons
pl;tnning
model
;~lr-~;~tl\
ttcptov~4
I)\
the MPUs. Holistic
planning
the future together
emerged
the roles,
in response
of local
development
pcr$pective\
to the need tot- ;I bt-oacf-ba\cd
authoritia.
It cmhotlies
the impcr;tti\c
and goals
01’ the diqxtr-ate
\ t\icjii 101 101 pulling
‘\cr-\ i~c prc)\~tcling
dcpartmcnts. Israeli
local government
has only
cohesion
in a multi-service
organization.
acted on instruction relatively
littlc
from
need for
now tind themselves The
choices
the elderly. politics with
Previously.
govcrnnicnl
and wet-c tutitlCd
clccision-tiiakili~.
to choose
where
urgent
/one
Gngle-purpose
the ric‘cd l~jrdepartment\ I>\ it.
tlo\\c\cr.
to inLest
nec&
their
inipro\
concct-ncd
\\;I\
I)\\n. XC‘;II~CCI cx\ourc’c\ I~uilctitlg
in, ‘1 da\-care
mav ha\,e been 4li;ip~d.
authoritic\
lhcrc
lcjcat ;~itthoritic~~
fr-orn cli\ct-\c arcd4:
mav vie with
thcae decisions
of national.
acldrc~stn~
long ;I> opcr-ational
each other
tc) an industrial
begun
As
local strategic
having
pit against
new access road
central
txxently
;iiicI
Cithcr
d
4C’I\ICC\ 101
timed.
L\tth tli~
iI\ tliL. i,ld~~rl>,
01
roadbuilding.
Underlying
choices
interconncctedness noted
before,
there
-
Physical
-
Development
-
Economic
-
The The
components
I\ rho
of the urban
cqu;ttt~~n.
;\\
I
of thcs;c:
dc\~clopmcnt. of human
\crvicc\.
devcloprncnt
task itself
as an esprcssion
is to create
each arca can jointly information
as roads ot- \ct-\,icc‘\ tor the ctdet-I!
are four
environment.
MPU
such
of the basic structur-al
inform
;I commtm decisions.
and synthesize
it.
of an ;tmalg;tm ground Failing
In addition.
01 qu;tltt>-ot-l:tc
40 that pt-:tctttioncr-4 that.
the MI’I:
must
IV \vot-kin g with
tndicx(cJt-\ tram
gathct- the
litic-ctcllartnlcti~4
Municipal as an in-house
the bottom
professional
up. The holistic
planning approach
resource,
Strategic Planning
the unit can influence
239
policy from
thus seeks not only to encompass
the scope
of the local authority’s work and pull it together for the deliberations of the senior decision-makers. It also undertakes the more didactic role of informing policy thinking in the component parts of the local authority and shaping it. Over time, the MPU’s involvement should have a ratcheting effect. As more decisions and policy moves arc based upon agreed goals and analysis of options and projections based on hard data, a return to arbitrary decision-making becomes less tenable. To succeed in synthesizing information from the different elements of local government, the holistic planner must therefore be a general practitioner in planning. In addition to in-depth expertize in one or two areas of planning, she or he will be highly aware of the various systems which make up the locality. A specialist planner, typically, has a deep vertical knowledge of a particular system, and is called upon to apply this expertize in what is usually a concrete, time-specific, intervention. In contrast. the holistic planner’s commitment to any particular body of knowledge or methodology will be based on which tool is appropriate for the job in hand. MPU planners address issues with an awareness of the way the local authority is divided, yet without being bound by these divisions. To be effective, given the non-departmental mandate, the MPU planner must be available to - and maintain contact with - anyone relevant to its work. Availability means being a part of the municipality, a partner for consultation on matters large and small. For the planner, every call for assistance should be an opportunity to demonstrate the value and viability of the strategic, holistic approach. One MPU director observed semi-seriously that making a cup of tea in the staff kitchen could be an opportunity for demonstrating strategic principals (such as economy of effort) . This explanation of holistic planning renders land-use planning, despite its primary status in planning practice, as a particular specialization, a means to an end having no claim for exclusivity or dominance. The multiplicity of actors, processes and topics in a local government guarantee that no one approach can be held up as an MPUs holy grail. It must adopt a variety of means for impacting on the policy and decision-making processes. In pursuing a systemic impact on local government, the MPUs have evolved four typical - one could say, generic - types of intervention. The range of intervention-types, as well as the circumstances of their application, have become part of the ‘accumulated wisdom’ of how to have an impact in the local authority environment. The intervention types, which I will look at individually next, are: -
Preparation of strategic plans. Rendering policy explicit in order to influence the decision-making process. A ‘municipal brain’ role - being available as an independent, departmentally
240
Progress
in Planning
imaftiliatcd.
authoritv -
planning
all-piirposc
Collection.
collation,
analysis. clisscmination
demand or at the IJnit’s
3.4.2 _ Prepwatiort
-
Statutory
-
Sectoral
and pl-ofcasional
plans.
ccntred
upon
and its holistic
;I
particular
leanings.
mav lx
and profession&. the MPU
taken
threatening This
That
as ;I challenge
prerogative.
Indeed.
services departments.
as well
has
land-use
can propose
of the city engineer. be
on
siic~h :I\ tlic ctdcrl\ . or t Iw
scrvicc such as leiaurc. \pc)r’t. ccIuc;itioii.
any, of thcsc tasks, the MI’lJ
arc involvccl in the statutory
planning
ot d:it;i.
l;ind-we.
specitic populations
bodies inside and outsidc the local authority.
cm
prescntatioli
or transport.
In undertaking
remit
2nd
initiative.
plans. xldrcssing
retailing
perspcctivc.
the I(tc;~l
of strategic plam
future clirection of
departments
frc~our~~c lor
staff nt all Icvela.
operato The the
hccr~
overall
MPU\
entry
to estahlishctl
planning
it sets thcsc
in p~~~~tner~h~p v, 11h other
parficularl>
cxc
process.
Bcc;~uw
as other.
will
tr;l! .
txst\\ccll
\\her-c MPl~x ot it\ holistic
goals for the plan Mhich go l~cyc~nd the goal\.
\vith
the hacking
trt the role of the citv cnpinccr the MPU
llltc) Ihc
Iulancc\
typically
citv-has&
of the
214 hoklcr
take ahice
trttm
ill;t\t~~.
of the the
i~un~a~~
and citv-a idc [~r~~llii~~~~ioll~.
Municipal
when constructing
a set of goals.
the MPU has an opportunity departments
In these new partnerships
to synthesize
in the city into a holistic
the planning
planning
Strategic Planning
and role-definitions
efforts
perspective
241
of different
which can form the
basis of decision-making. The expectation of a finite process and a conclusion committed to paper is, however, only partly applicable to the MPU which emphasizes its systemic contribution to local government organization rather than the individual product. Coming up with tangible products is, however, important to the MPU’s credibility since it establishes familiar professional yardsticks and may thus be a means for broader dissemination of ideas. The MPU’s challenge is to use the framework of conventional planning to introduce more novel notions of strategic and holistic thinking at departmental and ‘staff’ levels. A particular category of strategic planning generally avoided by MPUs is organizational development planning. These processes, which are becoming quite common, are carried out by either management consultants or process engineers attempting to devise more efficient management structures for local government. Because of the MPU’s dependence on the co-operation of its peers, it was felt that MPUs could not afford to be associated with initiatives which are commonly perceived as destabilizing and threatening. However, if organizational changes are to be useful and not merely correct faults but also anticipate new challenges, they have to be informed by a clear analysis of the local authority’s operating environment. Providing such analysis is. of course, the clear prerogative and mandate of the MPU, making some collaboration essential. The MPUs become involved although avoid being party to specific proposals for reorganization. Rather, through providing analysis of future trends and their impacts, the MPU seeks to reinforce its position as interface between the local authority and the forces re-shaping it.
3.4.3.
Rendering policy explicit
Local government’s commitment to continuous service provision leads staffs to value stability and continuity over radical innovation or policy shifts. Most local authority business thus appears routine, with the policy long-decided upon and having attained the status of received wisdom. To reach the underlying policy, MPUs often have to expose it and render it explicit by extrapolating it from decisions that appear strictly operational. First of all, though, the MPUs must find the decision-making areas. Some are obvious and are billed as decision-making gatherings - typically, a committee structure. But, in reality, the formally-constituted committees are only some of the meeting-points in which decisions are made. The local authority is full of junctions, giratory system-like, where decision makers enter from different
Progress
242
directions,
complete
different their
in Planning
directions.
role:
some
be effective.
a pirouette I‘he
or t\zo with
cardinal
arc informal.
the MPII
rule
and then
Iocatc the giratorics
i\ ~-
or perhaps
rnu\t identit!
each other
bawd
in the arena
thcsc forum>
and
hcxl
in
and understand
politics.
of party
reach
off
‘1‘0
\+ith its Inputs at
[hum
the correct times.
MPlJs
mu4t ;llso ha\,e ~rcgard to the d~ci4ion-m~lking
favours urgency anti novelty ahc)\~cimportance. speed
the appreciation
LIP
familiar.
by exposing policy implications
addresses itself
‘I‘hc challcngc
to the future.
quantifying
anti
which I dacrihed.
In contraxt. the ‘run&ring
as it\ starting-point.
broader context.
13~ being prcscnt at the deciGon-making
Participation
In this important position
and ‘outsider’
represents
a11
policy explicit‘
imminent
mode
decision within
forums.
the MPU
;I GUI
advance.
‘r-etlection
the MPLJ epitomizes
(1%-3).
on the part of the I~KII
The
in action‘
equates et’fecti~~c~ p1annin,I) with ;I continuous
seeks
to turn
the manager\ on the ‘polio
Its position
its dichotomic
rolled into enc. In the \\orcfs of Schiin
MPU
practitioners.
them 214much as possihlc.
is unannounced in
agenda
i\ to
of the
is more crucial than comprchensi\,c pi-cparation.
component cjf its work.
as ‘insider’
the MPU
plxx~s
and
if the decision-making
even
sometimes
the MPlr
producing strategic plans.
takes the praent provide inputs
for
of the nev, and prevent the intuiti\c‘ clismisd
tirst mode of intervention
The
agenda. which oltcn
2s ‘insidei-~orltsidcr’
on decision-m~tkin~.
infuencc
giratorv‘
authorit\.
It
themselvca into more rcflectivc
enipowcrs
the MPU
is as involved as the insider-s hut unbound t3y their traditions.
uniquely:
it
~~hligations 2nd
workloads. There
is, 1 hetieve. also ;I p\j,chologica1 Gde to this posture.
the MPlJ
has to think
municipal
tcrritoq
professionals
ma\
outsi&
the cstablishcd
and tit)’ limit\. 4urc>.
I have
of discipline that
found
who have had contact Edith MPL’ \, cn\‘\ more time did lcgitimaq be ii fail-y ~oninion something iust
These
or two
influences
of the MPU’\
;I more
holistic
at certain
of the MPL!
involccmcnt
Mayor
;I wi\h Lvhich
in
which
othcl
government
local
bhoni the\ per-ceivc ;I\ haking .I here sccm4 to
among profcssion~tls
to he part c>t
and to make cleci4i~)rl-rnahing more than
approach
arc hidden. even subconscious.
I‘hct \ isible
in the dav-to-day decision-m~tking to decision-makin, hc con4dercd
may tormalizc
‘giratories’.
role This
practice.
by obligating
has happened
Kevieu, C’ommittee’ has been established.
hehaviour. llltimatuly.
tndced. the
its participation in liilat.
where
:I
It meets weekly and
in the city. The committee
and is convencti and co-ordinated
effect
i\ that. graduall\.
0 t~econie’r normal incorrect
the Mf’ll’\
discusses all proposed dcvclopments Deputy
their stalls
freedom
in the ‘giratol-> ~.
decision-making
new ‘Projects
echoa
many professionals
(;ind untler4tarld~it~t~) dc4irc
its absence may eventu;dl\ local authorit),
-
The
--- ot clcpartmcnt. of
IO pur4uc rhcir prc)fcs5ion:il curiosit!
wider than the here-an&no\\.
;I round
tloundarics
by the MPl.1.
i5 chaired
by the
It\ membership
Municipal
includes
representatives
of all major
departments.
Strategic
Planning
The MPU director
runs a
decision-follow-up
system which enables
him to ensure
that where
approach
collaboration
departments,
or their concurrent
requires
between
243
a holistic input,
it
is supplied in time for the next committee meeting. The issue of formalizing the role of the MPU in decision-making processes within local authorities reflects the complexity and risk of the MPUs approach to gaining systemic influence, and is often debated by those involved in the programme. Theoretically. the position of the MPUs could be supported by legislation which would require certain plans to be referred to the MPU for examination. whereas at the moment the MPU’s access to decision-making is a matter of skill, co-operation and even personal favours and luck. Proponents of creating a statutory role for the MPUs argue that such an arrangement will mean spending less time in the repeated efforts to penetrate decision-making processes. The legal anchor might also guarantee MPU funding in perpetuity. Opponents of legal anchoring fear that a defined role, intended as a baseline for MPU work, would become a trap. Once the legal requirement is fulfilled, there is no obligation to let the MPU remain a part of subsequent decision-making stages. The discussion around legal anchoring reflects the stress which MPU staffs are under, constantly having to re-establish their credentials. To be able to expose the policy underpinning of routine decisions. the MPU must persevere when it can easily be sidetracked and bypassed. To succeed, having made planning impinge on the way in which fellow professionals go about their own work, MPU staffs need reserves of confidence. tenacity. resilience and tact.
3.4.4.
A ‘trouble-shooting’
service for municipal policy and planning
The MPU has inherent characteristics that make it a natural all-round advisor to local authority managers. It is independent of service provision and therefore lacks a direct interest in resource allocation; it has a store of multidisciplinary knowledge; its staff is often among the most highly qualified in the local authority. Typical trouble-shooting tasks include: preparation of portfolios for official visitors; economic evaluation of contractors’ proposals; liaison with outside consultants on various topics, particularly those with organization-wide implications such as computing. The availability of an MPU for trouble-shooting activity is essential to its position in the local authority. While the scope of the issues involved is not necessarily either strategic or long-term, hearing questions keeps the MPU abreast of developments and concerns within the local authority. It also provides a platform to demonstrate the MPU’s abilities and opportunities for networking staffs from different departments who turn out to share similar concerns. The MPU must, however, guard against being swamped by ad hoc work.
244
There
Progress
in Planning
is a tendency.
particularly
in smaller
local authorities.
to use the MPC;
as a ‘municipal brain’ to which any problem which does not fall directly into an existing pigeonhole is referred. And yet. despite the distraction. response can he important. If it represents the tirst contact with a particular dopartmcnt. it ma! be that the MPU is being tcsted through ;I minor issue, as its counterpart decides whether to involve it in a more wide-ranging move. Just occasionally, an rrd /lot, request can provide an opportunity for the MPI’ to establish an instant reputation. One newly appointed MPU director \\‘:I\ askccl to evaluate ;I portable traffic-violation ticket printer. In front of the mayor. sales representative and senior municipal staff - most of whom \verc swing him fog the first time - the MPU director deliberately and without warning droppctl the machine onto the carpet. No one else had thought of performing this obvious test. The MPU director immediately established ;I reputation for indepcndcncc and originality around the municipality and a sense of pride in the way he had sho\vrt the town to he nobody’s fool! Furthermore. curiosity about ‘the man who threu :I computer onto the floor’ helped temper the caution which seems to naturalI> greet a new MPU director.
3.4.5.
Using
data
Most Israeli local authorities lack all but the most basic dater about their population. economy and services. Therefore. gathering. collating. analyzing and disseminating data is ;I cornerstone of the MPU’s role. Yet. as the \r’a~nc experience teaches. it is also ;I minefield in terms of the burden of commitment which it can impose on the MPU. Since Ya\,nc. there have been no attempts to establish ;I comprchcn~~vc municipal database. Rather. each MPU has selected ;I number of’ basic loc,~l indicators which it updates regularly. Some are standard - migration and unemployment. for cxamplc. others reflect particular local WIICCI-IIS: a rc\ort like Eilat monitors hotel occupancy while Kiryat Gat may take ;I \pccial interest in the progress of its large population of Ethiopian immigrants. Data is also gathered as part of specific planning efforts. or used to prcccde and stimulate such an effort. Other means of gathering data ct~co~~~pass pr~m:~r! data collection through survey\. either custom-designed or multi-purpose. Nationally-maintained databases such as the Population Kegistcr and Value Acldcd Tax Collection are often accessed to gain locally-relevant data. Sometimca. ;I iink is established with a municipal department to facilitate routine update of cxscntial information. This may involve training an officer in a department - education is a typical example - on how to fill a spreadsheet template with student figurc4 gathered monthly from schools. Ultimately,
holding
data enhances
the MPUs
power
-
an important
245
M#n~~~p~l Strategic Planning
issue given influence
that the professional
credibility
in the local authority.
Therefore,
is the MPU’s MPUs
main
are becoming
claim
to
equipped
with
up-to-the-minute means of displaying data, in particular GIS systems, while the same time they are often at the fore in clarifying issues of data-protection and privacy.
at
The four modes of intervention developed by the MPUs enable them to influence various aspects of local authority planning and management processes. Preparation of strategic plans and collection of data (the first and fourth modes) are less unique to MPUs. Local authorities routinely use outside experts to obtain these products. The fact that they do so reflects the inability of many local authorities to carry out these operations in-house. In my view this is a serious weakness, often overlooked because of the proliferation of contractors available to survey and plan. While the MPU cannot bring all planning in-house, it can and does take controi and leadership over planning processes involving outside partners and consultants. The prevalence of outside consultants in the first and fourth modes is closely related to traditional definitions of planning. If planning is seen as a series of ‘one-off’ actions, there is little reason to employ permanent staff to do it who then become a fixed overhead. Thus, the MPU establishes its unique contribution where its vision of planning as a continual process is most clearly expressed in rendering policy explicit and through the ‘municipal brain’ function. Here the holistic approach to planning finds appropriate platforms from which to impact on the way the organization works as a whole. Balancing the different types of intervention is a dynamic constant in the managenlent of each MPU. The balance must combine the daily involvement which arises through ad hoc work, whilst leaving sufficient time for more in-depth work and also ensuring that the MPU’s focus on the holistic, strategic and long-term is not blunted. In this chapter I have demonstrated how the activity of the MPUs has produced a particular blend of insider-outsider interventions, combining independence and involvement, influence and an inter-departmental perspective. In the next chapter, three case studies will demonstrate the impact which MPUs have had on the management of local government and the development of planning.
CHAPTER
4
In Action:
MPUs
This chapter
presents
Three Further
additional
detailed
Cases
examples
of MPU work in practice.
Together with the previous description of the pilot MPU in Yavne, the case studies illustrate the relationship between the theory of MPU operation and its application. It is a relationship of constant exploration, with MPLJs discovering and defining anew their operational boundaries in response to changing local circumstances. needs and opportunities.
4.1.
THE
ROLE
CREDIBILITY
OF
A PLANNING AND
AUTHORITY
STRATEGY OF
IN THE
RESTORING
MUNICIPALITY
THE OF
UM
EIFAHEM
4.1 .I. A strategy for reviving a town and its municipality Urn ElFahem is the second-largest Arab town in Israel. with a population approaching 30.000. The MPU in the town started operating in the wake of the 1988 municipal elections which, in Urn ElFahem, brought about dramatic change. The Islamic Movement, in its first election attempt, won the mayoral race and an overwhelming majority in the Council. It defeated the Democratic Front for Peace and Equality, the nationalist, communist-affiliated party which had until then been considered the mainstay of Israeli-Arab politics (Rekhes, 1993). The victory of the Islamic Movement sent shock-waves through Israel, as it faced up to the prospect of an Islamic revival in its midst. Yet, ultimately, the victory of the Islamic Movement in Urn ElFahem was rooted in particular local circumstances which owe more to the dynamics of urban development than to mass religious zealotry. Once in power, the Islamic Movement had to devise a strategy which contended both with the expectations of its local electorate and the need to calm the apprehension of the central government officials to which it would be turning to for help. The local situation could have hardly been worse. The development of the town’s most basic infrastructure lagged behind its population growth and 247
248
Progress
in Planning
gcogruphic
spread.
classrooms
fell short
development rampant.
Not
alI house\
wcrc
\trects
stinted.
The
municipalitv
mor;il
and
I”“fe~sionalisrrl
staff
conncctcti
of rcquiretncnts.
to VXC;QJC‘. the
wx!rc
eucrtecl
~~npa~ccl
littlc
IOM ;rntl
;tufhorit\
numl~c~-
ot
cc)mmcrcial
and
: tas art-car\
the wnw
ucrc
01 powcrIc5\nce
pervasive. The reasons suffered
t’or thih
hy Arab
situation
local
wet-c
authoritie
fat- ;I full xxount):
;I lack
preCous
municipal
~iclministrationa:
population.
The
their the
state
Ministry
grant.
made
Littlc
poor
local
revcnue5
yet the
Front’\
factor:
a plan
begun
being
‘deposited
with
an intcrcst.
political
lwciyct
in IWi
had earlv
tailctl IWOs.
tnatle
to take
grant
support
IWO
011 the
pat-t ot
illu\tt-;itc
The
thcw auditccl
10 the
t;tctor3
;itid
account\
to
iollouiny
mini\tr\ to\\ n’\
account
Iilf-‘ahem’\
01 Urn
to whmit
~idjustmcnts
rate-baac.
in I%%.
The
leacicrship.
on another had
poverty
Kownteld.
tt\ own
allocatect
ot changing
block
demograph!
nced~.
to the
municipal
and the trelativc
the
u’;I\
dtwd\antagcs
and dhilit~
co\t-of-living
or no adjustment
\truL.tural
managct-ial
municipal \ince
the
(WC A-H:ri
and
tnunicipality
Interior
mainlv
ot- accumulating Due
The
of the
guitieline~.
of ingenuity
of the
interconncctiori.
threclold:
in Israel
and
the
with
lack
in 1970. for
shortfall \c)me
of an :rtid
rcvieti‘.
It i4 a stage
professional
IWOs
this
can
the
plan.
the
plan
the
hO”‘cb ot pat-:ilySng.
toan’\
the
i4 opctt
pt-OC~LICC dc;~dlocl\
I,!
o\cr
\tagnattcjtt
I hc prcparatton
it had rcachcd
point.
involvcmcnt
for
w;15 theretore
blamed
/c)ning
~~ppt-oxd
which
grant
juatilication.
by the At
x~ounted
in the
municipaltt!~
ot wch
statutot-v
phaw
01
to contest
134 ;iny)iic
1111lc\\ that-c
i\ \tt-ong
iii the
I’lati-applo\al
process. The
abscncc
01 an up-tcdttc
development:
unless
Urn
EIFahcm’s
This
state
cast,
rudimentary
local
of levies
and
taxes.
building.
Once
has tuo
it will
have
to the
I950\
immccliatc
since
frotn doing
building
lost
/oning
placin
clcvelopment
-
an!’
;I I-oom g ~tpon
c‘a\t\
de\clopmcnt
--
to an csi\ling
c\cn
homc. the
rccc)gtiitioti may
\\hich
III
i\ tllc~~~l.
it ct-imtnali/c\
municipalit\
iec\
on (111
i\ III Iorc‘c
I~CM de~c~loptiicnl
the
licenw
;I \hadcj\\
which
to tic-lacto
houc\er. and
plan
cot~wq~~cnc~~~:
\o ;imounts
is up.
plan
the /oning
4~~41 iis xlcling
authority
the
uith
back
development. the
hut
dating
of illcgalit\;
prcvcnts
appt.o\ccl
it complies
tt \\ould
and full
01 the
illegal
charge ha\c
it
l~urclcn rate4
othcrwisc
collcctecl. Against it was Second. the clinic; services
background. hy the
in contrast
most
classes.
thi\
un~aintcd active it was
involved
impletncnting which
with
of local
local
the
Islamic
ultimateI\ the
Iyront‘\
grassroots in dcvcloping
programmcs and
n~ttiond
Mo~cment
futile
c~ttcrcd
cori~t-otlt~ltion~ll
inaction.
the
organization\.
1sl:itiiic Apart
childcat-c
multiple
po4tut-ing hlo\ctiictit l’rom
programmcs:
to combat
drug
authoritic\
had
al~~isc
t’ailcd
ptx>mi\c. ol’ the
opening and
had
ot- ganiotig otlicr
to pt-o\ ide.
First.
Ict-c~tlt. Ixxwtiic religious
;I ft-ce health ncccss;tr\ E\senti;tlly.
the
Municipal
Islamic
Movement
against
by the state,
improve
everyday
suggested
that even if the Arab
it still had indigenous
resources
Strategic
population
Planning
249
was discriminated
which could be mobilized
to
life in Arab communities.
Besides its track-record the Islamic Movement brought with it into power another important asset - the credibility of its leadership and of the elected mayor, a young Islamic scholar. Less visible, but ultimately probably as important, was the leadership’s pragmatism when dealing with State authorities. Anyone willing to help us, declared the mayor after his election, is welcome irrespective of ethnic or organizational affiliation. Because of its Islamic and communal credentials, the new leadership was able to seek assistance in rebuilding the municipality from organizations which its predecessors would have avoided for ideological reasons. On the political side, an invitation was extended to the Minister of the Interior to visit the town. The minister, upon hearing the results of the elections which brought the Islamic Movement to power, had gone on record saying that the State of Israel had brought radical Islam upon itself by ignoring the needs of its Arab citizens and added, for good measure, that the country would come to miss the Front. In response, the Urn ElFahem leaders invited the minister to visit the town, become acquainted with its situation and with their goals and record. When he did so, the minister was somewhat contrite and offered the town an unusual commitment to assist it bnancially and professionally. By a stroke of fortune exploited by adept political handling, the incumbents in Urn ElFahem had the minister committed to helping them, for a while at least. A major component of the professional help package was the setting up of an MPU. This had already been proposed by the JDC, following a study which it commissioned on the possibility of setting up MPUs in non-Jewish towns. That report judged that an opportunity existed to work with the new administration in Urn ElFahem, which it found to be open-minded and aware of the need to rebuild the municipal structure. The proposal was resisted initially by the civil service at the Ministry of the Interior. However, with the minister looking for ways to make good his promises to Urn ElFahem, he personally authorized the MPU. The chosen director was Rassem Hameisi. an experienced town planner and geographer, who had conducted the JDC feasibility study on MPUs in Arab towns, mentioned earlier. Hameisi’s first task was to chart a way out of the stalemate in which the municipality had languished. His conceptual framework was that the incident with the minister had created an opportunity to significantly alter the dynamics of Urn EIFahem. He recommended a three-stage policy which combined (I) a breakthrough in the planning and development stalement with (2) a reassertion of the municipality’s authority. On the financial side (3), Hameisi pushed successfully to update the municipality’s accounts. The ministry responded positively, agreeing
Progress
250
to increase and
the
ftic
town‘s
allocation
enahlcd
the
embark
upon
proof
in Planning
municipality
of the efficacy
However
vital
rate-hasc planning
the
work
while the
i\ ;I po4sihilit\ cit!ywide Ix
Loning
plan.
for
the
w,hich was ‘The
citywiclc
ircGclcntial 01 t hi\
/oning plan\
more
issue
I-adiccrl
if innocuouslv
local
authorities
enforcement outdated
of the
have
zoning
abdication
-
to major
Given
this
adopted. regulation.
infringed
move
10 IinJ
ot I\I-;IcII
dctailcd
21. I tic condition with
i\ that
and
the
/c)nlng
to lin;lll!
hullding
pl;111n111,(1 \\;I\ opportunitv
out
1 !ndct-
C omnlittce.
rcyul;itc
to
IOLXI
;I !\:I\
tar \niall-x~:ilc
”
g;tin
in c\l\ting
plGniaiul\’
of m:ikin,
;I
political. ~“ml
It
~t~ltenlcrll
1\11’11 p~-o~x~~cd the next \tcp. \tal.t
\I.!ilc.h
ha\
with for
c!c
prc5ent
place
of the
local
cc~mniunitic\.
tlcvclol~nicnt
thal 01 thei-c
;I technical ~overnnicnt.
ottc’n
‘I hc4c
txx2u4e
arguing Although
C‘cntral and
ycar4.
irrcle\;incc
reprc4ent\
authorit!.
in :I p:irti:il
the
,\i-:rtj
01 the
cili/cn\.
il noncthele44
I>! the
o\cr
\,ic)l:rtion\.
bccausc
codes.
IS cstrcmc%ly
icyiilation4.
to mcr\t
n~\ctl\
/.oning
ccjrrlniunitic\ valid
14 untcn;it~le
argument.
Arab
cnl’orcing
taken
with
;I I~lincl
g regulations c
a\,cnue
the
111 I\racli-Arai,
coclc~
of po\vci-
context.
the
which
Enforccnient
\5;14 toughc~netl
appc;iIs public
by the
mayor.
Ix)licq’
;I\ it was pollticall\
initiati\,e\
first.
forceful
diid
municlpxlitv
was ;I\ no\,cl
development
the
conv~nwd
\tlorlgci-
ai-hitrat
t7l;imc
to1
m;~nncr.
the gc>\‘crnmcnt
01 the dcla~cd
;ippro\
aI 01
plans.
zoning
At
the
the
to the
/onin
no Icgal
for leaving
;I
hc‘ con\~\tcnl
fai1s I0 conipl\
in this
friction
;~i.c’:i\.
IO turn
regulations
has enforcccl
\\;I\
icf f’l;lnning
piecemc~al
construction
zoning
if popular
t-eniaincd
\va!’ to do 1~141 that.
pIan
rcgulatic)n
tcndcd
of fairncxs
its part.
that
ircsiclential.
is an element
leading
still:
of outdated
MPI;
dc\ ice,. it was 1x~\\il~le
on
yonins
Much
even
to
plan
conning
of enforcing
controversial.
monc\ and
pro\ ided some \isihlc
is pcnclin, ~1 apprcn
thi4
new
at Icast tcniporariI\,.
small-arca
new
rcgularlv.
creating
;ippi-ov;il
clctailed
pi-ice
the
lo do that
the, IIi\rt
Using
meant With
\\;I\
code
The
through
municipcrlit!~. The
mar-c
Thi\
thl-ough
:I tcchnic;tl
\+ith
in the
IIN
\c’;I\.
tc) come
of s;iinins
nciFhboLlrhoods. foregoing.
roads.
aksiatnncc
found
clcpoGtcd
dpulatccf
approv;iI
lo tllc
progr;m~mc~.
supplier\
:I\ p;l\‘ing
.l‘hc onI\
there
by the
planning
and
had
Hamcixi
development
propounded
a\~ailable
it\ workers
\t;thilit!
iiiipissc.
plan
grant
for capital
the new financial
ii nt’w
nc~
block
funds
of the new ~ldministr~rtion.
linnncial
law.
the
such
for the rnunicipalitv.
the planning plans
cap.
to pa!
elcmcntary
that long-term
that
huclget
ot ticvelopmcnt
to help
M’CI-e ma& rights-of-wav.
application
Typically.
an infringing
the
disarm
ILII’C! r~\k\
of mar;I] II~CCSS~I-~
p~-opoxxl.
: tahc
gradriall\. whose
primar>
antl
tooI
oi cntorcing
\\;I\
x\nchi-oni/ccl
usc4 01 their ~‘a\
authorit!,
thl.ough
adju~tnicnt
would
the public
;ind the tit!
chal-gc
Icacler\ building with
iic\j
oppo4ition.
any
to irc\itlents ‘I‘he
ft2ncc troni
the
right-ol-bav.
propcrtic4
pcr\~~;~\~on. the
ma&
pc~-~)n;~l
ircquirc Once
inter\cntion
;I pr”pL!‘t! ill1
illcgall\ 11101-c
o\\‘Ilc1-
O\\llCl cc~llsclltcd.
01 to
Municipal
the city’s building the particular
department
property,
could be isolated
came in and widened
complete
for a while,
with pavement.
until consent
Strategic Ptanning
the stretch
251
of road outside
Such a newly-finished
was given by neighbours.
stretch However,
the
policy adopted was not to wait for neighbours to agree, since such a wait would have created ‘planning blight’. It would also have incurred the resentment of people who had given up land which they saw as their own, only to see it remain undeveloped. The patchwork road widening, although cxpcnsive in comparison to doing a whole street at a time, was essential for establishing the credibility of the council. and for ensuring that those residents who co-operated were not seen by others and by themselves as having been gullible. The second phase, running in parallel to the submission of detailed plans for many areas of the town, was to hire building supervisors. In so doing, the municiplaity acts as an agent for the state-mandated local planning commission. Becoming ‘self-policing’ in this way is most unusual for an Arab municipality. The MPU encouraged the leadership to fly in the face of the received political wisdom and to emphasize the positive aspect of the community re-asserting its own governance. Further supporting the re-assertion of municipal power was ;I public information campaign explaining the planning process and its proposed dcvclopment direction. The publicity campaign involved circulating written material; an unprccedcntcd exhibition of pians in the city hall; consultation with other municip~il departments. especially social services; public~ltion of newspaper articles; and meeting with groups of residents and professionals. White educating about plans, the information campaign also aimed to alter citizens’ perception of planning. Planning was portrayed as an expression of a wide variety of local needs. an indigenous process signifying a renewal of community strength and cohesion. This is in stark contrast to the passivity or reactivcness of many Arab communities in the face of
II
seemingly arbitrary and intrusive planning process. The third component of the strategy was to turn attention to pressing needs in human services and, in particular, empIoy additional social and community workers and provide more classrooms for a rapidly growing population. Initially. less emphasis was placed on the human services: the priority was to push forward developments which would strengthen the financial base of the rnunicip~~lity. An exception. however. was the construction of IKW schools which was supported by government development grants. In defining and pursuing these policies, the personality and capabilities of the MPU director, as well as the MPU’s status within the municipality, were of central importance. For a period of two years. the MPLJ’s role in the reconstruction of the local authority spanned planning and executive managcmcnt. The MPU was given almost total political and personal support and was authorized to mobilize virtually all the city’s existing officials to scrvc the devclopmcnt directions which were
Progress
252
in Planning
agreed upon. Hamcisi’s
training
back the strategic direction
and cxpcricncc as a town planner enabled him to
with the detailed knowledge nccdcd to communicate
with the national authorities.
prepare planning documents and supcrvisc
preparation of other submissions helped establish see Grossman
4.1.2.
-
the Icaders’ trust
while his personal bxkground
the
and belief\
in him. (f-‘or ;I more literat-> sketch of Hamci\~.
19Y7 -. pp. 111-716.)
The Urn ElFahetn
experience:
Central to the direction
strategies
in everyday
taken by the MPII
tnatta~etnettl
ElFah~m
in Urn
wa\ It\ tlctinltlon
of ;I critical strategic path for I-cvcrsing the cvcle of dcclinc in Mhich the toL\n and its municipality authority
appeared caught. Subsequently.
to lead the implementation
prominence of the MPU
the MPU
of the politic\
\\;I>
gl\cn
wide
it had l’ormulated.
was possible thanks to three factor\. C;ir\t. the political
support and co-operation which it \~;I\ given. Second. the MC~!-,IW~~ municipal structure Without other
areas
debt\ to pa), the MPli
physical dcvelopmcnt
which.
mcanwhilc.
framework
could propox
for a11 initial
abilitie
of the MPII
cnablcd him to cxcrci\c. l‘hc ability
planning proved especially crucial to Urn Elfahcni. charting 21grand. multi-year. strategy.
Simultaneously.
small-scale
multi-departmental.
to ‘zoom’
in and
out.
ticr
to mo\c between tic].\ ot
At one Ic\cl. multi-million
the
wax
MPI.‘
redcvclopment
I’oI- htratcgic
Um I~lt~ahcm cxpcricncc
The
planning.
Kathcr.
the hlPL;
\uggc‘\~\
mu4t bc ably
charting the gi-and
that the neces\ar! small plannin, 0 \tc’p\;II-c taken \\,hich
The operation of the MPIJ EIFahem.
in Lim EIFahcm
contra\t\ \h;lrpl!
with the c~c~I~c‘c~~
Because of the rclati\e \vcakne\\ of the municiplait> it4 Icaders
in its scope and matlc
the
expected the Lslt’11 to chart MPU
level. In Yavne.
bv contrat,
strategic
exercised
control
III
;I COLII-\cwhich \\;I\ holl\tIc
;I partner in c\ccutl\c powc~- 10 the politIcat
the MPI!
w;14 percci\ctl ;I\
h!, an aIrcad),
pcn+c~-lul
ma\‘or O\CI-the \\orkingh of hi\
municipal organization. In :I scnsc, the IJM evolutionary important
.il ot
its realization.
tried in Yavne. Urn
to
director uhich the
moving between Icccl4 or abstrxfion.
design but also ensuring underpin
ywitchcd
plan\. ;I one-block at ;I time cftort L\hich L\;I\ the
key to carrying out the strategy as ;I e hole. ih no ‘correct‘
then
though. it wa5 :rl\o enxurin g the cleation and appi-o\
detailed development
that there
;I \tratcg! I\ hlch
period.
no option but to uait.
hat!
The third factor is the particular MPU
ot the
which meant ;I lack of entrenched clcpal-tmcntal intcrc\t\.
departmental
clearly prioritized
rangIn
‘l‘hc
ElFahcm
phase in cievcloping
theme.
MPU
dcmonstratcd
pl~unning-man~i~cmcnt
as it goca to the heart
of the
role
the
ahllity
to skip
p;~rxligmz. ot MPI
an
Thih
14 ;I\ catalv\t\
i4 an tar
Municipal Strategic
Planning
253
change in local government. While I will deal with this notion in detail in Chapter 5. it is still worth noting that the phase bypassed in Urn ElFahem is that of corporate
control,
a phase lying between
departmental,
parochial
management
and the goal of more strategic management which emphasizes common goals and empowers rnanagers to attain them. It is this corporate middle stage (fashionable in Britain in the 1960s and 197Os), which the mayor of Yavne sought to recreate through the computerization of the municipality. The MPU in Urn EIFahem provides a clear example of an ‘activist’ MPU. That it occurred in exceptional circumstances is more an explanation than a cause for surprise. It is unusual for a ne~fly-appointed professional to get such freedom of action without there being a corresponding leadership vacuum. The exceptional circumstances in Urn EiFahem, of a strong political leadership in a poor town with a weak municipality. facilitated the broadest demonstration of the utility of an MPU.
4.2.
THE
REHOVOT
MPU
TURNS
TOPICAL
PLANNING
4.2.1.
~reukiug the Gould in education and laud-use ~~anuing
STRATEGIC
The Rehovot MPU was one of the original pilot MPUs, set up in the mid 1980s. In that first of its two eventual incarnations, it was operated by an outside consultant who acted mostly as personal policy advisor to the mayor. The model had clear advantages: first. the MPU was focused on issues of policy. while its peer in Yavne was becoming bogged down in technology. Second, the closeness to the mayor meant that the MPU had access and influence within the local authority. Against these advantages. however, stood the aloofness from everyday decision making and departmental workings due to the non-indigenous staffing. Furthermore. during the piloting period (19X5-1988) the sitting mayor lost the support of the majority in the council and became a lame duck until his replacement in the 1988 clcctions. Nonetheless. the MPU managed to product ground-breaking policy documents which, for example, led to a limitation of retail expansion and a reevaluation of the way public properties were allocated to religious institutions. The second incarnation began in 1990 with the arrival of a full-time MPU director who was to work with the incumbent mayor Michael Lapidot as an integral part of the municipality’s senior staff. The new MPU director, Yoram Tcvet, was a Rehovot resident recommended by the mayor. His background was in management of complex real-time control systems as a senior air-force officer, and since his demobilization he had also worked in strategic pianning in the private sector. Despite the mayoral endorsement, Tevet’s initial months were an uphill struggle. The new mayor’s administrati(~n was unenthusi~~stic about reviewing policies, and
254
Progress
Tevet’s
own
access IO the mayor
of identifying them.
in Planning
council-members
While
this
provided
made the mayor probationary
year
for
effective issues
opportunity
consultant location
of school
dcpartmcnt
national the town music.
the education
jointlv
policy
parameters
with
Encouraged education ‘piggyback’ 1091.
onto
New
zoning
administration had thwarted 1987.
in Rehovot.
t’c)ut that
the atppl~~m~ntin~
t’ocu\ing on a~\.
\cicnc,c.
uscl’ul.
drew
tire.
results:
clc~partmcnt to ;1llo\4 tt 10
the ;tcaclemic since
the ability dctniled
of expcrimcntal institulion4.
to combine
ct;t\sc\
Although
the chat-ting
produced
on ;I
of broad
;I significant
change
issue. ;I tnot-c holistic
the MPLI
for
scouted
process.
on ;I process
I~\
In the cL\c‘nt. the dixxt\\ton\
in introducing polic!
Iltc~
di\owncd
the t-c,-tt-aming ot the planning
planning.
a cruciai
institution\.
it co~~Id ix
An
;tppt-o;tch
to the
mot-c opp,ortllniticxjt-tunitics to
opportunit!
of Ian&use
\oon prcsentcd
planning
aimed
it\clt
plans which
wet-c nccehsary
an initiative trends
tot- scvcral
was overturn&
wcrc
to permit vision
for
leaving
reasons.
in 1988 left dramatic
;I hiatus
expansion
l’he
lame-ditch
in planning of retail
the city had been articulated. their
marh
on the town.
tcrma.
It
development Meanw~hile.
A \igniticant
in
;tt produc~tng
plan.
but no nlternativc
demographic
through
Reho\ot‘\
aI\0 pi-oposrd
education:
and the xadcmic
tackled
as the town emhnrked
a new zoning
izlPl.’
and the initiation
the MPUs
an esi\ting
:itlll7itlou\
c\pct-t\ brohct-cd
school\
and with
immediate
EIFahcm.
by its succcss
debate
end
hclpccl the cducatton
for- in\oI\iny
The
The
capxit\
suggc‘\tetl ;I more
(he education
as p~~litically
schools
in the wav the municipality
consultant.
with
had initialI!
in Israeli
asked
in Reho~ot
in Urn
concerned
spccialiaxi
organizations
led to tuo
__b\, locnl
dcpartmcnt
an outGclc
the potential
if the proposals
education
scale than
on planning \i;t the t-outs
and so on.
parents‘
by the MPlJ
conducted
1~15
had pi-o\cti
direction
the education
from
which
trend
more
the ,MPU
department
for
then
h\. the .II)(‘
dcparttncnts
the help of academic
growing
it\ involvement
paradigms
Tc\,et
the crisis.
one which
strategic
in local education.
studies
with
tactic
tht-ough it also
procases. to lire
intervention
other
pi-ojcctions.
With
with
cautiously.
portrayed
MPIJ.
to csamine
another school\
‘test the water’
smaller
The
institutions
environmental
initiated
primarily
\ought
consider
Proceeding MPU
that wcrc
its demogtxphic
acxicmic
of comprchensivc
came when plan
facilitie.
the MPlJ
to defuse tactic.
;I general
development
w;15 appropriate.
the JDC‘.
Forceful
to wet-h with
reachins
to do this planx
de~lop
framework
tic sought
:I forward
prepared
was up.
to ;I risk\, to uork
agetid~is.
planning
lirst
instead
that he tried
to ;I IL’\\ risky
work.
rtxorted
and attempting
access to decision-making
to the point was rcquircd
switched
their
He
to the mayor
the municipality
MPUs.
from
commissioned
with
of the Interior
in other
of particular His
with
hi\ part.
arising
him
feel thrcatencd.
and the Ministrv Tevet.
was sporadic. close
in two
numbct-
Municipal
of middle class families, typically with children entering were leaving the city in search of appropriate affordable numbers
were temporarily
boosted
in 199tK1991,
Strategic
Planning
255
middle or high school, housing. Population
however,
because
of the massive
immigration to Israel from the disintegrating Soviet Union. Pleased with the apparent change in Rehovot’s demographic fortune, the town’s political leaders wanted a zoning plan that would provide for the town’s expansion by permitting residential development of agricultural land within the town’s boundaries and the annexation of adjacent areas - mainly citrus groves which had earned Rehovot its early reputation. The tactic, basically, was to make a land grab while the country as a whole was relaxing planning and conservation regulations in a drive to provide housing for hundreds of thousands of new immigrants. Naturally, the landowners involved were not opposed to the town’s ideas: the mood was one of seizing the moment. At first, the MPU saw in the nascent statutory planning process an opportunity to address the flight of the middle class families. Their needs were rather different than those of the new immigrants, with the latter requiring entry-level housing while the former were looking for more spacious and less dense, yet still affordable, housing. The MPU argued against zoning for maximal utilization of land as appropriate for the new immigrants. Instead, it argued that the city should attempt to create an internal migration of middle class families by increasing the stock of larger family dwellings. This, argued the MPU, would activate the local housing market and the smaller, cheaper apartments sold by families trading up could be bought by the new immigrants. The MPU soon found its involvement expanding beyond the technicalities of housing densities. Once the annexations and the unfreezing of agricultural land were approved, a proportion of it was turned over to the city for public use. Typically. this land would be used to provide services for new neighbourhoods in the same land parcel. This practise enables developers to create showcase neighbourhoods, complete with local public services which makes for easier marketing. Flying in the face of this convention. the MPU suggested that the windfall of public land should be seen within the context of citywide public services. and its development guided by long-term goals. The unit analyzed the existing allocation of public land in Rehovot’s different neighbourhoods. It factored in the land use implications of the emerging proposals for changing the education system. Above all, it framed the debate on using the windfall of public land within the context of articulating a long-term vision for the new town. The new land whether designated for private or public development - was, the MPU argued, a once-in-a-lifetime resource for realizing such a vision. In seeking to articulate a vision for Rehovot the MPU was in a somewhat awkward position. It had been wrongfooted once by becoming involved in local
Progress
256
In Planning
politics.
and issues
domain.
To protect itself,
it introduced It argued
ii notion
borrowed
tax-base).
avoided
from
the vicinit\
discussion
marketing.
competition
Kchovot’s
into
direct
for
real advantages:
lay in prcaer-\,ing
and mature
buildings niodcrn
look-alike.
trees.
unusual
institutions
and
on supporting Kchovot‘a
by
image
development capitalize
it5 history.
-
might
Two.
cnsurc
this positioning
effort
In steering advantage. key council direction
planning
succcccied
members
the MP11 has performed
assumptions
explicit
of it5 academic process focu\ an>
by prcvcnting
retorm
opportunitic\
oU the education
\ccrc ud
to \trcngthcn
it.
process
to addressing the question.
agendas.
Indeed.
its ascribed
Kchovot‘\ it
could
in con\-incing
wccccdeci
ot o\crall
prcp;tI-cd.
be
role of extcrnali/.in3
and dctining the paradiqs
competitive
‘\f hat kind of Kehovot‘
that the quotion
;I zoning plan
twfbrc
ix
and
hv findin, (1 IICU ~vavs to l’urther-
and
as the city engineer
as well
had to bc acldrexsed
ot the building
that the planning
innovative
in placing
and the planning
much
C‘itrus Ciro\c\‘
and
than diluting
that idcntitb
one. en hancc t hc po5itiL.c 4idc ol
this character
(for example.
rather
where
proposed
that new dcvctopment
the statutory the MPU
on both the political
doing.
erode
With
out tar its mix c>tolder
it h> the reputation
in two way:
‘The C‘ity of’ Science
which
it\ hl$torlc
in tho ccntci- of the countr\
upon
The MPIJ
on these strengths
system).
located
conferred
thcsc advantages
settlement.
stand5
in ;i country
It is con\cniently
aura of i-cspectability
an
Kehovot
Instead.
the town.
(which crcatc and
developments
advantages
visually.
of the political
of ‘vision‘.
of ‘positioning’
as ;I town that grew out of’ an agricultural
identity
came some
has
led it once more
the MPU
that in the regional
a solid
sustain
of vision
In \o
polic!,
rendering
of dehatc CILCI-;I crucial i4\uc for
the city. It should hc
noted
that
the importance of placing land-uhe planning In ;I local
strategic context is particularlv land-use plans. Thcsc British
Structure
express an csplicit intcrdcpendcncy that the MPU
great bccausc of the limitation4
do not require a strategic statcmcnt
Plans.
A
In other words, the land USC plan ctoc\ not neces\aril~
hctwecn devctopments:
succccdcd in turning
that i\ outside its Icgal KX~V.
01
‘l‘hc tact
the zoning component ot’ planning into ;I is therel’orc ;I signitic:int
achievement.
new brieff’or transport planning
Through articulating
the notion of competitive
positioning.
the future development priorities
came potential benchmarks While
statutor’!
broader police. Nor dons it in\,ol\c ;I notion 01 timocalc
means. rather than an end unto itself.
1.2.2.
01 tsracli
in the manncl ot
the MPLJ twgarl a p~-oce~xof
for Rehovot.
With
thcsc prioritie\
for assessing development plan\.
it was busy developing the conceptual framework
plan and getting it approved. the MPLJ also began
lor the new landuse
considering
the implications
M~~jcj~a~
Strategic Pfanning
257
of its concepts for various citywide systems. The connection with education was established early on. Next, the MPU turned to look at the transportation implications of its proposed ‘positioning’ of the town. Due to a very rapid expansion of private car ownership and almost unparalleled traffic densities, transportation is a key issue in the development of major Israeli towns, especially those which, like Rehovot, lie in the center of the country. With almost no passenger railways, transport planning in Israel means, primarily. roads. Typical Israeli transport plans are adjuncts to land-use plans, sharing their demographic and locational assumptions and adding transportation assumptions. High among these assumptions is that the preference for private car use is one which the planner is duty bound to accommodate. The MPU proposed something different: that transport planning be subjected to the same hoiistic principals which underpinned its proposed development strategy for the city. In practical terms, the MPU suggested that transport plans should reflect the overall marketing goal for the city by seeking transportation solutions which do not violate the essential character of the town - its organic structure, the intimacy of its centre, its ‘greenness’ and its relatively leisurely pace. At the same time, one of the goals of the transportation plan was to ensure the continued viability of Rehovot’s commercial centre, the ribbon development along its historic main street. Finally, the transport planners were asked to anticipate the development of a regional rail system and its impact on Rehovot’s access to its surroundings and, particularly, the metropolis of Tel-Aviv. Although these goals may seem unremarkable, it is still highly unusual for a municipality in Israel to set such goals; no less important, it was unusual but welcome that the Ministry of Transport agreed to contribute financiaily to the planning process. That the Ministry did so was the result of support at the senior professional level, where recognition was given to the fact that as decentralization takes hold, towns will want more say in their own transport systems, and will be less willing to adopt blueprint solutions. The Ministry thus embarked upon what it perceived to be an experiment in decentralized planning, conducted under favourabie conditions because of the willing and active involvement of the MPU. The MPU, for its part, secured the support of the appropriate council members and the city engineer, so ensuring that the town presented a united front on transp~~rtation issues. The fact that the MPU’s approach to transport planning brought support - and financing - from the Ministry of Transport, further underpinned the credibility of the MPU.
4.2.3. Evaluatingt the MPlJs achievements At the time of writing the transportation plan is in progress. The wider land-use plan has been given preliminary approval by the District Planning Committee,
Progress
258
in Planning
so the underlying
principle
planning
seem
process.
Rehovot
pattern
impact
which
likely
represents
Rehovot
interest.
backing
These
there
with
wcrc
to open door\
municipal
demonstrates provides Despite
cyclical.
in most
policies.
His
himself
predecessor’s
had significant
contacts
the policy
far short
of the
and support
though
provide.
Ultimately.
existence. and at the on the MPLJ
hacking
which
of the Rohovot
MPUs
at Ica4t.
Rehovot.
I‘hu\.
JDC‘
policy His
the MPU.
to cxtxutc
hi5
planning.
conclusion
change creates
from
encmics.
his B>
the MPLJ
demonstrated
and outside
departmental
while
lowering role
the data collection to i’acilitate
ES!
external
and
It used its innocuous
sufficient
that
the municipality.
it>
as ;I ticket in Rchovot
credible
tot fell
acct’ss to.
processes. of the mayor.
in great
the hxic
part hy the MPU.
importance
increases
when,
rcfcrcncc
plans.
lixed
11~ the
minimalistic
and fragmented.
The
tic’s more
and overdue
acti\,ity.
still
with
on the way planning
is thought
the
restructuring.
has scme
been t’elt at the departmental
the
statutq
points. impact
eventual
ot MPI!
has now
of the town’\
as has been the case in Rchovot.
an enduring
sc\~cn years
paradigms
are bxoming
of the statutory
is inconsistent
and their
presence
was originally
with
threat.
although
;I 5ct ot agreed
an impact
in ‘results‘.
u4n g thcsc
and
the hope’ tor
despite
the MPlJs
toward\
or explicit
inside
of decision-making
though.
and it is having
required
it proved
The
the!, arc.
the MPlJ
support
both
support
shaped process.
at the time
was able to bc mot-c effective,
of tlccision-mahing.
to go. But
very
conferred
professional
and the
made more
education).
the council
planning
the overt
process
processes
with
contacts
pattern
to close down
itself.
important
planning
and static
the MPlJa
closely
W;I\ conccrncd.
vision.
Yavnc
of,
without
ongoing
in Rchovot.
worked
;I potential
hacking
dehatc
dcvelopmcnt.
statutory
In this,
wa failure
the MPli
;I> ;I base.
Even
these
hecn disdainful
it had support
entering
future
political
the MPU
and
man intcrcstcd
;I
as far as the mayor
profile
mayor
in policy
was that chxmatic
the mayor’s where
sitting
haa often
the MPU
policie
identifying
tlcaling
which
the o\,eraII
he lacked
to hc
failure
However. the unit
in
departmental
while
of the Mf’U
cxperiencc,
of the indcpcnclent
intcrcst
LYIXS
successor
proclaiming exposing
(when
credibility
The
;I g-cat
took
However.
plans
The
position
was used to protect
its succc’ss in 1W--1992.
established
paradigmatic
;I
the MPUs.
is more
history
Thi\
the importance
for
EIFahem.
the
the
since the MPLJ
and traditional
in Urn
planning
in academia
of Transport.
into
E1Fahem.
to asserting
typical.
politicians weak
organizational
use of the .lDC’ sponsorship. Ministry
llm
approach
more
competitive
and integrated
with
and O~CII.
lack of previous
and then
piecemeal
particularly
was consistent
Because of the weaker director’s
developed
C‘omparcd
is prohablv
‘This
had to contend
vested
more
;I
on IocaI planning.
the MPLJ
to endure.
way Ie~cl.
of and carried
out
Municipal
in the line-departments. executive-managerial strategic and holistic
Eventually,
managerial
4.3.
CHALLENGE
AND
4.3.1.
AND
this will also translate
THE
259
into
coherence. Then the work of the MPU in introducing planning may prove to have also been formative in paving
way for more strategic
MPL’s
one hopes,
Strategic Planning
the
approaches.
OF MASS
IMMIGRATION:
NATANYA
LOD
Mass immigration
and the role of local authorities
The MPU programme was conceived because of the conviction that local government was playing an increasingly important part in a decentralizing Israeli society. For most of the 1980s. this analysis was mainly the concern of ‘insiders’ rather than a popular perception. Towards the end of the decade, however, immigration made the centrality of local government far more evident. The mass immigration to Israel which resumed around 1990 was addressed through a process labelled ‘direct absorption’. Uniquely, direct absorption placed localities in charge of a supreme national endeavour. By conceding its leading role to local authorities, central government gave unprecedented credence to local authorities and to the pattern of more decentralized governance in general. The significance of immigration for Israel can barely be over-stated. The influx of immigrants is not merely an important boost to the country’s pool of human talent and to its economic prospects. It is considered a vindication of its very character as a predominantly Jewish state. To be placed in charge of the success of absorption is thus to be responsible not merely for the lives of hundreds of thousands - it is also a responsibility for a national vision. Why did central government part with this responsibility - and the potential kudos that comes with it? Not surprisingly, it is another example of ‘decentralization by default’. The idea that government should dismantle much of its immigrant absorption apparatus and hand responsibility over to local government was in fact a reaction to nearly 20 years during which immigration was a slow trickle. Rather than maintain an over-sized, centrally controlled infrastructure for absorption, it was considered more effective to give local authorities responsibility for looking after the few immigrants who were arriving. In the 1970s and 198Os, the typical route for a new immigrant would involve a stay of up to two years in a specially-designed facility, the absorption centre. Services in the centres were provided by their own staff, backed by the resources of the absorption bureaucracy of the government and the Jewish Agency. Local contact with community and local authorities could be delayed, and limited initially to integration into compulsory education. Immigrants emerged from the
260
Progress
in Planning
absorption centrc into the community in a gradual fashion. and from the local authorities point-of-view. could then be treated like any other new resident. In contrast, under direct absorption the safety-net of the absorption ccntrc and its specialist staff was to be restricted to immigrant families or groups with special needs. For the majority of immigrants. the policy advocated providing the newcomers with resources and guidance to enable them to fend for thcmselvc\ in the community. This meant, primarily. finding housing independently, and tackling the various service agencies and bureaucracies to obtain education. vocational training, welfare services and so on. To assist in these tasks. immigrant\ are provided with grants and loans. and have access to special advisers provided by the Ministry of Absorption. volunteer organizations and local authoritie>. From the standpoint of local services, direct absorption as originally conceived meant only minor adjustments. Extending services for the occasional new immigrant family placed only a limited additional strain on the services. It ua\ assumed that with low overall immigration, established community support structures, voluntary and municipal, would be able to assist the immigrant\. Ultimately. any additional hardship caused at the start of the absorption process. would be more than compensated for by the increased and immediate contact with the local community. As soon as the mass immigration from the erstwhile USSR began, it became clear that central government had neither the resources nor the flexibility to resume the lead in absorption. Direct absorption became the rule and government. local and central. found itself committed to making the procedure work. For its part. the MPU programme interpreted the immigration wave within the decentralization paradigm to which the MPUs were, of course , already committed A seminar was convened to inform MPU directors about direct absorption procedures. Officials from the Ministry of Absorption unveiled their csscntiall!, ‘hands-off’ approach. By the end of the day, the MPU directors were convinced that the local authorities were facing a potential emergency . given the onus being placed on them and the lack of clarity regarding the support which the government would provide. Returning to their local authorities, most MPU directors encountered sccpticism. Only a few mayors seriously entertained the possibility that central govcl-nmcnt was indeed relinquishing its role. The MPUs focused initially on alerting their peers and political leaders to two critical consequences of direct absorption. First. that municipalities had to prepare for dramatic increases in their populations bb conceiving a new range of services for the immigrants. in order to substitute tar the traditional absorption apparatus. Second, that the impact of mass immigration on national resources would be such that any local authority not actively pursuing absorption would find itself divested of resources which would be directed to where the immigrants settled.
Municipal
Strategic Planning
261
Although a sense of urgency was beginning to manifest itself, only a few local authorities started making contingency plans. The first of the two cases in this chapter looks at the way in which the Natanya MPU promoted and facilitated a process of contingency planning which mobilized and motivated residents and service-providers, just as thousands of new immigrants started pouring into the town. In contrast, the second case set in the town of Lod is one in which the town was slow to face up to the impact of immigration, and the MPU became instrumental in highlighting the opportunity which immigration represented, Natanya typifies the efforts of an entrepreneurial MPU, supported by the mayor, pursing a holistic agenda and willing to make the occasional sortie into executive action. In Lod, on the other hand, the MPU had first to find ways of empowering itself sufficiently to enable it to make its point. Operating in different circumstances and deploying very different means, each MPU strove to place the challenges and opportunities associated with immigration at the center of the municipal agenda.
4.32.
Natanya
Natanya is a fairly prosperous town with a population of over lO~),O~~O, on the Mediterranean coast about half-way between Haifa and Tel-Aviv. With a good record with previous immigrations, it was an early favourite among the newcomers of 1989 and 1990. Direct absorption presented the town with a lengthy list of issues to contend with. The MPU’s approach was based on clarifying these issues and using them in part as a means for taking a more holistic look at the issues of development and service provision facing the city. Among the local strategic and organizational concerns emanating from direct absorption, the following formed the basis for the MPU’s initiative: -
-
Initial welcome: organizing municipal systems to support new arrivals in their first hours and days in the town. Recruiting the maximum available resources from within the loca1 authority and voluntary organizations to support the absorption effort. In deployment of resources, establishing more flexible and collaborative working practices. Ensuring that resource allocation did not tip too far against existing weaker populations. Looking at the long-term social and economic issues of integrating veteran and newcomer populations. Assessing the needs of special groups among the immigrants, such as children with learning disabilities or older persons with restricted mobility.
Beyond its concern for the absorption process itself, the MPU was convinced that Natanya’s success in absorption would open up considerable development
262
Progress
opportunities.
in Planning
Together
absorption
effort
Anticipating
extraction.
exercise.
What
which
the MPU
undcrpinncd
co-operation
pro~ss
by working
which
partics
and Welfare
and Labour:
and voluntary
-
Significantly.
into
to ovcrcomt
population
unique
planning
onu process
the
st'nse
urgency
of
traditional
the scrvics
Another
covered
break
rcprcscntativcs
education,
barriers
for
to nc\\ immigrants
from
tradition
WI\
the private
muni~ip~~lit~.
From
bcyctnci the capacity
nature
it
the: outset. doomeci
WIS
topics
attempt
than
around
existing
barriers
and
asscrtccl
without
task
in the planning
sectors. that
to
down
rather
as offcial the task
of the ~n~~~l~~ip~iit~ alone.
to fail
of concern
and employment.
to melt
participation
the MPU
werr
city
rcprcsentarivcs
topics
;I\ ;i hericx of goal-orientated the
and voluntary
was not only
business
integration
around
topics
included
such 2s Absorption
the main
cultural
it was ;I tlclihcr;itc
with
party
ministries
rcprcscntatives:
groups
different
working
The
WCIK organized
structure:
set in motion. Each
community
housing.
the groups
orgimizational
very
and
and trt use the
of government
organizations.
immigrants
the MFYJ
in parailcl.
local representatives
remould
tht
in the city.
addressed
new
IO compress
in order
that
and its existing
a comprehensive
phases,
mohiiization
as ensuring
of local dcvclopmcnt.
location
esscntiaily.
was.
the combination
In the pl~nnill~ officials;
lcvoraging
set in motion
did
and
it saw its roic
based on the city‘s
the MPU
planning
MPUs.
other
the maximal
providccl the influx.
of Soviet
necessary
with
the involvement
forccx.
process
partners of direct
hut that
of
to the ~~bs~~rpti~)n
by its
of thu community
as
;I whole. Each
working
also specific asked onto
party
to suggest the rental
stock.
The
vacancies options
uas
rcsponsta markct.
in or&r
most
the planning
the
for
wcrc
Thu
housing
rnan~
twvn's
was asked
it~_~~iiy, and
~Ippr~)pri~it~ process
issues.
to immccliatcly
group
advcrtiseci
\vccks to product
;I t'cw
of getting
means
tmpioyment wcrt
given
to targctcd
plans and policies. Reflecting the need for broad
market.
for
it policy.
but
esnmpic.
was
holiday
properties
the nvailablc
mc;ms
to r-ccommcnd
At
to make
vacant
increase
to suggest
the local l:ibour
askal
not just
group,
The
~~)niInitrn~nts
housing
of ensuring
that job
the vocational co-opted
to support
training
partners
in
the eventual
absorption plan
was shaped
organizations into
so as to place
involved
the sole service
cxtendcd
provider.
also good
for
The
~~o~~-iocai
to any agency
came and brought With
in absorption.
to also include
as partners
communal
support
the municipality
wishing
rather i&a
agcncich.
in new rcsourccs,
than
of orcating
to tat
of absorption.
at the ccntre
The
\ecking
to
of make
local scrvicc MPU
network
01
the municipalit), networks
offer&
Natanya
new ideas in absorption.
expertise
each scctoral ;I
The
wa4
and itself agencies
and prestige
-
ail of which
of the MPL!
it was natural
were
local moraic.
pi~nnin~
being
the designated
domain
for
the
Municipal
Strategic
work of the different committees to be co-ordinated and supported which for two months did little else. The MPU, however, extended turning
the planning
process
into part of the operational
solution
Planning
263
by the MPU, its mandate by to the task which
it was addressing. The MPU was able to step successfully onto the administrative terrain of established departments, for a number of reasons. These include, the mayor’s backing; the importance attached to absorption; the absence. in common with most Israeli local authorities at the time, of an executive director; and the character and experience of the MPU director, Shraga Weisman. Like Hameisi in Urn EIFahem, Weisman found ways of acting as a de-facto executive without dropping the mantle of planner. Furthermore Weisman. again like Hameisi, could reconcile the two professional personas because of his previous training and expertise as a town planner. In leading a planning process, he was as it were playing his strongest suit, and his command of the process from a professional standpoint also made it possible for him to assume a leadership role. Natanya became a pioneer in producing a local planning process and a model for direct absorption. The plans and principals which it established interorganizational partnership and the focus on the needs of immigrants above existing structures - became national blueprints. Lod, the site of the second absorption-related case-illustration, operated rather differently.
4.3.3.
Lod
Lod is an ancient town. lying at the very center of Israel. In 1948 Lod. then an Arab town, was captured during Israel’s War of Independence. Most of the Arab population fled, but some of those who remained continued to occupy buildings in the town center. In the late 1940s and 1950s. the town was settled by new Jewish immigrants, mainly from North Africa, who occupied some of the abandoned Arab houses as well as mass housing in newly-built ncighbourhoods. The town’s zoning plan designated the old Arab town centre for comprehensive redevelopment but there was never enough money available to compensate sitting property owners. As a result, the development of Lod reached a stalemate: the Arab residents refused to move voluntarily, while the authorities could not conceive a plan which bypassed them. Despite its attractive location, Lod languished as a solidly working class town, with poor property values and a lacklustre reputation. Somewhat to the surprise of the town’s leaders, its lacklustre reputation did not put off the new immigrants from the Soviet Union. To them, Lad’s stalemate presented an opportunity: cheap housing within easy access of the largest and most varied labour market in the country. After the surprise, came enthusiasm: this was Lod’s opportunity to grow, to acquire a ‘ready made’ professional class, as well as
Progress
264
to increase
m Planning
the Jewish
majority
70 “i,, of whost
town.
in the
rcsidcnts
were
Arab
in l%Y. Regional
competition
future
of Led.
within
fifteen
highway.
‘The
kilometrex
Once
drained
was another
government of Lod,
the new
town
of its existing
buyers.
Successful
absorption
‘puller’
of population.
new land would So,
after
for
thcrc lives
OWL‘
of the immigrant ;I path
Looking
at these
lay in spurring to make Lad’s
absorption
second.
21 respect4 The
MPU
and its partners actually
revealcd
that
was &signed
existing
data about
s~iti~f~~~tiorl
future within
cvt’r
At
its most
cast.
not only
on the
a WC
from
two clcmcnt\
jllf~~rnl~~ti~~ll and tinancial
about
the
support
rcscarch
it\
and
chctxc in orrlet
invttlvcd
and
huld
ho\ve\er.
immigrants
the MPI!
JDC’
the
immigration
to hc awaiting
which
2 datahasc
of new
hccausc
their
arm,
t’rom the
a detailed
report
placing
the census their
wz.
survc!‘.
\vas ticsigned
thclr
to facilitate
the I.otl
It wa
to the
initiative
wa
cat-ricd out explicitI>
utilization
WC J DC-f3rookdale.
Loci in the national
;mci
absorption
in the co-operation
rctilting
which
~l~~pl~~~rli~nt
designed
Nationally.
retlectccl
mailing
and
and with
immigrants.
of questions
on the LotI
IcwI.
svstcm
where
‘t‘he census
naticmat
in Lotl
stage involved
an espcrimcntal
conditicm~.
in the town.
ubsorption.
perspective.
living
of lift
It\ first
to tlcterminc
unreliohlc. totat.
str~li~htf(~r~v~lr~I
of the ncu
census
services
the MPIJ’s
purp~>sc\:
cc’nsus.
I l,(I(IO -
somu
managcmcnt
immigrants
of direct
;I unique
-
aspects
and the prominence
(for
that
rlisacminate
wcrc‘ thoroughly three
municipality From
in numbers.
It? difficulty.
professional
was neccssal-y
with
various
systematic
the context
this
the il~lrni~r~llits,
with
In panrltct. tracking
which
and its credibility
of the IKW
seemed path
ancf
dcvctopcd
records
~tdministrative-t~tctical.
the tirst
the needs
The
in this
in the town
lived;
followed
process.
housing
impact
self-image
of I_od.
Officials
analyze
-
This
ctt a historic
would
convinced
high-prolitc
institution
as ;I land.
Institute.
of all rcsidcnccs
immigrants
to yield
gather.
Lod
divcrsitication.
to address
do so with
outside
Rrookdalc
a sweep
First,
()I’ being
agricultural
in the town
Failure
hccamc
mayor.
risk
establish
way out
to scttic
the fortunes
priority.
town
by potential
of lo\v-density
~o~~~~~itn~~~~t to the ~il~s~)r~~tiol~ process
its rtpcrtoire.
immigrants;
population
:md centralistic
yrcatcr
could
to atljacent
was ;t potential
the MPU
a kc); to the a new
a serious
bypassed
but also on thu town‘s
altering
;t high
runs
the kind
to consider.
and
held develop
families.
hrtd started
families, factors.
;t claim
Isntcli
in absorption
for
Lod
and being
to initiate
immigrants
the municipality
powerful
to invoke
their
in turn.
of growth
opportunity
it would
side of the Jei-usaletn-Tel-Avis
is built. class.
it stake
was also the cost of failure
a historic
JDC
succt’ss
Then,
in seeking
from
it.
the immigrants that
of the new immigrants
\,y upw~~r~~l~-m~~bil~
Loci.
deadlock.
middle
and help
enable
why
on the other
of Modi’in
of some
is sought
reason
had announced
with
the
of local
t W3).
eye was important
Municipal
since it illustrated town’s image.
how innovative
Yet, by raising
approaches
to absorption
the profile of the census
Strategic
Planning
could improve
265
the
the MPU took a calculated
risk: it could not predict how municipal leaders would deal with results critical of the city, but the tie-in with national institutions meant that such results could not be suppressed. Upping the stakes, though, was necessary in order to place absorption higher on the municipal agenda. Tactically, then, the Lod census like the Natanya planning process, served a dual purpose. It not only produces a specific product, but was also intended to have a systemic impact.
4.3.4.
Lessons from the role played by MPUs in immigration
absorption
The wave of immigration which swept Israel in the early 1990s affected virtually all areas of Israeli life and governance. The Natanya and Lod cases demonstrate the MPU’s role in conveying to the cities the importance of the events engulfing them and in producing appropriate responses in the as-yet unfamiliar context of direct absorption. The mode of intervention adopted by each MPU reflects its respective position within its municipality. The Natanya MPU became the visible leader in formulating policy and mobilizing for its successful execution. The Lod MPU had to work in a more low-key fashion, avoided direct policy-making and focused instead on fact-finding as its launch-pad. The Natanya MPU could go somewhat beyond planning into the realm of execution; the Lod MPU was confined to nudging and steering municipal leaders into accepting that planning was necessary in the first place. Most MPU’s became deeply involved in absorption, and none have been untouched by it. In several other locations, censuses or surveys of immigrants are planned or have been carried out. In Ashkelon, the MPU developed highly sophisticated computerized models to anticipate the impact of the new immigrants, combined with new building, on internal migration. Its ultimate goal - to provide for more accurate placing of public facilities such as schools, in light of likely population movements. The MPU in Kiryat Gat has embarked - once more with help from JDC and the Brookdale Institute, on a survey of over two thousand Ethiopian immigrants who have settled in the town. This poses unique challenges due to the need for translation and cultural sensitivity in obtaining and analysing information (see Benita et al., 1993). In recruiting outside support for absorption planning and research for their cities, MPUs demonstrate their capacity to act as bridges between national trends and agencies and local interests and practises. In terms of decentralization, this bridging represents a new and less hierarchical relationship between local authorities and the wider world. Information, guidance and support are no longer channelled from ministries to their corresponding departments in local government. Rather, local authorities operate in a more open market for
266
Progress
information, identify
in Planning
intelligence
and recruit
The
resilience
dealing
with
deciding
the emerging
was dramatic. strong
and adopted reality.
to municipal
to
grew
because
10%
is dramatic
or.
in eighteen
months
the municipality profcssionat
accotlltllocl~ltcd
so
-
;t failure
in
ca\c\.
the impact
It rapidly
detnands
the risk
factor\
in some
had a sufjicicntl)
core.
the
municipalitic\.
paralysis
it is adept at
have heen important
idcntiticd
j’txed
of trauma
10 provide
Iv
the
ha\ become
new serviccc
;I
;~nd to
priorities. has accentuated
ptaccd on local
authorities
However.
it not for
were
absorption
authorities. The
ancl
weaker
In scvcrat
Immigration
direct
population
and a competent
tradition,
leading
redefine
Natanya’s
new practices.
newcomers.
LI!XX~ than
to which
paradigm.
of immigration
It was not traumatic
working
it is incumbent
and the extent
decentralized
the local impact
When
where
partners.
of a local authority.
whether
traumatic.
and rcsourccs
tong-term
flexible
the dcccntratization
would
Direct
the non-s\;nchrony
have had littlc
absorption
challenge
and responsive.
bctwccn
and the Icvcl of their
i> to sustain
which
decentralization
fhih momentum
survey
ant!
had taken
chance of cucccss in
has moved
Lod‘h
the t-csponsibitities
c;tpabilitic\
is ;I pointct-
al!
;I
but
a
by creating
further.
services
of tools
lOSO\.
local
few
notches
t‘cw
to the kind
rcso~tt-cc‘\.
place in the
that are
t~cccss;~t-!
j’or-
such success. The
different
different
rcqonscs
relationships
MPU
spent
white
;t lot of titne
the emphasis
the mayor. pyramid
With
mayor.
the MPU.
effort
qualifications In dealing facing
Absorption human
emhraccs
scrviccs;
expanded
for
;I doubt
societv
issue.
the MPI
as ;I \vholc.
the entire
: profound
the newcomers;
;tuthot-it! through
interests
1s took
but for
N hich empouered fostering
municipal
;I scnsc
ot
tnanagctnent
on one 01 the% tno\t preAng comtituniti~4
trangc 01’ local govcrnmctit ch:rngc\
to demography the economic
and Lgenet-:ition
of Ihe local authority.
local and national
;tcccs\ to the
cast o\‘cr the professional
2nd it\ urban
the need to adapt and build
obligations
working
and lint-managers.
ot ;I challenging
was never
b\
clirectors.
absorption
Israeli
of tlclcgated
mandated
and initiate
officers
I.otl
o the decision-t7iakitt~
em!>hasized
to improve
the operation\ there
of the MPU with
dcvelopmcnt
employment where
c;tses.
the Mf’U
The
department\.
projects
flattenin,
wa\ cstahlishec!
stature
1Jatattya highlight e~tahliahment~.
lint-rnan;t~enl~ilt
mayor
existing
by virtue
the MPIJ’s
to improve
that
with
and
municij~a!
on indej~cnt!ent
attempt&
In Natanya.
In both
physical
surprise
wet-c‘ credible
In Lad,
structure.
issues
MPUs
reasons.
a united
\v;ts more
with
of ;I ccntratistic
it is of little
in Lorl
anr. I :Itcit-
alliances
even as it repeatedly
Both
different
in Natattya
absorption
MPlJs
forming
the weight
in Lad.
‘sideways’
to direct
between
converge
It is. most
operation: rcc!uiring
ne’r~’
changes
to
base \o as to provide
of acltiitiotiat in 4liort.
in particular.
t-c~~cti~~~
;I model
~onspic‘itolt~l\‘.
to
tiiect
strategic
the
issue.
Municipal
After running, Attention other
the first rush of immigrants MPUs have ceased to immigration
aspects
of urban
and once basic local systems
their intensive
has become change
Strategic
involvement
more integrated
Planning
267
were up and
with immigration. with MPU involvement
with
and development.
The MPU involvement in direct absorption has been a vindication of the programme’s underlying assumptions about decentralization. It gave MPUs a vital issue to contend with and, most unusually, a vital issue to which there was no existing departmental claim. The distance between MPU policy-making and implementation was, correspondingly. relatively shorter than with other issues which are ‘pre-owned’.
4.4.
SUMMING
UP:
THE
MPUs
IN ACTION
In this chapter I have reviewed samples of MPU operation, taken, as it were, from the MPU casebook. Rather than provide exhaustive case studies - which I hope others will do, in time - my priority has been to supply a number of diverse and informative ‘cameos’. These real examples of activity throw into relief some of the more analytic and opinionated contours presented in the chapters framing this one. The five cases illustrate the MPU theory, and also serve to demonstrate the way in which MPU work involves a constant exploration of operational boundaries. The case studies reveal the diversity of operational circumstances under which MPUs operate. No local authority is like another and, indeed, from time to time an individual local authority will also change its own behaviour. New topics and evolving political circumstances can lead to dramatic shifts in the way an authority operates - only to revert back to old form as circumstances change again. Examination of a number of MPUs does, however, reveal patterns, recurring themes and generic principles which have evolved in the field. To succeed, the MPUs need a combination of professional versatility and tactical prowess. To have an impact on the way local government business is conducted, they must seize issues which are central to the local authority. The UM ElFahem case shows how much can be achieved if the MPU is able to deal with core issues, and receives political backing for the Urn ElFahem example is also most glaring power vacuum in its exist in the mature municipalities
defining new professional processes. However, the one where the municipality displayed the professional organization. Such spaces rarely to which MPUs are a late addition.
Typically, an MPU is unlikely to receive unwavering political backing. As the cases of Lod and Rehovot illustrate. the MPU must make establishing trust with its colleagues a continuous concern. In Rehovot, the eventual breakthrough was achieved in topics which were initially second-tier items on the municipal agenda, but where a partner with explicit authority and responsibility could be identified JPP4,:3-E
268
Progress
and co-opted.
in Planning MPUs
can rarely
have to be won over around
an issue.
through
prevail
less
or by being
in a straight
threatening
a useful
power
approaches:
partner.
initially
struggle: either
collcagues
by working
conforming
to am>ther
agenda. Lod The
shows
Yavne
sufficiently became
how an inroad MPU.
for
act of detiance
against
The
an MPU.
This
reflects
the lack of a strong innordinate relative
arc relatively for
public
municipal support
power
advertising. -
shows
actively
are rarely
just
how
If it consistently MPU. there Urn
The barely
an MPU
time
mayoral
support
in Yavnc At The
external
mavor\
to act
are v;~;III.
the
and citizen\
‘l‘hcrc
i\ no rcul
force
dcpendcnt
on
inay)i-.
an out-of-lint those
who \vill not
\tatcd aim of pr~m~~>ting ;I govcrnancc.
in lichovot.
it\ mission
for
Then
csamplc.
C\cn whcrc
the III;IVOI-\
irrespective
01 the
of pi-emoting
ita agenda.
it CC~;ISCSto bc ~111
arguably. that for
;I time
the operation
end ot’ the \calc. Nat:tn!:r
can CIWC~/ it\ mandate. critical
concentrate
i\ often
to municipal
meant
to
and given
ih strong
arc‘ clear11
seek wavs
the other
for
council\
can bc. Yet
it must
the MPl.1
on the programme’s
clcmcnt\
have found spcmsc)rh.
and still
;Irc’ indepcndcncc it benclicial
\o creating
and I-C~;I~II and
to lean from ;I balance
to
influence.
Professional
staff
the professionals eventually work.
both.
with
situation
agenda then.
and impact.
prcs)r
the MPCJs
The
mavor\
the town
initially.
election.
it possible
affairs.
approach
that an MPll
to
to\\:~i-d\ the
at Icast
direct
the town within
has to retain
as an MPU.
In maintaining
to time
still
l‘hc
2s an indirect
,Ittitude
cxecutikc.
makes
to spar
-
as it exists.
demonstrate
in approach
influence.
mayoral
on computing
performed
chief
standpoint.
though.
accepts a diffcrcnt
emphasis
EIFahem
afford
discourage
the MPU so long
their
of municipal
and long-term
changeable
attitude:
through
svstcm
an MPU
absolute.
arc ‘problematic’. mayor’s
from
it
mayor.
was too strong
the I-caction.
in such cast’\. Local
and cannot
ma!‘or
of the mayoi-‘\
influence\
The
instead,
be intcrprctcd
Yavnc‘\
account
tw and ~a\.
of the municipalitv
holistic
in part.
towns-where
in scrutiny
mayors,
or who
attitudes
hands.
of mayors
integrative.
could
factor:
in smaller
uninvolved
Problematic more
in their
censure
whcrcas
a structural
particularly
economic
But
and statutorily-protected
power
as ‘loners’.
may.
office
into
the agenda of ;I powerful
the importance
of the mayor’s
tenor
municipalit!.
take
in the local authority.
effort
the MPU
five cases demonstrate
bccauae it did nol
through
the mayor.
out by his staff.
made in a \CI-y difficult
failed
managers
pushing
of the computerization
be frozen
MPU.
phase,
the agenda of others an instrument
thwarting
All
was cvcntually
in its pilot
This
seem
inside
co-operative suggests
accept developments
more
forthcoming
and outside towards
that
local
which
the MPU govcrnmcnt
offer
in accepting
the local authorities
them
or.
the MPI
Is.
Almo\t
in the C;IS,C studic\.
at Icast.
did not activcl\
professionals
arc reasonably
an opportunitv
to do their
work
,111 ~c,-c
hinclcr
it\
open to bcttcr.
Municipal
provided
any threat
which innovation
Strategic
posed to their existing
As long as the MPU’s work does not carry such a threat,
status
Planning
269
is minimized.
it tends to be welcome.
A vital element of removing the threat is a willingness to share or completely cede credit for developments which lie within the remit of an existing department - an approach followed by the MPUs in Rehovot and in Urn EIFahem. Alternatively. as in the case of Lod, the MPU may articulate a challenge to the existing order which is felt to be necessary by other officials, whose position will not allow them to speak their minds. The scope of MPU involvements has been as diverse and interdepartmental as the programme sponsors could have hoped for. The issues which I have highlighted - refocusing local authorities at a time of decentralization (Urn ElFahem, Rehovot. Yavne); the role of information systems in planning and management (Yavnc); rethinking education and physical planning (Rehovot); immigration absorption (Lod. Natanya and elsewhere) reflect, individually. matters of great concern to specific local authorities. Taken together, they outline the cutting-edge of local government thinking and of the challenges facing it. Yet, while the MPUs have dealt with many significant issues, others have eluded them. Only a few of the MPUs. for example, have been involved in their local authorities’ attempts to resolve deep financial crises. Notably out of this arena, despite the pervasive effect of the crisis on their local authorities, were the MPU’s in Rchovot and Yavne. At the opposite end of the scale, MPU’s in Urn ElFahem and Be’er-Sheva have played important roles in analysis of the crisis and formulation of remedial policies. In fairness. budget planning is normally the preserve of the treasurer and the political leadership, so it is reasonable to assume that MPU involvement will be rare. In Be’er-Sheva and Urn ElFahem, such involvement occurred against the backdrop of weak trcasurcrs, and strong faith of the mayors in their MPU staff and in their own overall control over the municipal administration. Not surprisingly, perhaps, the two go together: the mayors who feel in command of their municipal structure arc more willing to give the MPU an opportunity to extend its involvement, despite the risk of occasional disruption. The platforms chosen by MPU directors to promote new policies rcflcct their abilities and the particular local circumstances of each decision. Hamcisi in Urn ElFahcm. Wicsman in Natanya and the Lod MPU director. Sarah Kaminkcr, were all experienced planners. This enabled them to make greater professional headway with less political fallout than was possible for Tcvet. in Rchovot. who initially seems to have been driven by a more executive instinct. Ultimately, however, Tevet’s cxpericnce of working in complex organizations, the qualification in town planning held by his deputy. and his own growing cxperiencc in the held. enabled him to establish the MPU as a credible force. The case studies all point to the importance of the MPU directors being blessed with tenacity and resilience,
270
Progress in Planning
needed while the MPU bides its time, building contacts and a reputation to he utilized when the opportunity to tackle policy materializes. Applying this lesson the Yavne effort with its emphasis on computing, highlights the dominance of
to
the mayor which almost obscured the importance of building up wider contacts in the municipality. (Because of the importance of MPU staff to the succc’ss ot each unit, I have elaborated on their desirable qualifications and background in Appendix 1. ) As regards their ~~~n~nernent to policy, stipulated in the MPU i~rogr~~rIll~1~‘~ original guidelines, quite a bit of flexibility is visible. MPUs have p~)siti(~n~d themselves at different points on the a~ti[)n-planning ~~~ntinuuill. The positioning in the case studies examincd here has been determined by a combination of structural factors and specific tasks. The Yavne MPU had no chance of engaging in executive activity while for the Urn ElFahem MPU this was impcrativc. Yet, MPUs involvement in carrying out their own recommendations strains their ‘policy only’ label while. conversely. the presence and planning inputs of the MPU can act as a catalyst for setting up stronger staff-level executive functions. an important goal in itself. For MPUs, which start life as outsiders. the taste ot executive power may be tempting. ~UcStiOJlS which should then be asked arc. ho\\ far to become involved. how to withdraw. and what is a reasonable compromise which leaves sufficient time to pursue the planning agenda. In at least two casts where MPU staff found themselves attracted to the executive side of municipal work, they left the MPUs rather than remain in position and alter its meaning. This was accepted by the programme sponsors as the least undesirable option: particularly in the programme’s first years. it was felt that maintaining the clarity of the MPU role was paramount.
CHAPTER
5
Theoretical Perspectives: MPlJs and New Organizational Directions for Local Government In this chapter, I will discuss the way in which the MPUs route to strategic planning relates to the development of the broader paradigm of management in local government. In highlighting the unique features of MPU approach to strategic planning. I will contrast this approach with strategic planning in the business sector. The comparison serves to clarify the unique features of management in local government. It is especially necessary since, as I will show, there is something of a drive to emulate business-type strategic planning in local government. In critically discussing the private sector practices I will further clarify the case for MPU-type strategic planning, linking it to evolving conceptualizations of new forms of corporate organization.
5.1.
THE
THEORETICAL
5.1 .I. Strategic planning
CONTEXT
FOR
LOCAL
STRATEGIC
PLANNING
in the MPVs and in the business sector
In this paper, I have shown a particular approach to strategic planning developed in Israeli local government. Strategic, in this context, describes a planning approach which, while anchored in the routine responsibilities and capabilities of local authorities, nonetheless takes a flexible, multi-disciplinary approach when looking at future development. The MPU’s flexibility applies not only to boundaries of discipline and department but also to the time-framework of planning. I have argued that effective strategic planning is not necessarily synonymous
with long-term
planning.
In fact, to be effective in the context of local government, strategic planning must frequently focus on short-term issues and on the implications of immediate and routine decisions. It is not an aloof approach: rather, it seeks to be in the bloodstream of the local authority and to eventually achieve system-wide 271
272
Progress
infucncc. adding
in Planning
To
do 50. it must
rcniain
issuch
and foci when
required.
deliberately
located
lint-rcsponsibilit~ At
this
celled
neither own
expressed
explicit
approach
;I svstem for
Most
form
applications
approach.
suited
mixed.
govcrnmcnt.
Even
considerations Professor
‘strategic military. appropriate
them
with
agent
for It is
of change
into
non- prepared
route
to
is also unusual
from
executive
;I management \;tructurc.
plan5
cxpcricnce
corporations
-
through
;I
or the
strategic life.
It is ;I
I( ;trrtvc\
author-it\.
adopt4
tried
in Iocal
to go 11). rc\ult\
for that mattc‘r
militat-\
same
here
to bc implcmcntcd.
is anything
rcvicu
The
is relatively
v,
has also txcn
structures.
or military
Ilu\~nc\\.
its cst;lbli\hcd
the nccessar>
if the Israeli
there
;I\ ;I spur
emanate\
have been in
Managcmcnt.
have an impact
Schiin
the MPU
-
i\ ;I c,lear. legitimate i\ not
ncccssarilv
true
stron g cxccuti\ c‘ m;~nagcmcnt,
on de&ion
of MIT.
making,
the war
of it in business.
to its competitive
When
imagery
in Jcrusalcm
of ‘strategic
came to local government
uses of the concept.
it accepted
speaking
interpretation
understandings
planning’
and business
still
to
and in local political
c~rganizational
forms
outputs.
Donald
contrasted
conventional
to carry where
will
and on expected staff.
In private
things
of its \,ervices.
MP1’
the established
inRuence.
of doing
change.
The
hc
b\ the
planning.
to authoritarian
of corporate
the need for
can
practice\.
a legitimate
deliberately
planning
from
~a!’
to LISC planning
reform.
within
of strategic
however.
right
part
which
from
m;magcrs.
Here.
management‘s accepted
reform
than
and dcrivcs
government.
admit
and
clariticd
an osmotic
of ;I neu
21-c
and timescalcs.
c t~~il4
in management
their
culture.
~Llxded
and in the character
comprehensive
of strategic
bv senior
arc at bat
for
rather
fully
be
or through
a way of bringing
to either
through
role
can also he
corporate
of is\ucs
must
a messngc
attempts
osmotic
new stratcgics
send
organization
tactic,
the llus
contact
planning
an influence
endorsed The
should
the MPLI’\
are few corporate
to strategic
function
didactic.
direct
the \hapcr\ and them.
of common
Given
change
change
being
support
of csisting
C;ILI~;CS. which
perspective
affecting
not yet ready
implement
LV;I~
goals in ;I \\;I\ N hich Facilitates
cvcntually
of a guerilla
with With
common
if there
through
in the local authority
something
Such
consistent. even
of the MPU
the organization. This
agcncla.
the MPLI
the fr;inicwork
intcracth
common
and holistic
Whcthcr
work
the MPLI
or even elements
nor
consistency
Icadership.
change
goals.
in its methodology,
thu very
level. outside
the local authority.
org~tnization-wide
frequently
(hi\ role,
in the local authorit!;.
and articulating
across
the MPU’s local
Icvcl.
action
identifying
assimilation
close to the csccuti\e
facilitate
at headquarter-staff
of cxecutivc
includes
To
department\.
headquarter-st~lff
directors
immediately
pointed
third-hand,
business
which
environment.
Schiin
to
;I
planning’
forum to
out that
following
borrowed
of MPU
the more
the term
came with
it. which
However.
strategic
the term
military from
could planning
the
be seen
;I\
hecame
Municipal
something
of a formula,
the competitive share?
with standard
environment?
and so on. The purpose
‘scanning
questions’.
Who is the competition? is to identify
a route
Strategic Planning
These
include,
How is our current to competitiveness
273
what is market
which will
ensure the attainment of the over-riding goal - profit. These conditions, observed Schiin, simply do not exist in local government, making the use of the term ‘strategic planning’, metaphoric. The assumptions which underlie the exercise of strategic planning in business, were not themselves able to stand the test of time, either. Traditional strategic planning assumed that the firm was a single entity, able to be steered. It further assumed that there was a determinate problem of strategy to answer, namely, how to win in the marketplace. And, last but not least, it rested on the assumption that the problem, by its nature, was susceptible to rational solution, and that the connection between action and future outcome could be predicted. These assumptions lead to the emergence of top-down detailed planning which derives from ‘strategic planning’ at senior corporate levels. However, these assumptions are not necessarily true even for businesses, let alone for local authorities. For one. effective planning is not always done top down; much of it emerges, argues Sch6n, from competition among middle managers. In local government, the basic assumptions of business are further refuted: -
In the local authority there is not one actor. but many: departments, political parties, neighbourhood and other interest groups. The activity of planners falls into the context of a political environment, one which has its own rules of competition and bargain-making. There is no single, monopolistic planning process. Rather, there is a multiplicity of planning processes inside and outside local government all of which contribute to shaping the decision-making environment. So, concluded Schiin, “the model of strategic planning, borrowed from business, is not applicable. That it is not applicable to business either, is heartening. Simply. its assumption of hierarchy and rationality in the organization, is wrong”.
Meanwhile, the function of ‘Long-Term Planner’ started to disappear from businesses around the mid 197Os, ,. when it became clear that no-one read their plans” (author’s notes of seminar held on June
17, 1992 in Jerusalem).
Ten years after the date placed by Schiin on the demise of the typical U.S. corporate long-range planner, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development sponsored a booklet which transposed business strategic planning to local government. Titled ‘Strategies for Cities and Counties: A Strategic Planning Guide’ (Sorkin et af., 1985) and appearing at the height of the Reagan years, it is unabashed about borrowing methods from business which rest squarely on the
Progress
274
rational
in Planning
assumptions
introduces
questioned
by Schon and. indeed.
by the MPU experience.
the topic thus:
“Strategic planning ha\ hwn \+~clcl> IIWCI I>> malot- c~q~or;ttion\ Gncc the IYhOa. Onl) reccntl) ha\ II heen rcc~qnircd a\ ;I \;IIuIIIAL’ pr~~~c~ tor refining and focusing the actions that ultimatcl\ clctemrne the tatc 01 citic\ and counties” CiAld. p I ).
The characteristics of strategic planning .‘--m I1 I\ I, tocrlsed ,‘“‘CC\Slh‘ll c~lncsrlrratc\ -~ ~ -.
;Irc:
on wlected 1\\115\ It e\plicltl! con~i&r~ lhc II’U)IIIC‘C‘~ .iv;iilahk It LILI~\SC’\ strength\ :~ncI \\cxhn~\w\ It considers maior c‘vcnt\ and change tahlng place crut~de the organization juridlctlon. It i\ ;Ictio~~-~~rlentat~tl, mlth strong cmpha\i\ 01, practical ie\ult\..‘~ (r/xi/)
Basic steps for strategic variations arc possible:
planning.
says the Guide.
are as follows -
01
although
“I. .SW~f/~ ~‘111,(101f))i(.111. Itlentlf! kc) fdctor\ .md trend\ Important tar the iuturc Lktrrmine hou extCrn;ll Iorcc\ will ~nllucnc~ ewnt\. 7. .Y&c/ KC,! /\.~LIP.\. On the h,l\i\ 01 the wan. chomc ;I le* 1\4uc5 \s ho\c \ucccs\tul resolution is critical 3 Set Mi.wrm Slnlcvmvrtt (II H17d Cir~rrl.~.tdalrli4l the dlrcctl~m for the btrategy development prc,cc\\ by wttinp penCral goals. 4. Erwmd wld I~rr~r,rrrl ,~l~trh~\i.c. I.i~~ii in depth iIt outside forms aftcdlng achirvcment d the goal\. Identify strength\ and \~eakncsw~. along with the availability of I’L’SOLI~CZ~ 5. lkwlo~~ C;ods. Oh~wliw~. (uI(/ .\‘t~~rr~,q~~~~. Rawd w the external and inteixd ;~nalyw\. dccidc N hat can hc achw\ed wth tnycc‘t IO each ~\\ue and how it \+ill Ix achiocd. (,. Ikwlr~p Ir,rl)le,rrc,r~rirti~~~~ Pldrf. Ik \pccllic ahl,ut tinwt;ihl~. rcwurcc\. ;ln~l rcsponsihilttic\ tar cxrl\lng 1lut \tr;lteglc actl~ln\ 7. ,Mor?/ror. (;,v~lncc~. crr~;/ .SCu,, f+nwre that \trateglea ;II-c c;rrrxxl out Adlust thcrr as nwe\sar) in ;I changing cn\ Ironmcnt. ik prcpxrccl to update the plan when maior change\ occur in the cnvironmL,nt.“ Crhi~l. 17. 7)
Among
the benefits
of strategic
“.A toc‘u\ 01, ;Iccmlpll\hlnglHlg
the
plannin, QT\vhich the Guide
Im[~““tarlt
lists. arc:
thnp
Community ducati~m dnd c~~n\ell\u\-lluil~ii~~~ lk\cloping 2 \harcd w\i(ln that cktencl\ pa\t the nekt clcction“ Positioning the tit! 01 count) ICI \CIK opp~~rtunltic\ Shedding new light on important i\we\ through I-ik:orous anal\v\ Helping to idcntily the mo\t cttccti\c uw (II levwrcc\. including public tunds Providing mc’chanIbm\ for prI\ ;rtc-puhllc coopcrdtlon .‘. (rhicl. pp. 5-8)
This upbeat and might
lead
assessment
of strategic
the optimistic
reader
planning’s to negate
potential Schiin’s
is a typical
concerns
sales pitch.
regarding
the
rationalist model. The guide’s outline of strategic planning sounds like an MPLJ’s idcal. And yet, the MPU cxpcricncc has shown that Schiin is right about the ‘messiness’ of local government. Indeed. it is far more immune than private business to ‘silver bullet‘ corrcctivc formulae. To introduce systematic change to Israeli local government requires more than a strategic planning exercise, however comprehensive. These rarely address the dichotomy which is fundamental to the MPU concept, of form and product in local government - using the goal to reshape processes, and using existing processes to obtain innovative goals.
It
Municipal
Strategic
Planning
275
Another important point about MPUs is that they are cheap. The Strategic Planning Guide warns that the “Dollar costs of formal strategic planning are Few Israeli local authorities are prepared to invest likely to be considerable”. their ratepayers’ money heavily in discretionary planning processes. Indeed, the very cheapness of the MPU liberates it at least partially from a heavy load of expectations and an overwhelming and immediate need to prove its ‘value for money’. Without large budgets at its disposal, and because of the inconsistent exercise of executive power in many Israeli local authorities, MPUs have often to fend for themselves in establishing their authority. The most important foundation is the highly-qualified staff which has been recruited to MPUs and their relative freedom from dependence on political patronage. Instead, MPUs are seen to be strengthened by the patronage of their outside sponsors - the Ministry of the Interior and the JDC. The respectability which MPUs have assumed enables them to be peers in the inner machinations of the political and executive processes, without having any real power in terms of services or budgets under their control. Given the circumstances under which MPUs operate, their relationship with the body of the local authority often departs from the business-based models sketched by Schon and detailed in Sorkin et al. (1984). A more appropriate framework of organizational analysis is offered by British management scientist Sir Geoffrey Vickers. Vickers argued that, for executives, goal-setting - the meat of corporate strategic planning - is actually often secondary to the main activity which he described as maintaining continuing relationships inside and outside the organization, with the overall aim being ‘course holding’. The work of Vickers has been applied imaginatively to the field of local planning by Yewlett in a paper published in Wales (Yewlett, 1983). As an aside, it is perhaps not surprising to find more useful conceptualizations of strategic planning emanating from Britain. Britain has endured constant tinkering with its local government system on the one hand and, on the other, has a private sector with a record which, until recently, did not commend itself for emulation. To illustrate the dichotomy of process and concrete goals, Yewlett provides an example offered by Vickers: “ Those who recognise the difference should not. I think, be content to mask it by giving to goal-setting and goal-seeking a meaning wide enough to include norm-setting and norm-holding; for goal-setting is a distinct form of regulation. with its own specific mechanism; a form less important, in my view. than norm-setting but important enough to be separately distinguished. For example a man who loves power - which is a specific relationship between a man and his milieu - both seeks power and exercises power (For such aspirants .). as they go through their daily work, chairing a difficult meeting, conducting a complex negotiation, they enjoy - amongst other things - maintaining their relationship with their milieu which is exercise of power. This is of course no criticism of them, so long as it is within their role.” (Vickers. quoted in Yewlett, 1983, p. IO.)
276
Progress
in Planning
For modeiling a decision-making approach which facilitates maintaining a relationship with an environment over time. Yewlett turns to the Strategic Choice approach articulated by Hickling (see Hickling and Friend, lC,XX~.Their approach homes in on choices which they SW as essential links in any decision-making process. The existence of choice is a prc-condition to planning. Each choice must be made in its strategic context. The approach is cyclical but still sees devclopmcnt as time elapses. Recurrent thcmcs reprcscnt norm-holding over time. while the gearing towards decisions focuses the process on looking for real advantages and trade-offs at any given point in time. It thus links the short and the long term. but the long term is expressed not by specific goals hut by the relationship to an environment which is to be maintained. Yewlett ends his short paper with a neat, almost romantic. metaphor: “And what of planner\? Under goal-setting, they arc like rally driccr\ 011 ;I rnkstcr) rally. trying to work out a map tar the whole rlt their future trip. or at Icart A large chunk of it. But there is no map. for the analogy is false, and the road ahead clot\ not exist until we reach It. Strategic choice muy encourage such planner\ to put down thcar mapping pens and s&c the stcerinp wheel with both hands instead .’ (/hid. p. 75) Ycwiett’s observations contain an analogy to the way in which an MPU director ‘navigates‘ the municipal system. it is guided by strategic aims. manifest in ;I consistent pressure to alter thinking rather than in a pursuit of ;I linear order ot landmark goals. Yewlett’s critique combines with Schdn’s scepticism to reinforce my opinion that MPU-type strategic planning is not only substantively diffcrcnt than its namesakes in cithcr the military or business spheres, but also better suited to the milieu in which it operates than borrowed tnodcls.
5.1.2.
Injluencing the machine of local government
Strategic planning runs the danger of becoming aloof of the evcryd:iy concerns of the officials who arc expect& to implement it in their practices. Indeed. as Schiin observed. in the business setting it typically c~~rnrnenccs in such alt~tfness and may never ‘make contact’ with the line-practitioners. Ideally, therefore, strategic thinking should not be confined to strategic planners. Rather. it should be an intcgrat part of the way pcuplc think and work in all spheres of the organization. A key innovation of the MPU approach to strategic planning is its aim to disseminate the influence of strategic thinking throughout the local authority organization. MPUs seek to go beyond the confinca of their small staff (usually no more than two, often just one) and create ;I wide cadre of workers who see strategic thinking and planning as part of the context and methodology of their everyday work. With this pcrspectivc. the strategic planner assumes a didactic role. largely unsung. as it steers towards a particular way of thinking. A~th~~ugh this process is greatly aided by an executive level which
Municipal
encourages
staff to become
necessarily
dependent on such a positive
more empowered,
Strategic Planning
277
the Lod case shows that it is not
attitude.
Philosophically, then, the MPU approach to strategic planning is tied in with contemporary thinking about the organizational structures appropriate for multi-task and financially ‘lean’ organizations. These structures emphasize flexibility, empowerment and flows of information, all webbed together by an explicit corporate purpose. The organizational paradigm indicated by MPU’s contains four interrelated elements: (1) (2) (3) (4)
The changing role of local government and the new demands placed upon it. The professional capability of local government to discharge its new roles. The role of strategic planning through MPU’s in helping shape local authority practices to bridge the gap between (1) and (2). The development of management practices in parallel to the development of MPU planning intervention strategies.
A lesson from the MPU experience, backed by the literature on strategic planning, is that there is a link between the orientation and authority of management, and the concept of strategic planning deemed acceptable or appropriate. It appears that the more hierarchical and authoritarian organizations the military and business - adopt strategic planning as a standard procedure. They tend, as Yewlett indicated, towards a goal-setting pattern of strategic planning. Such a pattern, incidentally, provides for easily measurable outputs and performance review which is appropriate to business, where profit and market-share are accepted common measures of performance. It is reasonable to assume that the managements of such organizations feel secure about their ability to set goals and ensure that they are adhered to by lower tiers of the organization. This is management by command structure, feasible where clear lines of vertical accountability exist. In conventional hierarchical organizations the looser form of strategic planning, embodied in an empowered, free-roaming MPU-type planner, would indeed be extraordinary. Israeli local authorities with their typically weak management structures, are now at a crossroads. They are moving away from the parochial, ‘small town’ management which characterized them in the past. The quality of planning and management is increasingly understood to be of vital significance. Now they have to decide whether they seek to emulate business and military practice by equating a strong executive with a centralistic executive, or search for an alternative. third way. If one were to characterize the evolution of local authority management, one would say that the MPUs belonged to the most recent of three generations which run as follows: First generation
-
Traditional government
fragmented management; in a centralized state.
passive
local
278
Progress
Second
in Plarinfng
generation
(‘orporatc
---.
planning
moniror
as
~overnmrnt‘x
attempt
an
local authority
to group
activity.
increased role; reliance on information
technology as ;I means of ensuring monopol)
-~
generation
(and interdepartmental)
is scctn as ;I ‘science’. where
ctc\irat>le to impose rationality ot c\,cryday
L)ccentraiizcci
tor
local authoritic\
arc
transitions
making
context in Shenhav.
mainly to statutory
land-use planning
ail directly
everyday running
management
of departments:
at all Icvcia.
characterized in ;I
yiciding little
level
director-gcncral;
ycariy departmental
and
indcpcndcncc
planning confined plans:
a
multitude
the leading
the trcaaurer.
mcmbcr
as the person
who can tell the mayor
oftcrl
of a dirccto--gcncral
ci\ii service.
with
accelerate
the transition
as head and co-ordinator
from
as was the USC‘ in CJm EIFahcm. trappings
of a contemporary
meetings,
for
cxampic;
first
generation arc more
computcrizcd
attempt to bring into line the dispcratc activities general, second-generation of which is a tighter
and more
centralistic
is a predictable
antithchis
professionalism
of the first
generation
of the executives
appointed
are in business
or in the military.
of hierarchical
and centralized
outdated.
this
that
regular
on decisions
control
which.
type of management
over
management.
However.
In
the hallmark
and lack of
it is also logical
local government:
should
and an
the organization.
as WC have noted
management.
staff taken
of the various departments.
to the informality to run
types,
stcreotypicai
management is becoming the benchmark,
Centralism the world
noticeable:
can
to the later
management.
follow-up
The
of executive operations
managcmcnt
In second-gcncration
organization
possibly
the
into ;I small number of divisions.
con\olid:rted
is becoming more common. I have suggested that the presence of an MPU help
in
of the headquarter-staff
not bc donc.
of dcpartmcnts
appointment
used
bctwccn first and second
The second generation lean\ on ;I more professionalizeri multitude
crcatcs
technology
accountable to the mayor; influence of politicians
level executive is gcncrally can
of
1091 ). The first gcncration management
to the civil scrvicc; ;I weak or non-cxistcnt
what can and
senior
information
better decision-making
is also characterized hy ;I dominant political
of departments
empowerment
managements (theac types have been usefully
broader historical
it is possible
by getting a handle
a4 well as vertical communications.
horizontal
facilitating Most Israeli
whiic
paradigms:
decision-making.
work.
nianagcmcnt:
linedepartment\ facilitative
generation-type
management’s
perspective and
Man;lgemcnt on the detail Third
senior
on o\.erall organizational
on high-icvel and
and
in response to local
before,
it is ironic,
be adopted
in terms
their
role
of
models
have a history if not sadly
in a11era which
has
Municipal
Strategic Planning
279
large, centralistic corporations falter. Furthermore, major corporations are increasingly attempting to generate informality and cross-departmental working, to ensure faster and smoother flows of communication. Highly visible examples of troubled monoliths include IBM and General Motors. The former failed to recognize that its core business of mainframe computers was no longer at the core of its milieu of data-processing, leading IBM to chase the wrong goals with all its corporate cohesion and tradition. General Motors’ complex hierarchies are at the root of its difficulty in developing new products economically, at a competitive pace and with high quality (Womak et al., 1991). Judging by this record, it seems likely that the second-generation management model being adopted by Israeli local authorities wifl find a frustrating gap between its rationalistic pretensions and the reality of local government. This, as we have said before and as Schiin pointed out, is uniquely ‘messy’ in comparison with the business world. A lesson could be learnt from the attempts at ‘corporate planning’ in British local authorities in the 1960s and 1970s. It was assumed that technology could enable managers to chart all aspects of the local authority’s work, setting goals and monitoring their achievement in detail. This approach was inspired by manufacturing industry’s tradition of breaking activities down to distinct and linearly sequential steps. It was also a reaction towards the increasing complexity of government and service delivery, a quest for a ~technological fix’. The ‘fix’, however, was flawed. The planning and monitoring systems were too detailed to be operated reliably or cost and time-effectively; they stifled flexibility and creativity - or were ignored for the sake of these less quantifiable characteristics. Exercising authority to achieve compliance with the demands of such systems was time consuming and damaging to staff relations (for a review of the corporate planning fashion in local government, set, for example, Stewart, 1983, pp. 166-173). The ‘strategic Planning Guide’ quoted earlier (Sorkin et a/.. 1984). is similarly rooted in the culture of corporate planning. with its centralized authority. It takes strategic planning all the way to detailed plans, seeing detailed planning as an integral part of strategy-making. But l would suggest that it is mistaken in presenting strategy as the machine-code basis of programming the local authority. If construed in that way, strategy becomes oppressive and dispiriting for managers and employers, and will be doomed by being both too detailed and insufficiently dynamic. The third-generation management type is characterized by looser operational management control, coupled with a strong organizational sense-of-purpose and a clear articulation of overall mission backed by a holistic planning perspective. In the terms proposed by Yewlett, the type of relationship which the local authority wishes to have with its eIlvironment are made very clear. The operational details and decisions as to how each service embodies these relationships and pursues seen
Progress
280 them.
are left
definition
increasingly
with
Adding
is. of course.
political
arbitration
to the complexity
organization
and thus
is one fixed relations
ih ;I third:
the physical
holistic
represent
operates
with
planing. several
other
which
-
They
are professionals.
-
They
arc professionals
skills. -
with
taking
of the relationship
which
organization-wide
Urn
Id
remain
or have been part In fact.
few
Part
the management
move recent of their
years
reforms.
appointment The
role
The
professional
ahillt>.
--
the ncccl
MPU
which
on gcncric
staff
also
arc’ consistent
;I\ much
the local government
as on applied
cn\ironment
holistidly
and arc Icgitimized
of basic indcpendencc.
incorporates
in
MPlJ
staffs:
professionalism.
suggest
proccsses
in IOGII gjvcrnmcnt
that.
with
with
which
rcquiro
at least xomc of the clcmcnts
have bith
cncoul-aging
case-studies
concept
tvpc.
That
permitting
Icgitimizing
proper
management
existing
staffs.
hclpcd
guide
MPlIs
just
ah the\
in Natanva.
with
which
-
then
director
of directors-gener~II
So MPkI\
management
‘gcncration5’
through arises
types.
onI\ nia!‘or
to bypass
change.
To
mayors.
is \onicwhat
mav feel in looking
hecau\e.
Not The
proccccl
cast’s where
having
ot zuch
local go~crnmcnt.
a c;~xual ohscrver
the organizntional from
the ‘third
one type to anothct..
in one authoritv.
have been two
of two
from
it can he temporal.
structure
with
til-st OI- ~cconci-Fcncr~rtion
local authority
arc appliccl
or topical.
mo\t in tune
far an> manifc~t~ltion4
in Israeli
progression
of an Israeli
moved
appears
\aid, w
and far-between
ii linear
neutralizes there
\uggc\ts again
to embody.
their
local authorities
of the confusion
management
which
relations
local and national
arrangcmetits
an emphasis
of the transition
styles
bc departmental
list
type of managcmcnt
to towns
to suggest
management
for
which
the MPLI
have been introduced
misleading.
and financial
-
with
and Kehovot.
management
nianagcmcnt
attempt
level
staff.
in specific
philosophically
efficient
with
to view
MPlJ
incorporated
So,
This
can lx pal-t of the relationship
these
generation’
;I fourth.
chosen
perspectives. The
EIFahem.
sovereigntic\
Relations
positions.
with
were
tiscal
environment;
in staffing
;I third-~cnel-ntion
attention.
is ;I multi-hcrvicc
of this
government
the MPlJ’s
;I mandate
a new relationship
indcpendcncc.
The
analysis
management:
independent
Sustaining
the local authority cnvironmcnt.
have ;III agreed-upon
They
managers.
strategic
1,i.s ti \,i.s :I composite
new departures
third-gcncration
and junior
and calls for
of priorit&.
environment.
with
of middle
crucial
is the fact that
component
a second: for
to the initiative
of environment
combined
citizens
in Planning
fqucntlq.
can the distinction ma!
create
it by making
illustrate
this
;I new. ;I political
point.
war\’ of the political
no director-general
at
all three
at all.
in fallout
to the simultaneous
generals. is discussctl
in &tail
in Appendix
2. NOM.
I would
Municipal
like to take a closer look at the paradigms management
5.2.
THE
suggested
5.2.1.
Postmodern
FOR
Planning
281
of local government
by the MPU experiences.
CHALLENGE
PERCEPTIONS
for the future
Strategic
OF A NEW THE
FUTURE
local governance
PARADIGM: OF LOCAL
DEVELOPING
NEW
GOVERNMENT
and management
In the previous chapter, I offered a sketch of management generations in Israeli local government. At present, the second-generation type, with its assertion of centralistic management authority and emphasis on a budget-planning process governing the local authority’s activity, seems to be prevailing. However, there is also a third generation in the offing, to which the work of the MPUs frequently alludes and which I will further explore in this chapter. Starting with the character of the local authority itself, third-generation management looks beyond the boundaries of local government’s direct influence. It seeks partnerships and non-controlling influences to ensure proper services. This view has emerged as a reaction to the more dogmatic pressures for privatization, and as a positive response to popular demand for improving the consumer-type interface which citizens have with local government. It is also an invitation to create a plurality of services which can be more sensitive to the needs of smaller population groups, creating partnerships with specialized non-profit organizations to facilitate a more flexible and targeted delivery of services. Two features stand out here: the capacity which must be developed for negotiation and communication with outside groups, and the potential for expanding services despite financial strictures, which targeting and partnership may deliver. Looking at the implications for staff in the local authority, third-generation management calls for line-service managers to have considerable flexibility in ensuring delivery of services. Note that I did not say, ‘how they deliver services’ - a clear distinction should be drawn between responsibility for the delivery of services and the undertaking of their direct production. At the extreme, the local authority need not produce any services by itself. Like a supermarket, it can act as purchasing and packaging agent, buying in services from specialized producers and packaging them in ways accessible and appropriate for the local population. From the consumer’s point-of-view, the process of buying-in and ‘stacking the shelves’ is largely invisible, and the actual identity of the producers is almost irrelevant. A clear conceptualization of third-generation local government has emerged in Britain, rooted in its concern with local government and its well established welfare state. The political challenge posed to local authorities by the Conservative-led governments of the 198Os, produced a new climate for assessing
282
Progress
in Planning
government’s function and impact (for an account of British local government in the 14180s. cf. Duncan and Goodwin. IYXX). Rodney Brooke’s ‘Managitzg thc~ Enchlirl,q Authorit>~’ (Brookc. IYXY) provides a systematic outline for cyxrating a ‘third-guner~ltion’ local authority. Brooke. local
a former Chief Exccutivc of Westminster City (‘ouncil (a historic Central London Borough) reviews the ri\t’ and decline of the corporate local authoritv - something akin to our ‘\ccond-gcner~ltic,n‘ management type. The idcal of ;I rational management rcgimc which the corporate local authorit), represented. hc argues. collapsed under the prcdictahlc strain\ of an erratic and unprcdict;lhlc operational cnvironmcnt. This contained - as it l~aci in the past -- strains between politicians and service managers. 7‘0 thcsc was added ;I fisc;~l crisis. and the fact that government granted loc:~l authorities inadcquatc control over local services. Instead of a corporate outlook. what emerged by the late I%Os was ;I fragmented local government systcni. riddled with fiefdoms and internal competition. Then came the prcssura of the 1YXOs. requiring ;I new framework of reference for local authorit) operation. Brooke names this framework ‘*the enabling authority” and in describing its emergence hc may ax acll be writing about Israel: -I-he po\cer\ <~ll<~rted to iw! ~o\c~nm~n~ 11, l3r1ta111 l~~llo\~ no ~ntcrn
Brooke times the paradigm-shift away 1’1~omthe corporate authority around the early 1970s. ‘This is also the time Schiin mcntionh in connection with the emerging doubts about traditional corporate strategic planning. I)avid Harvey. in his insightful “TIIc C‘orzrlitiorl o,/’ Po,strllotl~,~rlit~,” (Horvcv. IYXY). joins in the pinpointing of the early lY7Os as a time of paradigm shift..Harvey,“. .lonathan Raban’s 1471 book on London. Harve! places Raban’s work historicall! : “[“Sott
<‘it\“] ~2, writtcv at ;I momc‘nt v.hcn uppw’ ii\ common dew2ptol-~ 01 urtutl Ii\ ~ng. It v,ii\ also written at that cusp in intc*llectual hi\trjr! when vxncthlng called .l~~~\trn~)d~rrlt~rn emerged from it\ chrysali\ of thr anti-modern tcr c\tahli\h It\clf
Municipal Harvey
uses the term ‘postmodernity’
to provide
Strategic
a positive
Planning
283
label for
contemporary reaction to the rationality of the ‘modern’, and its assumption to impose universal rules and models on diverse phenomena (for a fascinating exploration of the modernist paradigm in the United States, see Tichi, 1987). In that sense, the enabling authority is an attempt to bring government to contend with a new perception of reality and grapple with its consequences. Management science, to use the rather-old fashioned term. has also been grappling with the notion of superceding the hierarchies formalized in traditional mass-production and implemented in most corporate organizations. Exploration of the postmodern business organization is still fragmented, and undoubtedly conscious of the historical investment in the existing management systems and production technologies. Yet, led by the ‘management gurus’. changes of perception are evolving to suit the needs of the turn-of-the-century world. Tom Peters, a senior ‘guru’ who in the early 1980s wrote (with Robert H. Waterman) the influential “In Search of Excellence”. has recently turned to exploring what could be termed the corporate organization of the post-mechanical age. In his latest tome (“Liberation Mmugement: Necessar) Disor~unizution for the Nanosecond Nineties”. Peters, 19X!), Peters raises some points which I find irresistible in the context of this discussion of management structures. Peters advocates learning across sectoral boundaries, imitation and adoption of good ideas from one industry to another: in one example, he cites a car dealership which adopted methods used by a pizza parlour to make customer’s waiting time more enjoyable (pp. 605-606). Boundaries are ‘soft’, to borrow Raban’s phrase (fairly, I think). Peters’ entire book is. in a sense, constructed in a ‘postmodern’ style - the argument pursued eclectically. its underpinning drawn from anywhere relevant, demanding that the book be read to-and-fro, so bringing the reader into the paradigm. Usefully for our discussion, Peters looks at the dilemma and role of strategy. Organizations, he notes. need strategic focus but can become over-protective of such a focus once it is achieved. trap”:
He terms the problem.
“the vision
and values
“All good ideas eventually get oversold. The importance of corporate vision and vaIuc\ is no exception To empower workers to focus on quality XKI scrkc. the time had come to chuck the four-pound policy manual and imtill a papcrlcs. shared notion of ‘what’s important around here’ that left plenty of room for individual initiative. The idea was - and is - right. But there are caveats. Over time. value+in-action get clahoratcd. Before you know it. a value st bccomcs more rigid than the rult‘ book it replaced What’s the answer’? surely not to return to those I .OOl)-page policy manuals. How about, ‘review your values and update them rcgularl)?’ Sound\ good. but cxpcriencc suggests caution Most value review proce~se\ arc ;I waste of time. Or wor\c: They frequently end up producing even snore convolutions The only solution I can con.iurc 1s to creak a corporals federation of l>uGneh\ unit\ independent enough to cl-ate their own v:iluea .” (Peters. 1091. p. 616). JPP4,:3-f
284
Progress
in Planning
The way Peters sees it, then. the institutional challenge revolves around creating operational units which relate to each other in a manner that ensures renewal and creativity. Relationships are paramount: relationships between people within the organization, and relationships bctwcen the organization and the operating environment. Peters suggests that the best way to maintain tlcxibility and creativity is to address the operating environment through ;I multitude of facets. It is challenging to relate this model to our analysis of local government. We saw how in Israel a great deal of effort went into creating ;I common cause fat departments which had been indcpcndently accountahlc to single-purpose central government hierarchies. Local government is grappling with the co~~scque~~~s of chaotic decentralization, trying to get its own constituent parts to accept that they relate in fact to a common entity. It is often attempting to promote such cohesion by adopting the ‘vision and value thing’ and by creating workplans which are probably the equivalent of the I .OOO-page manual. IinfoI-tunatcl~. Peters demonstrates how this type of management is being supcrcedcd in precisely the business sector which the local authorities arc rushing to emulate. Within this confused and volatile context. the MPUs have been engaged in holistic planning as a means of promoting an understanding of the interdependcncc of different activities in the local authority. What do these efforts mean. in the context of Peters’ model? Peters’ model would \uggcst that the \tresh should once more shift to the individual service. However. the individual service is now in ;I different context of relationships. There will be no return to the cxtcrnal lines ot hierarchical management which led directly away from the locality and from local accountability. Instead, each service needs to develop its OU’II partnerships with relevant suppliers in its tield. and at the same time maintain a dialogue with the public as well. Basically, within broad parameters of budget and realm. the line-manager would have to formulate a provision and service-supply stt-atcg! and wet-k out hcrvicc parameters with potential clients and suppliers. The MPU is then ;I kc! instrument for facilitating the circulation of ideas. the raising of compctcnces and the creation of overall long-term strategies. This vision of MPLI work ih. ot course. only rarely part of today’s reality but it dots demonxtratc the kind ot paradigms IO which the MPU relates. For the ultimate in flexible organizations. management experts ha\c coined the phrase “the virtual corporation” (cf. ntt.sitlc,.s.sWccX.February S. 199.3). The term alludes to an existence on the borderline of realitv: the phcnomcnon clcscribctl is of companies which have ;I minimal tixctl ccmponcnt and which opcratc through a network of ad hoc partnerships. supported by xlvancccl col7lmunicatlon technology. Each partner can concentrate on ;I ‘core compctcncc’. creating ;I network which, ultimately. can be good at all aspects of its operation. While this form is not yet fully apparent in husincss. and is far rcmovcd from the
Municipal
reality
of local government,
such a model, would represent
it nonetheless
the local authority
presents
some challenging
with its fixed constituency
a hub for a network,
essentially
285
Strategic Planning
notions.
In
and accountability
a political
decision-making
and
co-ordinating body. To carry out its aims and policies, it would rely on outside or arms-length suppliers and form partnerships for the delivery of certain services. Furthermore, it would foster horizontal tie-ups between its suppliers. For example, in combating drug abuse it could contemplate a bid brought jointly by a law enforcement agency and an educational organization.
5.2.2.
New structural paradigms for local government
Three principal points emerge from applying organizations to local government: (1)
(2) (3)
the literature
on flexible
The importance of having a hub which sets the direction for the local authority, creating its operational paradigm. The ‘core competence’ of this hub is mediation through the politicai process of conflicting demands on resources. The importance of creating structures which not only facilitate or impose horizontal collaboration, but actually reward it. The need to support the creation of units, inside or outside the local authority, with appropriate core competences.
With these three components, local authority as follows:
one can identify
(1)
The political process, levels of provision.
(2) (3)
maintaining access to services, in terms of cost and geographical location. maintaining quality - ensuring that the local authority’s approval is a trusted measure for quality. Support of innovation, on the assumption that a fragmented service supply system is unlikely to be able or willing to afford new research and development beyond what is necessary for maintaining the competitive position of each individual supplier.
(4)
producing
policies
the role of the third generation
for defining
service
diversity
and
While Brooke’s model of the enabling authority does not envisage paring down as far as a ‘virtual local authority’, it does attempt to establish a portfolio of relationships to characterize contact between the local authority and its environment. Like the ‘virtual corporation’ theorists and like Vickers in the 196Os, Brooke is looking to the de~ning reIationships through which the local authority might succeed in repositioning itself in a manner appropriate for the present and
286
Progress
future.
the
in Planning
shys away from a definition
Hc
characterization
of the local authority’s
in which the local authority
rejecting ;I ‘shopping list‘
by function.
scope. Instead. he tries to look at the way
will continue to hc at the center of local communal
sees eight huch types of relationship:
He
control over ;I third party through direct contracting; partial control. agency --
where the
for cxamplc.
partnership,
;I
authority
local
controls
part of the operation ot ;II~
and an external
agent>’ combine to pur\uc‘ ;I
school:
where the authority
common aim: part-ownership. purchasing.
whcrc the local authority the Iocal authority
where
is part-owner
01 ;I compoGtc hod\ :
has intlucnce through if\ purchastng
policy: support of cxtcrnal regulation.
where
agencies. the
voluntary:
uwally
local authorit\
has licensing OI cnfot-cing power\
affecting the operation of an external capacity to influence.
the and
:igency
(Brookc.
Local authorities. of relationships Israeli
The
and still
where
IWC).
p.
argues Drooke.
agent) :
there
is no direct
hctween
local
grow cotnpctcnt it1 maintaining
must
to bc able to carry out Ihcir situation
link
role
is a far cry from ;I premeditated
‘virtual’
local authorit!
are caught in two conflictin, 0 trends:
first.
the dcccntr~tli/atic,rl
by-default procesx leading to an accumulation of ncu’ responGbilitic\. increasingly
apparent financial and orgtni/ationat
directly-provided The
Israeli
local authority
dichotomy
decentralization: government
exists
control
to local
central
authorities
thus
over
They
under-funded bolted
criticism
end
and
usually
with
frotn the sinking
policy. Ciovcrnmcnt
of it4 pet-fortnancc
up taking
arc
And,
against
government
this,
to c~~ncede
I‘~c
:rrl~l
intlucncc
over
sv\tcms
becomes
Lvorkct-s
alt-cads tla\c ‘tailurc
\vhich
-
L.ocal
ovc%r\k hclmitig.
pt-escnted to locd gov~rtimetit
demoralized
OI
rat-cIh pu1lh out hetorc rc\ourc’cs
often
after
the
~\ritten
;iII
vc’;ii.\ ot hcitig
after
best
worker\
h;t\c
ship.
Local leaders tneet this paradox with contradictory mot-c responsibility.
IW\V \c’rvicc\.
support
is only likcl,
when it cannot ithclf esct-ci\e it: MC GIL\ ~111 cumplc
government
or before
them.
dccentt-~tlizatic,n occut-\ at ;I time v, hen IOCYII
governtncnt
this in the ‘direct absorption’ out.
Second.
to t’xp;tn’;iott ot
an unavoidable pat-;do\- ot
rellccts
almost by detinition. hccausc
limitations
services.
probably
does not have the t-c’rourccs to properly
paradox
dry
thc\c t! ICY
~uccessi’~~ll~~.
ambiguous regarding the features of an cnablin, 0 iiuthorit\,._ Israeli
local authorities the
authorit\,
I1 ).
instincts:
;m urge to expand and add more service\ an instinctive
caution
with
regnrd
to anvthing
litbt. ;I hunger 101. to rhc
invcntorb.
that central
has touched in the past. To this is added the wcighr of the
accumulating evidence that expansion of \ervicca
is not
economicallv
suqtainahlc.
Municipal
Strategic Planning
287
To respond to this paradox Israeli local authorities will have to reposition themselves. The inclination to supply services directly will have to be curbed. Instead,
the local authorities
must become
the core in a network
of diverse
services providers. The MPUs already belong in the new paradigm, with their emphasis on collaboration with existing bodies and their role as empowerers of others. In the United States, against a backdrop of gridlock in Washington D.C. and widespread dissatisfaction with government, Osborne and Gabler (1992) set out to look for examples of quality in government. They came up with the phrase ‘reinventing government’, and defined quality in two features of government. Quality outputs - better school examination results, better use of taxpayers money. And then, organizational quality - government which is more responsive and better able to recruit and retain high-quality staff. The pair point out that while most eyes turn to Washington, much of the real business of governance is carried out by a multitude of smaller - sub-national and local - governments. Writing in the land where consumerism is most developed, they focus on the need to identify government’s real customers: not the boss, the mayor or the head of the national bureaucracy, but the citizens. The citizens, for their part, are increasingly conditioned by their buying experiences - through retail in particular - to demand high levels of service from government: “The greatest irritant most people experience in their dealing with government is the arrogance of the bureaucracy. People today expect to be valued as customers - even by government. In the 1950s. nearly two-thirds of Americans who had jobs did unskilled labour, while one-third worked with their minds. Today that ratio is reversed. The result is a generation of citizens who have very different expectations from those held by their industrial-era mothers and fathers.” (Osborne and Gaebler. 1992, pp. 167-168).
The subtitle of Osborne and Gaebler’s book is, “How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector”. Not surprisingly, then, they are at their strongest where government functions can be made analogous to those of private enterprise. and citizens can be cast as consumers. This approach works best in looking at individual services and their interaction with their ‘customers’ - the users-citizens. They also have the case-studies to show how service-provision units - from police departments to public schools - can become more closely involved with their customers, producing financial savings and greater satisfaction on the part of both user and provider. However convincing the would-be re-inventors of government are at the level of improving individual services, they provide few clues as to how to resolve conflicts over priorities which come part-and-parcel with local government’s multi-purpose mandate. Yet this political role is a vital component of local government. In the space they devote to representative democracy, Osborne and Gabler stress that more elections or elected officials are not a viable solution: people do not want to vote more often. How, then, to solve complex allocation problems? By default,
288
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we have only the existing
invalidate customer
political structures to look to. Ot course. this does not the stress which Osborne and Gaebler place on the centrality of the to a service-provider’s focus. Rut there is a second. wider circle which
does complicate matters. In this circle, leaders have to crcatc the agreed-upon priorities which then form the operational parameters for the line department. For such partnership-seeking departments. the political procchh Lvill dctcrmine the resources which they can bring to the negotiating-table. The ‘roads versus day-care for the elderly’ decisions will remain in the political domain and at the headquarters-staff level - precisely the level at which MPUs operate. The MPU is pivotal to the hcadquartcrs’ staff obligation to provide parameters for operation which include the financial and the demographic. but also go beyond them. It is the role of this staff to assess the overall positioning of the city or rural area with regard to wider social and economic trends. Thih task is becoming increasingly complex in a world where the foundations of economic and political behavior have shifted radically. Peters quotes Czech president and playwright Vaclav Havcl. who in a speech in March IYYZ to world business leaders. said: Cotnmuniw~ is\ an cd not jwt to the nineteenth ;tnd tucntwth centuries. hut to the modern age ah a whole the proud twlicl that man. ;I\ the pinnacle of cwrything that L‘xi’rt\. was capable ot objcctivelq clescrihin~. cupbininp ,~nd controlling everything that exists” (quoted in Peter\. 1W2, I’. 131)
“[The collapse of
Have1 alludes once more to a post-modern paradigm. still lacking ;t II;I~IU in its own right, defined by what it has supcrcedcd and not yet I~\ its own essence For the local authority, though, one thing is clear - it is :I time of unprecedented blurring of boundaries. The boundaries blurred are those of authority and sovcrcignties, of ideologies and of powers. The internationaliz~~tion of media. capital and communications, the emergence of super-national trading block\ at one end and the fragmentation of some states at the other, create uncertainties from which national governments can no longer shield their citizens. As LJniversitc of Massachusetts economic development cxpcrt John Mullin has put it. “all development is local: all competition is international” (Iccturc at Wcsto\,er. Mash.. July I, lYY3). A recent United Nations report quantities the phenomenon of global capital (“World Investment Report” reviewed in the Wdl Srrwt Jolrrrltrl. July 21. lYY.3). It counts 37,000 transnational corporations - up from 7000 twcntv _ .vcars ago. The annual revenues of the transnationals arc around $5.5 trillion - more than the value of trade across borders worldwide ($4 trillion). Accordingly, the role of local governments in today‘s world is different; their core competences in service delivery must be supplemented by competencea which are either entirely new or which were the prescrvc of clitcs in national government. academia and business. Capital is transnationally mobile: investors can compare operating environments across national and continental boundaries. The relative economic advantages of a locality are compared with others in ;I
Municipal
Strategic Planning
289
global corporate search for competitive advantage. A pattern now exists whereby international capital interacts directly with localities. Central governments are cast in a more reactive mould, while the foundations of their economies - their manufacturing base and their currencies - come under international competitive pressure. For localities, this means a new interpretation of their responsibility for welfare which must now also address economic development and employment. In Israel, this represents another aspect of decentralization to have emerged in the past eight years or so, once more re-defining the operational environment of local government. Interestingly, European local authorities are encountering a more formalized procedure for ‘jumping over the heads’ of their national government, through direct contact with the European Economic Council. Here, local authorities are categorized according to multinational regional development criteria: hill-farming communities, for example, are more likely to have their level of subsidy determined by their altitude than by their national governments. Looking at the relationship between the European Community, local authorities and the British government, a British expert has noted the following: “In
[Britain] at least, the partnership on the ground between the [European] Gmmission. central government and local government is still working unevenly. owing in part to the over-dominance of central government and in part to the failure of local government to provide a coherent representative input across each area concerned . In the future, as the Community further develops towards a European union, it seems inevitable that this must be at the expense of some of the present powers of national governments [which] will become increasingly less appropriate as the level for delivering, implementing and enforcing policies drawn up at the European level .” (Bongers, 1990, pp. 85-87).
Bongers’s message is quite clear. The ultimate direction is one which formalizes the diminished role of the national government in macro-economic management. For the present, local government’s ability to assert itself is underdeveloped in comparison with that of central government - but this is a transitional stage. The EEC is a formalized recognition that national boundaries have been comprehensively - and perhaps irrevocably - blurred by movements of capital. Bongers points to the need for local authorities to take the 1992 implementation date for the European single market, with its free movement of goods and people, as a watershed date in their assessment of their role. He notes that many local authorities have already responded: “Working in a productive relationship with local employers and chambers of commerce, many authorities have sought to forecast how local employment patterns may be affected by the opening of the single market and have set out to review and sharpen up their planning, transportation, environmental and training policies with an eye to maximising the potential of their area” (ibid, p. 73). I, for one, agree with Bongers’ observations and would point to them as further evidence of the working of a post-modern order where the economic power of
290
Progress
nation-states saying
in Planning
has been cclip>cd.
Bangers
that the task of re-posifioning
calls for collaboration traditional might
between
local rivalries.
have provided
experience
allocation
at your
located
collaboration
apply
rclatc
on which
5.2.3.
(in
together
The
more
more
of the MPLJs
implicitly
have elements hy other
impact
countrie\.
arc adapting
decentralized Some
conimunitics.
rather
of reference.
concept
of normholding
helps frame
IocaI accountability
to
5erics
of contemporary
and of’ ‘exercising
on management
its predicament.
Other
Lvorld and its implications.
concrete
fact.
postmodern
horizons
faced by Israeli
challenges
they
increasingly.
rcalitics
;~nd policy
are aIrcad! local authorities
con\‘crge
counterparts
It i4 ;I formidable
with
elsewhere.
while
trying
those Israeli
facd
local
to cushion
their
made more difficult
challenge.
for Israel’s
development
being
emerging
authority Expressing
environment.
has defined its norms
others
types
has come tools with which to assert provider
may be forced
and Stewart
offer4
;I flexible
some of its norms
al-c revicwcd Mcanwhilc these
types
its influence
for
I find Vickcr\’
1065. pp. 34-35).
with
of rclalionships
through
framework
the local :iuthorit>
on relationships.
(Vickcrs,
authority.
while
operational
local
focu\
useful
local
fixed
;I clearer
by goals and outputs.
on this
particularly
--
create
The idea of defining
than simply Building
of the enabling authority.
do. hol\ecer,
the flcsiblc
of the local authority’s
Clarke
provide
L_ike their
analysis
concepts
concept
service
hul.
in local c’ ‘Tovcrnnicnt.
by its relationships
authority
a5 too great
governance.
change
framework
i5 still perceived
and help explain
to r~rpitll~-ch~lngiii~
of explicit
management
directing
terms
ho\v ~me The
arc unique
on their
was
paradigm
4ioM.s
which
by the paucity
which
of ;I postmodern
then
or explicitly.
inclustrializccl
authorities
to collaborate.
Many of these theories
world.
to characteristics
we can speculate
study
authorities
an interrelated
local government
MPUs and the ‘postmodern’
touched,
my
any devclopmenl
the ~~nsc both of ‘coping’
in ;I postmodern
to contemporary
notions
market
15 one you have lost out on. The cost of regional
anti political
I have brought
on managing
management’)
of
the single
In 1hrael. however.
ncighbouring gain:
in
by IOC;II politician\.
section
observations
observation.
and an abandonment
in Europe.
ah ;I are-sum
town
forccfuI
to meet a new challenge
date for implementing
in gcttinp
in both economic
be paid voluntarily In this
difficulty is htill ~cn
neighhour’s
another
local author-itia.
The tnrsct
;I spur f’or \uch activity
is of great
Resource
makes
a local economy
periodically Urooke’s available
This -~ such as in light exploration
to the
of relationships,
the local
even as its role as direct
to decline.
( I%-%) cxplcjrc
the characteristics
of management
which
Municipal
is appropriate
for the tasks of an enabling
articulation of some principles MPUs seek to create strategic
authority.
Strategic Planning
They provide
The focus was on the maintenance incremental growth .” (Clarke
Strategic management advocate, be one which:
a useful
for ‘third generation’ type management. While planning, Clarke and Stewart refer to ‘strategic
management’. They summarize the defunct paradigm thus: .. The traditional working of local government was built on continuity of existing activities and their adjustment and Stewart, 1988. p. 13).
appropriate
to contemporary
challenge
291
the
of activity. through
will, they
*‘- looks outward * * * * *
to problems and needs; it focuses on key issues and not on present activities is selective: direction is not found in detail but in priorities and the identification of key changes exposes choice: existing activities conceal the choice that is made and re-made in continuity is guided by political purpose: it gives direction to the authority recognises uncertainty: it is concerned more with possibilities than with precise predictions is realistic in terms of achievement.” (ibid.)
Several of these foci are incorporated in the MPUs, reinforcing their claim to function as agents of strategic change. Clarke and Stewart add another vital dimension to their analysis, at the point where Osborne and Gaebler rather fizzle out. Future management, in Clarke and Stewart’s opinion, must reinforce the government function of local authorities, which plays second-fiddle at present - so they argue - to their administrative functions. As more services are contracted out, the local authority’s role as service producer will diminish. Instead, it will be in a position, willingly or unwillingly, to make choices about which services are to be provided. This government responsibility will require greater contact with community members - a dialogue about choices facing local government. Thus. at the end of this chapter, we return to familiar local building blocks, recast: community, communication, government. It is a local triangle, for which relations with central government are no longer primary. Its achievement requires political awareness and leadership, information, and managers capable of operating an ongoing partnership through negotiation and dialogue with diverse constituents of leaders, contractors, service-users and workers. Such management is neither like traditional public sector management nor like private sector management, although it can learn from both and metaphorise in relation to them. In Israel, these three building-blocks - leadership, community involvement and professional management - are not yet sufficiently nor equally developed to be declared a new local partnership. In the longer-term, however, the existing situation is untenable. The mayors will have to emerge from behind their
292
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smokescreens and work with the public on an ongoing basis. old ways lose credibility if the local authorities fail to deliver
Quite simply, the reasonable service.
The fall of the Front for Peace and Equality in Urn ElFahem. despite the town’s unique features, was an indicative case in point. Over time, the MPUs efforts can contribute to making the need for a re-alignment of local government more obvious. The MPUs holistic planning already produces guidance regrading the new domain of local government. It can identify the underpinnings of management in terms of norm-holding and maintenance of relationships over time. MPUs can help identify the boundaries of a new paradigm, and suggest ways of adjusting to it; in that they fill their didactic role as well as their mission to be agents of change.
CHAPTER
6
Conclusion: the Future
Making
Sense of Change
and Befriending
Israeli local government is facing a radically altered operational paradigm, reflecting wider social changes. Decentralization is taking hold and with it, substantial new responsibilities are imposed on local government. In the past, the development of Israeli local authorities was largely shaped by centralistic central government. In the last 15 years, however, the issues facing local government have rapidly come into line with those facing government and public sector service provision elsewhere in the industrialized world. The internationalization of capital has accelerated this convergence by placing local authorities in different countries on a common playing field as they vie for investment. Meanwhile, expectations of public sector services are shaped by the experience of their users as consumers. With business becoming increasingly both global and consumer-driven, international reference-points are evolving which local authorities cannot ignore. The authority of national governments is seeping both upwards and downwards, to localities and to transnational entities. The theoretical backing and the management awareness necessary to redraw lines of government responsibility, meanwhile, lag behind. Israeli local authorities have been attempting to adapt to the new paradigm by altering the scope and the mechanics of their operation. The MPU programme which I have discussed in detail, has been a specific and unique tool in the adaptation process. The uniqueness of the programme stems from several factors. First, the MPUs have a rare capacity for moving between levels of abstraction. MPUs have demonstrated a capacity to remain informed about changing macro-environments, an ability explicitly supported by the programme co-sponsors and professional backers at the JDC. MPUs now act as ‘feelers’ for local authorities, sensing trends and policy currents before they are necessarily evident or impact upon the operational level. That said, the MPUs local credibility is rarely rooted explicitly in this achievement, which represents its more aloof side. Rather, MPUs are often most valued for their ability to function at the opposite level of abstraction, by entering the fray of everyday local government administration. MPU-type strategic planning 293
294
Progress
means
in Planning
applving
defined
strategic
in purely
the municipal
imniediatc,
machine.
cross-section principals. A second
strength
that most
programme’s
of these
prestige. I for
of MPU
Evolving
on staff
a
new school
multi-service
hodies,
need tu syntheaizc Their
stable
Quite will
the next
extreme
through
though.
the local authority
environment.
the notion
It also
in Israel
coalition
;I Ioosc
retention
is now
(see
a critical
is. for
mass
Israel.
;I
must to
do
departmental to attain task.
lines
go;l[h.
has ;I political
deliver!,
then
from
traditional
articulated
in
;I
in the
the corporation.
it\ behavior
upon
less.
and tnorc
and new’ ways
Unlike
mandate> to impact
nothing
and rcshapcd
;I model
than optimist
they
5ectors.
tltxible
;IW;IV
disbancicd
organization.
to do more
demands
bc blurred.
wch
as
departments.
more
is to mo\‘e Gil
structures
and of \,arious
become
WC ha\x wcn
of the ‘virtual’ needs
so
their
of functional
of human-service
W;IV
to the scale of change
develop
of man\ disciplines
the
he dcviscd
for
optimal
The
hy the involvement
of what
is appropriate
local authoritia
Traditional
and coalitions
planning
than
possibly.
there
the caliditv
local authorities
rather
synthais.
structures.
manner
of local Ax
to
it i5
in local government.
provided
Arguably.
to attract
planning.
as the crucihlc
this
manouverahle.
rccruitmcnt).
strategic
strategic
the programmc.
involved
ot
;I broad
consiilt;inth.
\tatf and in their
to demonstrate
the experiencc5
positioning
achieve
Without
indepcntlcnce
parts
to promote
has hccn in its ability
high calihrtz.
in recruiting
municipal
integral
orthodox
by outsidc
wo~~ld have bccomc
sufficient
local government.
facing
ii
have heen
\vhich involve
the more
generated
and the rctativc
of holistic
\‘ct. hv hcing
opportunities. tor
progr;lmmc of
has helped
more
planners.
new school
To
of the hlI-‘l!
partners.
Appendix
i\ u5ualll
profcxsionals
which
‘4 c‘onccI-n\ and worker4.
i4 not ;Iv;iilal>lc
which
to Gtuationx
term\.
can use thcsc
opportunit!
local government
of external
operational
MPlls
intervention.
unlikely
and princi+
of the local authorit! This
planning
thinking
in ;I given
the environment
and
change il. Schiin. institutions
in his
book
” 111~ .\‘ttrhlc>,Srtrr~“.
plav in forming
cxplnined
5uch paradigmic
the role
dctinitions
for
Lvhich social communitie\:
‘l’hc pcn&ct 01 \oci;ll \LIIC’III\ OLC’I ~nd~\~du;~l\ I~c‘c~II~c~ ~~~~d~r~ra~~~lal~l~,I th~nh if v+e \cc‘ that w~~I:II \!stemx ptn~\idc tor thclr ~ncml~cr~ nc>t onI\ ~OIIICC’~ ot livelihood, protection asyln\t out\idc threat and the lm~mi~ of ccor;tmic wcurit!. but J fratneuork of theorio. value\ ;~ncI rclatccl tcchnol~~g) \\hich cn;ihte\ Individu;lt\ to mahc \cn\c of tticit li\c\. Threat5 10 the \oclikt \)\tcnl threaten ttib fl-amcuo~h. A \,ocd \y\temdo~‘bt>ot IIIO\Cmoothl~ II-OITI one \t
onlv
Schiin
is as lucid
a5 he is right:
are even more
complicated.
the acceptance
and formalization
yet now.
obcr twenty
WC arc not seeking of instability.
year5
another
down
‘stable
and the creation
the line. state‘
matters
but rather,
of social
structures
Municipal
which can handle
instability.
In municipal
terms,
Strategic
the instability
in a variety of forms: coalitions and interest groups partnerships for delivery of services which challenge local authority time and time again, with every new Contradictory forces, centrifugal and centripetal,
Planning
295
is expressed
forming and disbanding; and recast the role of the service agreement. are impacting on the
components of local government. On the one hand. the need to operate dynamically requires more freedom for each division and unit to negotiate its means of responding to its client population. Education must bc free to create an appropriate ‘menu’ of services, and to do so must negotiate on a horizontal plain with teachers, parents and suppliers of educational services outside the public sector. On the other hand, because of the overall fiscal tightrope walked by most local authorities, there is also a strong impetus to respond to this fragmentation of traditional ‘public sector’ domain by exerting centralistic control. Technologically, the existing ‘fixes’ still cater more to the centralistic tendency, than facilitate decentralized management and the corresponding free flows of information. Professionals in local government are pulled both ways: there are enough signs pointing to the need for change, and still enough reasons to postpone it. Within Israeli local authorities, the MPU programme has attempted to alter the operational habits as well as the scope and depth of perception applied to the operational environment. As the importance of the axis formed by local authorities operating opposite ministerial counterparts wanes, the MPU programme has created models for establishing an alternative. local nucleus. The model of such a local nucleus to which the MPU points is presently somewhat ahead of most local political and managerial practice. The MPU model suggests a decentralized management, empowering line-managers and service providers. To these. the MPU - as part of a reshaped headquarters level management - offers both overall policy guidance and an in-house consultancy service. Politically, the policy-based discourse which the MPU promotes, can contribute to closer community involvement in local affairs. Such an enhancement of community involvement in local government affairs in Israel would be timely. The experience of absorption has demonstrated the potential gains from such involvement for widening access to services and as a means of gaining public acceptance for pivotal decisions. The dynamics which prevailed in Natanya are certain to be repeated eventually because decentralization will continue to place burdens at the doorstep of cash-strapped local government. Public involvement is necessary to share the burden of service delivery and - as Urn ElFahem demonstrated - the decision-making responsibility. The record of MPUs in facilitating public involvement is weak. although the Lad survey of new immigrants demonstrates one possible inroad into this area. However, the question of involvement is primarily one of political will and motivation. Given those, the MPU can help support a discourse with the public which can be based
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on facts and suggested policy alternatives. Technical means available to MPUs, such as GIS systems. can assist in clarifying policy and impacts to a general public (for a wider discussion of MPUs and local democracy. set Appendix 3). Ultimately, the change in which Israeli local authorities arc gripped is fathomable, provided it is seen in a broad context. Paradoxically. the broad. international perspective is seldom available to embattled local authorities. The MPUs are a means of solving this paradox. an unusually erudite ‘luxury-turned-necessity’ in the realm of the public sector and of local government in particular. Metaphorically. a paradigm can be likened to a rubber-band. stretched over an array of pegs to form a boundary. These pegs represent temporary outer points, and indicators to the direction of paradigm shift. The area encircled by the rubber band represents the capability of local government. Looking at the changes in Israel in the past fifteen years, some such ‘pegs’ become apparent: decentralization; immigration; political changes in Arab local government - all were pointers to a new paradigm. Yet the rubber band of the paradigm has not yet shifted enough to embrace these and other pointers which I have identified in this paper. The mission is thus. to pull the rubber band over the outermost pegs - to encompass the sometimes anecdotal. yet cumulative evidence of historic change. Befriending the future means keeping the boundaries on the move. finding people in local government - not least of all. planners - capable of acting on the available evidence of paradigm shift. Occasionally. this will mean deliberately going ahead of the established boundaries, betting on a peg staked outside the existing paradigm. while at the same time pushing the rubber-band from within until it can be ‘hooked’ on the new peg. with the resultant re-shaping of the local authority. The MPU programmc has cndcavourcd to do just this. on two lcvcls. First. in bringing about a broad recognition of the processes of ciccentralizatiori. and in indicating the direction which local govcrnmcnt needs to take in order to embrace the new paradigm successfully. Second. the individual MPll’x have helped rc-shape local authorities through seizing opportunities to plant ‘pegs’ - ;I survey in Lod. new technology attempted in Yavnc, new approaches to planning in CJm ElFahem and Rehovot - and then make the local authority adopt a ncm’ shape almost inadvertently as it incorporated the new policy or the new practice. In all. the MPU cxperiencc strikes a cautiously optimistic note in the complicated and overstrcssed arena of Israeli local government. It has supported change and opened the door for new talents to cxprcss thcmselvcs in local authorities. Since changing times require new skills. the challenge for the sponsors of the MPU programme will be to renew and update the vision and skills which they have succeeded in applying to local government. The riced for this renewal promises to be the one constant feature of the rapidly-changing world of cities, towns and regions.
Appendix
7-
Choosing MPU Directors
The case-studies demonstrated the central role of the MPU director in shaping the style, content and success of the MPU. Recognizing the crucial role of the directors, the professional team at JDC took pains to ensure that all initial staff screening and proposed placements would be done by JDC. To create an appropriate selection procedure, a profile of the qualifications and skills required of MPU directors was created. Lack of space will not permit me to elaborate on how the model was derived and the subsequent selection procedure devised to identify suitable candidates. Figure 1 does, however, sum up the profile and highlights some of the complexities involved in finding candidates to fit the bill. The figure represents two broad areas of skills - strategic-generic and applied-urban. An ideal candidate would be placed at position 1. However, the ideal career path leading to 1, marked by asterisks, simply did not exist in Israel prior to the spread of MPUs. Planners were almost always involved in a single discipline, traditionally land-use. Moving up (to position 3) meant creating plans for larger areas, larger budgets - but rarely, a move to more holistic thinking. What the MPU programme found was that planners with the necessary experience - 5 years at least of senior work in a large organization - were usually already strongly committed to their chosen discipline and unlikely to ‘unlearn’ the approach which underscored their professional success. On the other hand, candidates well-endowed with the ‘strategic’ skills (at position 2), even if they were not especially familiar with urban planning were, virtually by definition, capable of a steep learning curve when placed in a new setting. Rapid adaptation was their speciality. Therefore, a staffing formula evolved comprising of three variables: (1) (2) (3)
careful selection of candidates, candid and full evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses; ensuring that the candidate’s strengths are appropriate to the local authority in which she or he might work; and, providing adequate support, amounting to on-the-job training in the first months after a candidate is placed in an MPU. 297
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“Strategic” skills: (- more “generic” - integration _ analytical ~ quick learning .- interdisciplinary ~ self-confidence ~ presentation
* * * *
3 *
Y
(t)
“Urbanological” skills: (- more “concrete”/applied ) ~ planning ability ._ familiarity with legal frame local government experience ~ operating information systems - human geography FI(;.
I. Skills
mii
diagram for ‘LIPCI directory
The starting-point for ;m appointment is thus ;I holistic :ippraisal of the candidate. the target local authority and the ability of JDC to provide support which would ameliorate, in the short-term. any skill-gaps. This WLISvital so as to ensure that the MPU makes its mark quickly and effectively and become\ :I respected part of senior management. In addition. initiatives have been taken to create the direct career path leading to position 3. Junior planning positions which open up in establish4 MPUs arc staffed, where possible. with planners with potential for becoming MPU director\. This sometimes runs against the instincts of the MPU directors who prcfclassistants who are less likely to hc promoted after .just 21few years ;tnd then cithcr threaten their own position or leave 4togethcr. To further integrate newly-qualified planners with the MPIJ. the programme awards placement scholarships and writing prizes to planning students to tither work in the MPU programme or write thescc on related topics. Finally, a centre for regional strategic plannin, 0 for Arab Ioc:rI authoritics has been set up in the north of Israel. Apart from providing planning support to its constituent local authorities and a regional planning agenda. the centre aims to employ two to three trainee-fellows cnch year. This will give novice Arab planners a much-needed opportunity to gain practical experience before entering the job market.
Appendix 2 - Notes on the evolution of the director-general role in Israeli local authorities DIRECTOR-GENERALS
AND
‘DIRECTOR-GENERALSHIPS’
While the MPU programme evolved and addressed the needs of planning in the new paradigm of local government, there were also developments in the executive management of local authorities. A growing number of local authorities now have a discernable ‘director-generalship’. By this I mean an arrangement for some consolidation and co-ordination of executive action, sometimes - but not director-general. universally - personified by an appointed Early appointees to the role of director-general (in the first half of the 1980s) frequently found their authority trimmed by the established power of veteran treasurers. The treasurers not only held the purse, they also had the department heads beholden to them. Mayors were faced with a dilemma: side with the director-general and risk a slowing-down of activities, or side with the treasurer and get things moving, if still in the old style. Almost always, mayors came out on the side of their treasurers. Some mayors found an obvious way to sidestep the dilemma, by appointing their existing treasurers to be director-generals. This happened in a number of small and medium size towns including Or Yehuda. Ashkelon, Elat and Ashdod. In the latter three, MPUs were in position at the time of the appointment and were already working with the appointees since even as treasurers, they represented the strongest pivot of the executive structure. The history of the director-generalship in the town of Ashkelon is interesting, because it shows how the director-general job emerged from a three-person ‘director-generalship’. The pattern, and its timing, represents a move from a first to a second/third generation management as typified elsewhere in this paper. The treasurer, eventually appointed director-general, was one of the troika, whose other two members were the mayor and his deputy. The mayor looked after contact with the public, overall policy and the representation of the town to outside bodies. The deputy mayor performed the role of political fixer and troubleshooter, the eyes-and-ears in both the political arena and in ensuring JPP 41:3-G
299
300
Progress in Planning
that the will of the ‘director-generalship’
would prevail
over the city’s civic and
bureaucratic apparatuses. The treasurer ensured that resources were available for carrying out the programme. Being a gifted public-sector manager. he also did much to ensure the gradual uprating of the quality of municipal management. The Ashkelon troika had all the major municipal functions within the grasp of its ‘director-generalship’. The inclusion of the political side only enhanced its effectiveness. Through the director-generalship, Ashkelon became one of the better-managed towns of its size. more able than most to bridge the non-synchrony between its administrative ability and the growing demands posed by decentralization. The troika eventually disbanded when the mayor resigned after being elected to the Knesset. Israel’s parliament. The treasurer was appointed director-general and proceeded to attempt to insulate the municipal structure from political intervention by establishing annual workplans for each department.
RECRUITING
DIRECTOR-GENERALS
Most director-generals have come from either the ranks of local government. or are recently demobilized senior career officers. Few, if any, are career managers choosing to ‘do a stint’ in local government. As a group. the officers have been the most noticeable, in towns such as Tel-Aviv. Jerusalem, Herzelia, Natanya. Yavne and Ramat-Gan. In some cases, the appointees take office under a mayor who is himself a retired army officer - in Ramat-Gan and Tel-Aviv. for cxamplc. The record of the retired officers has been. at best, patchy: appointees in Natanya. Yavne and Ramat-Gan all left after short tenures - no more than two years and as brief as three months. On the positive side. army officers are often good at organizing staff work and creating a normative climate which legitimizes better consultation and communication. But the implementation of decisions through a command-chain, to which senior officers are accustomed, is inappropriate in local government. The expectations of ex-officers for management authority and accountability cannot be squared with the politically-charged reality of municipalities. The management process in local authority is more akin to a perpetual series of simultaneous negotiations than to military practice based on command and obedience. The director-general’s authority. although conferred formally. has to be re-established as new issues create new allegiances of politicians and staffs. Creativity, flexibility and persuasion are needed to ensure that middle and lower management are ‘brought along’. The proliferation of director-generals indicates a recognition of the need to uprate local authority management (see Agmon and Haberfeld. 1992). Meanwhile. the typical self-perception of the director-generals is that they arc ‘modernizers’.
Municipal
Strategic
Planning
301
Modernity in most cases seems to mean to them, a convergence between management practices within local government and those in other, more respected sectors
-
and so we are back to attempting
to emulate
business
and the military.
Just as MPU’s are evolving planning practices to match the new local government paradigm, new general management principles are waiting to be formed and the executives’ tool boxes wait to be restocked with more appropriate skills and tools (for a lucid, positive and convincing approach to the challenge of defining the role of director-general in a British context, see Clarke and Stewart. 1901).
Appendix 3 -
The MPUs and local democracy
Decentralization could be expected to bring about a shift in the focus of local government’s accountability. Historically, accountability to central institutions government and party - took precedence over local accountability. The move to direct election of mayors in the late 1970s and the eventual shift of authority toward local government. both emphasize the accountability owed by iocal authorities to their citizens and constituent communities. While this has been a definite trend, the public’s interest and involvement in the everyday workings of local authorities has increased slowly. Indeed, despite the dramatic changes in the functioning of local government and its greatly enhanced influence on daily life, advances in the development of local democracy have been largely ambiguous. To date, for example, there have been few open public debates on urban development policies. Even the Rehovot MPU, in its redrawing of development priorities did not seek public involvement nor consultation after its proposals had been developed. Within the paradigm-shift which accompanies decentralization, establishing a new compact between citizens and local government is a difficult task, especiaily since neither side is sure anymore what a local authority should realistically be expected to deliver. The role of the MPUs in strengthening local democratic accountability has been correspondingly subdued. The potential is, however, there: the more MPUs clarify policy, the more they establish a language of discourse which can be used in public discussion, in a way that the erratic and arbitrary decision-making of the past, could not. Yet most MPU work involving the public today has been through surveys, which are more a means of data collection - however welcome - than a means of creating public involvement in decision-making. The impetus to realize the MPUs potential for enhancing the public’s roie will have to come from the political level. The MPUs are probably too concerned with protecting their position in the local authority to risk being seen as fermentors of ‘trouble’ by involving the public. That said, getting politicians to agree to surveys is no mean feat in itself, since surveys create expectation for addressal 303
304
Progress
of issues
tn Planning
raised.
determine
In .lcru4alcm.
the needs
explain
the city.4
usually
insular
introduced not just
policy
group
the Natanya However.
cast’. this
accountabilitv the strength authorities
with
Local
authorities
base of support for -
This ‘presidential’ becomes
o\~~r\tating
Ilic
public
wah tratlitionallq
held
foi- nc\\ polic1c4. \cith
involwd
a the!
ma~‘ors.
thcmscl\,ec
style.
out to ability
in that residents
at the policy
to
of this are
level
and
~111 demonstrate
;i\~arc’nc~~ of municipal involvemcnt the point
the
policy.
in policymaking. to claim
~1~1 (hc* local authoritv I?!, the accountability
that the has reached
axis
linking
local
~o\cr’nm~nt.
neither
could
dctachnicnt
Ix.
who C;III ottcn from
then
ill terms ot creating
central Hii\
gwcrnnient
return\
;I personal own
50 long a4 Ihc hail IO haunt
the mavor
;I solid
nor local
may he convenient
rcniotcncss
c\tablish
the m~~chinc of their
however . aork4
in ;I NYI\’ which
seen iis
public
arc thu< \omcM hat rutlderlcs~
distancing
prcjgress.
I (~1 antI .lcruaalem
also lctl to actual public
central
as actively
mismanaged
l
hc conaidcr-abl\
the directly-clcctcd while
L’m
asi\ connecting which
the MPU’s
the cooperation
10 the munlclpality
have for crcatin F ~ rrcatcr
it would
to obtaining
‘l‘hl\ ircprcscnb
01 relating
was carried
communit!.
Ic\ cI ot \cr\ ice’ 1’1-t)~i\io~i.
of N;;t;lti!;I.
MPLIs
.Ic\vish
WI\ ;I kc!
and it3 leaders.
to the possihilit\
efforts
potential
public
rlilemmax
at the evcrvcia\
The
whcrc~ a11 unpl~c‘ccdentccl 4urvcv
of the ultr:l-orthodox
following
local authority.
authority whose
is not aloofness
In
Bibliography AGMON, 0. and HABERFELD, D. (1992) The Development of Managers in an Era of Change in Local Government, Ministry of the Interior and the Centre for Development of Local Government Administration, Jerusalem, Hebrew. AL-HAJ, M. and ROSENFELD, H. (1990) Arab Local Government in Israel, Westview Press, Boulder. AVRUCH. K. (1981) American Immigrants in Israel: Social Identities and Change, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. BAUER, Y. (1974) My Brother’s Keeper: A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 19291939, The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia. BAUER, Y. (1981) American Jewery and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, I939-1945, The Institute of Contemporary Jewry, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem; Wayne State University Press, Detroit. BEN-ELIYA, N. (1988) The Local Authority Towards the 1990’s: Outline of an Alternative Conceptual Framework, NB - Evaluation, Planning, Policy Analysis, Rehovot, Hebrew. BENITA, E., NOAM, G. and LEVY, R. (1993) The Absorption of Ethiopian Immigrants: A Census in Kiryat Cat paper presented at the Between Africa and Zion Congress, Venice, February l-3, 1993. BEN-RAFAEL, E. and SHAROT, S. (1991) Ethnicity, Religion and Class in Israeli Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. BONGERS, P. N. (1990) Local Government and 1992, Longman Group, Harlow. BROOKE, R. (1989) Managing the Enabling Aufhorify, Longman Group in association with the Local Government Training Board, Harlow. CLARKE, M. and STEWART, J. (1988) Managing Tomorrow, The Local Government Training Board, Luton. CLARKE, M. and STEWART, J. (1991) The Role of the Chief Executive, The Local Government Management Board in association with the Society of Local Authority Chief Executives, Luton. DUNCAN, S. and GOODWIN, M. (1988) The Local Stare and Uneven Development: Behind the Local Government Crisis, Polity Press in association with Blackwell, Cambridge. FRIEND, J. and HICKLING, A. (1988) Planning under Pressure - The Strategic Choice Approach, Pergamon, Oxford. GROSSMAN, D. (1992) Sleeping on a Wire. Hakibbutz HaMeuchad-Siman Kria’a Publishers, Tel-Aviv, Hebrew. HARVEY. D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change, Blackwell, Oxford. HELLERMAN, J. B. and HANKIN, 1. (1988) JDC-lsraelAssessment Report: Municipal Policy and Planning Clnits Project, Draft Report to JDC-Israel, unpublished, Prepared under the auspices of TIL - Institute for the Guidance of Personnel management Ltd., Tel-Aviv. HORROWITZ, D. and LISSAK, M. (1989) Trouble in Utopia: the Overburdened Polity of Israel, State University of New York Press, Albany. JDC-BROOKDALE (1992) The Road to Successful Absorption: Immigrants tell their Story, JDC-Israel and JDC-Brookdale Institute; Lod, the Municipality of Lod Municipal Strategic Planning and Information Unit, Jerusalem. KIMMERLING, B. (Ed.) (1989) The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers, State University of New York Press, Albany. 305
Street, Tulpiyot,
9X339-3.~ermakrn,
Isrud
PERGAMON
~lllllllllllllllllllllll~l~l~llll 0305-9006(1994)41:3;1-2
To Laura,
With Love and Thanks
Biography
204
Vol. 41. pp. 20_%306. IYY4. (Q 1YY4 Elsevier Science Ltd Printed in Great Britain. All rights reserved. 1~3OS-9006/94 $26.00
Progress in Piannittg,
03059006(94)EOOOl-X
Contents Abstract
208
Acknowledgements
209
1.
Introduction
211
2.
Changes in the Role and Responsibilities 2.1.
2.2.
3.
of Locat Government
T$e ~p~?ortl~~~~t.~ for DecentraIiz(~t~on 2.1. I. 1967-1977: Wars, risiig expectations and econo~li~ crisis The direct election of mayors 2.1.2. The 1977 ‘turnaround’: new leaders, new agendas, 2.1.3. new lines of accountability Project Renewul: decentralization gets an underwriter 2.1.4. The Implications of Decentralization for Local Government Administration
Developing ~unic~pa1 Strategic Planning and Information Evolution of the Concept .?.I. .?.I. i The institutional scene
3.2.
3.3
Units
3.1.2. inventing MPU,r 3. I .3. Guidelines for the prototype MPUs Cuse Study: The Pilot MPU in Yavne Becomes Entangled in It?fhrmation Systems 3.2.1. Conditions in the two piloting towns 3.2.2. The Yavne model The Move to Di.~semini~tio~l More lessons from the pilot projects 3.3.1. 3.3.2. The fra~~e~~or~for coiintry-abode ~mpiemeni~tio~ of MPCis 205
215 215 215 216 217 218 220
225 775
WI-
22s 227 229 231 211
233 2% 2% 236
206
Progress 3.4.
in Planning
Working
Purtertts
of the AlPUs
3.4.1.
The
3.4.2.
Preprrru~im
.I.J..j.
Retideritlg A
3.4.4.
cttlergetw
oJ’ utl Itolislic of strute@c
polic,!
platit~itr~
pructic.c
plans
explicit
‘trolrble-silootiti~’
.scr\~iw
liar rtirrtiicipirl
polic?,
ittitl
plmtitlitic~
4.
3.3.5.
Usitig
.?.4.(1.
The
dirlrr ‘prodirct
tt1i.v’
31’
MPUs in Action: Three Further Cases 3.1.
‘17 74’
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
5.
Theoretical Perspectives: MPUs and New Organizational Directions for Local Government 5.1. The Theowricul C‘ottw~ jor I.oc~trl Strrrrtyic~ Plcrtrt~rtr,q S0uttyic plutrtiitt,q iti t/itJ Mt’C1.s u1ii1 it1 1ht, hlrsitics 5 5.1.1. ,-
.scclor ltrflttt~tic~itt,~
5. I.,‘. 5.2.
The
Challenge
Perceptions
111~1tttcrchitic,
of N Nm* for
the Fl‘lrlirrt’
5.2.1.
Po.s~triodtwr
5._7..?.
Ncn,
5.2.3.
MPlJ.s
locul
.strwrlrrul uttd
o/ loc~irl ,qo~‘crtittictft
Purudi~tn:
Dt~~~c~lopitt~ ~\‘tw~
oj’ 1~0~~~1 ~~o\~~~rtittwtit ,qowrtiutiw
purrrdigtm
irriil
ttiiittits(‘tfil’tit
liar loc~rl cqowrttttwtrt
11ttJ 'pr,.stttt/,~lt,t-tr purudi,~m
2’0
municipal 6.
Conclusion:
Making Sense of Change and Befriending
Appendix
1. Choosing
Appendix
2. Notes on the Evolution of the Director-General Israeli Local Authorities
Appendix
the Future
MPU Directors
3. The MPUs and Local Democracy
Bibliography
Strategic Planning
207
293 297
Role in 299 303 305
Abstract As the traditional role and practices of Israeli loc~rl govcrnmcnt \\CI.C rcntlcrctl ,I 1n;1101re\h2ping \\;I, inappropriate by decentralization from central government. set in motion. The gap between the responsil>ilitics of loc;~l authoritiC.4 and ~IICII managerial resources prompted the development ot ;I IICM suppo~n nlcch;lnl\ln Municipal Strategic Planning and Information LJnit. l‘hcw unit\ and thclr \\cjrh through C;I~ 4fiidi~‘4. hen\ ~IICC’ arc the focus of this monograph which cxamincs. their inception in 19X5. local planning and management ha4 dc\ clopcd ;I more comprehensive and coordinated approach. The \ludv finds that the \\itlci 4rr;ltcFlc’ the
agenda
has implications
for
the skills
and trainin
208
g of local ~c)\crnnlc~llt
l’l~lnnLT\
This monograph
was written
during
a year‘s leave-of-absence
Israel office of the American Jewish Joint Distribution to the JDC for the opportunity to reflect on practice,
from my work at the
Committee. I am grateful and for their financial
support during this period. I reccivcd warm hospitality at the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and I am especially endebted to Professor Don Schiin and to John Davies for their helpful inputs. I am very grateful to Professor Derek Diamond, for encouraging me to write abou, my work and draw some wider conclusions from it. At the JDC partnership with my colleagues, especially Joel Siegel and Haia Jamshi. has been enriching and vital. The thoughts developed in this paper arc the result of several years of intensive work with many partners in Israeli local government. too numerous to list here. 1 wish to acknowledge their exceptional openness and collaboration, while of course holding none but myself responsible for the paper’s content.
CHAPTER
1
Introduction
In the past 15 years, the horizons of Israeli local government have broadened dramatically. The expansion of local government activities which reflects a profound change in Israeli society, places considerable strains upon the leaders, managers, planners and staff of local authorities. Israel is turning from being a centralized state, engaged in nation-building and dedicated to maintaining a unifying vision for its citizenry, to a more pluralistic, less austere and more westernized pattern of government. Increasingly, good government means not only forceful national leadership, but competence in local government, the tier increasingly responsible for the services which define the quality of everyday life. The development of local planning and management has not paralleled this broadening of local responsibility. Characteristically, management and planning in local authorities have been conservative and reactive, fragmented along departmental lines and geared to administrating services shaped largely by central government. These conditions have shaped the attitudes and vested interests of many local politicians, managers and officials. These traditional practices have, however, been rendered inappropriate by the demands of complex, multi-service organizations - into which Israeli local authorities are evolving. The gap between the responsibilities of local authorities and their managerial resources prompted the development of a unique entity to support local planning and management - the Municipal Strategic Planning and Information Unit (MPU). These units and their work arc the focus of this monograph. Planners in MPUs are operating as in-house consultants in a growing number of local authorities. Their mission is to co-ordinate and support the making of policy at both the senior staff level and at the departmental, line-management level. A major challenge for the MPUs is to redirect policy thinking towards longer-term and integrated goals, and to base decision-making on an improved analysis of available and newly-generated data. Since their inception in the mid 19XOs. MPUs have contributed to the development of an innovative approach to planning in local government one which is holistic in its scope and management-orientated in its relationship to decision-makers. The relevance of this approach to contemporary local 211
Progress
212
government
in Planning
cstcnds lxyond
the horders of Israel.
since the hlPl
1 al5cl
dcmonstratea more gcncrail? ho\\ planning and managcmcnt 111local Fo\ct-nmc’nt arc increasingly The
intcrt\vincd.
developtncnf
of \tratc$c
planning.
Mith
agenda. calls for ;I rc~apprai4al ot the skills Addressing
;I \tratc$c
its holistic.
gcncralist\
planning practices. p;ir;illcl and theit-
local authorities frontrunners
cspcctctl
It i\ ;I more
to rleli\,ct-
among private-4ector
government
and
Ill
cllatlges
tIleIt-
critical
providers.
At
contest and of the quality of service-provision contemporary
theoretical
thinking
in M htch
conip;iral~lc to the (imc. Ioc;iI
willc
the
I~~sc’snc>neof its political significance as the ;ircn;i
dctnands on public rc4ourccs must he arbitrated.
h,ct\+cctt
t-clatiotwhip.
in ;I tnimncr
set-vicch
scrvicc
I11;lll;l~c’lllcllt
the emcrgcncc of new rclationshtp\
local authoritic\. arc
in Ist-aeli IOGII planning.
academic curricul;i.
oil
The adoption of MPI I\ II! IOLYII authorities citizens
\ct-viccx. I‘hrough the \korl\ ot
ha\c I~c~~~memore prominent
trend which i\ beginttin g I0 have an impact and
ot planncxt-\
agenda takes town planners far hcyond cu\tom;tt.> ctnph;t~~~
on cithcr land-use or the dc\clopment of individual the MPlis.
mitlti-clt4cilllirl~tt-\
apfitudc5 quit-cd
and
in bhich contlicting
The dichotc>my 01 pc’litical
forms a hackdrop to much ot the
on local government
tnanagemcnt. rc‘\ ic>bccl tn
Chapter 5 of this monograph. In Israel.
the
change
in the
role
of local
govcrntnent
ha\ been pt-ccipitatccl I>!
the decline in the once-pcr\,asi\,e intluence of central govcrnmcnt. therefore which
hegins with an analysis of this decline
it crcatcd
Following idea
for
the
expansion
this scene-betting.
and idcntitie
lhrough
role of MPU\.
the
cy>pot-tutlifie\
~role of local govcrnmcnr.
of the
I will turn to describing the gcncsi\ 01 the ILIP
and its application in ;I \.ariet!’ of local authorities.
be illustrated
‘l‘hc nic~nr)graph
The \\ork of 1\-11’1 14 V,III
shot-1 CIISC 41udic4 from tivc town\. Thc\c \iill ckiimtnc the
their tactics for gaining influence and some 01 the topto N hich
have hccn addressed. The!
ako demonstrate
the
scope
in creating ;I form of planning which. although directly needs of managetnenr, nonetheless
maintains
of MPl’
IinLcd
IIILOIL cmcrlt 10 tlx
c\ et-! da!
it5 indepenclenc~ and long-tct-m
perspective. Following
the GISC studies.
I will look at ~mc
de\~cloptnent and on local g)\‘ernmcnt structure the MPU
program.
In particular.
challenge of cohesion-httil~ling decentralization providing quality.
of the thtnktng
which tinds &I practic:tl cchc) in
I will focus on litcraturc
in incrcasingl)
on or~;tnt/~ttic)rl;ti
dcccntralizcd
v hich c\;~m~tlc‘~the c,t.gani/atic)tl4. ‘I‘hc
of local govcrnmcn1 management and the cnip~~~kering of \taft
services to the public. i\ ;I direct requirctnent At the satnc time. if the conventional
for tmpro\ing \CI-Lice
command structut-c i\ diffused.
new ways must he found to detine goals and ensure their assimilation increasingly
independent workers.
government
is moving in this direction.
I>\ the
I will argue that the tnanagcmcnt of local and that MPU-type
structure\
\vill lx_~~~me
Municipal
increasingly devolved
central
to maintaining
organizational
a commonality
Strategic
of purpose
within
Planning
213
more
structures.
Since 1988. I have enjoyed a unique vantage point from which to observe the changing of Israeli governance. As national co-ordinator of the MPU programme at the JDC I have had the opportunity of seeing the everyday application of planning to a diversity of settings and issues. At the same time, working at the national Icvcl, I have had the opportunity to be involved in evaluating the institution of local government and its transformation. My writing is, therefore. influenced by two very different levels of abstraction: from the level of national policy on the role of local government. it zooms in onto a single issue in a particular setting and then back again, to frame the single event in its broader context. The cast studies, in particular, show how local events take place against changing backdrop, sometimes only partly understood by the local players. 1 will turn now to setting the national scene, by examining the process of decentralization which has taken place in Israel over the past 20 years. and its impact on the role of local government.
a
CHAPTER
2
Changes in the Rofe and Responsibilities Government 2.1.
THE
OPPORTUNITY
FOR
of Local
DECENTRALIZATION
In the past 20 years, Israeli local government has undergone an historical transformation. It has become instrumental in defining and delivering human services, as well as taking an increasingly active role in economic development. This expansion in the role of local government corresponded in its timing to a decline in the effectiveness and authority of central government. The process has not been one of planned substitution. There has been only one major change to the relevant legal framework. There has been no drastic change in fiscal policy and, while some transfers of responsibility were planned and premeditated, many have been ad hoc. A prominent expert on Israeli local government, Nahum Ben-Elia, coined the phrase “decentralization by default” which aptly describes the process which has taken place (Ben-Elia, 1988, describes the process). Four factors precipitated the almost concurrent decline of central government’s influence and the corresponding move by local government to fill the vacuum. These factors are the outcome both of long-term trends and of more immediate changes in policy, and combined to create the opportunity for a rapid change in the balance between the central and local tiers of government.
2.1 .I. 19674977:
Wars, rising expectations
and economic crisis
Following the victory in the 1967 Six Day War, the embattled Israeli society began to open up to the world and enjoyed a leap forward in economic growth. The sense of military siege eased and standards of Iiving improved. Exposure to the outside world increased through wider overseas travel and was brought home by a significant inlmigration from affluent Western countries (cf. Avruch, 1981, on American immigrants). Television, introduced in 1968, facilitated comparisons between IsraeI and other advanced countries (which supplied much of the programming). There was also a macro-economic imperative: Israeli firms expanded
their exports
and, in a gradual 215
quid pro quo, local markets
were
Municipal
their communities,
there was also a sense of alienation
Strategic
between
Planning
communities
217
-
particularly smaller and more peripheral ones - and their transient leaders. The change in the law enabled communities to express their frustration with Labour, a frustration which was growing since the mid 1960s. Increasingly, in smaller towns and development towns, a new generation of young leaders, mostly of Scpharadi origins, was emerging under the wing of the Herut. the main right-wing opposition party (and the dominant party of the Likud block). These ambitious young politicians, determined to challenge the Ashkenazi-dominated Labour establishment, were more populist reformers then ideological right-wingers. However. their sense of indignation at, and protest against, the hegemony of the Labour Party found a natural home in the Herut Party of Menachem Begin, itself a political underdog for nearly three decades. With the higher echelons of central government blocked to them, with the Labour Federation and the Jewish Agency controlled by Labour, the new generation of politicians turned to local politics as the remaining arena in which they could gain influence and government experience. Direct election made the aspiring local leaders more visible. Almost by definition, they were highly charismatic individuals, charisma and natural leadership qualities being essential given the lack of backing from a government party. So, as the Labour Party’s hold on central government faltered. the new leadership was already developing in the wings. Its claims on power were multiple: empowerment of Sephardic Jews who had not become an integrated part of Labour’s constituency; reallocation of resources in favour of development towns and deprived neighbourhoods; their youth, and their being untainted by contact with the corruption of establishment politics; their role-model qualities as self-made politicians who succeeded in an autocratic, centralized and paternalistic political system (for a recent review of issues of ethnicity in Israel, see Ben-Rafael and Sharot, 1991). Last but not least, the new leaders brought a promise of somehow giving government back to the people and making it more accountable to communities - as they, as directly elected mayors, were themselves. To summarize. the lY7Os saw a devolution of state power from its traditional holders. facilitated partly by more independent local government. The weakening of the old order and the emergence of a new, alternative leadership, converged in the May lY77 election which became known as ‘The Turnaround’ (‘Mahapach’) which ousted Labour from power.
2.1.3.
The 1977 ‘turnaround’:
new leaders, new agendas, new lines of accountability
Following the May 1977 election the Likud block was able to form a majority coalition government, supported by some of Labour’s erstwhile political partners
2.1.1.
Projecr
Renewal:
decentralizatiott
gets atr trttderwrifet
~~ni~;pa~ c~~mrnuniti~s. without
For
the Israelis,
the strings
of urban
development.
well-established exposure
and committed
central
ideas.
Further
government.
of the locality Teicher, ieaders,
Project closely
rcsourccs
with
lucky
community,
resources if these
provided
could
study
of twinning
Renewal.
the new ~ =eneration
to twin
the arrangement
available
a detailcd
to new notions
enough
to implctncnt
new ideas set ;I collision
community
resources
as exposure
communities
diaspora
more.
this,
Among notion
tied to their
ct~mtnitnit~cs
and the legitimacy
Through
;I
new and with
help tip the balance
arrangement\,
with
provided
course
in favour
WC Iqpin
the mandate
of combined
local additions
to existing
curricula:
and ideas and social
rind locat residents’ of resources.
physicat
specific
and
of multi-di~ciplin~lry and more.
social
services. this
hcterogclle~)us The
notion
setting
up affiliated budget.
charities
as opposed
through to handle
involved
social
was
in planning
support
young; child
was the
fundt~i
and informal
one-stop
with
the
dclivcry.
participation
Rcncwal
patterns
and dccisi~~tl-nlitkillg of partnership
and became commonplace
of a ‘closed‘
actively
Pro,@
and the vury
including
Rcncwnl
Citizen
such as formal
emphasis,
oht2ineJ
to focal service
by Project
of neighbourhoods;
Through
became more
were
level.
such as the cldcrty
decentralized. dcvcloped
committees
state scrviccs
and ncighl7oitrtlot,ct
was t-c-written.
fostcrcd
development.
On a wider
improvement
populations
new approaches
of local government
physical
the altocation
of mavors
and c~)l?lrn~ttcd lo than.
to develop
the new approachcs
encouraged
towns
as well
219
Planning
1990).
Through
centres,
Israeli
the diaspora
(for
~trr~lngement
government,
F’or those
to new paradigms,
innovative
for
the twinnjng
of centralistic
Strategic
distinctive education
programmcs
the setting-up
~icvcloptllcIit
of c;crviccs and ~lc~/cl~)I~tnent a!Jout than.
noti-govcrnmcnt the work individual
inevitably. agcncics
of Project
more also with
Rct~uwal,
programmcs
on the basis
to being part of the municip;tlity’s
regular
funding
arrangements. The
dynamics
government’s
of Project
grip
an agent of central officials, of services These
to move
and reprcsentativc
on its management
changes structures
on the actual structure turn
to discuss
made acute.
Israeli
government,
local g(?vernment profound
Renewal
combined
governed
took
on more
the rclax:ttion
of ccntr;tl
to ;I new plain.
by vertical
iinks
of the character
to diverse
I;t-om
hcing
niinisteriat
of ;t hub for a Iocul \vcb
~)rg~~nis~tti~)ns. in the way
local
and practices
and operation
the specific
Gth
tocal govcrnnicnt
inadequacies
govcrtilii~~lt
operates
intpactcd
and, did not have an immediate
of individual which
local authorities.
clecentralization
slowly imp;tct
I will
JIOVI’
highlighted
and
Progress
220 2.1.
‘I’IIE
in Planning
IMPI.l~‘A’I‘lONS
OF
I~~:~‘I’N’I‘H.\I,I%:\
1‘10\
k’Ol< I.()(’
\I.
G 0 v PIH h hl K Y ‘I‘ .A I) hl I N I s ‘I’ K A ‘I’ I 0 u
I’hc
admini~tt-atit,n
groLtp5.
One
dcli\,erc
of
scconcl
groLrp
service
rcspc~nsihiltty
gt-0Ltp
to
ttlc
;I t\pic:il
comi\t\
specific
policy-making. division
of
of
wrvico.
consist\
of
thaw
bitt.
functioning
‘direct of
;I\
lega
c,iii
;ind
cdLlcatlc~ll.
clcp~irtinctit~
t-athcl~.
c;It-t~\
~llld
‘I1C;ICt~~Ll;lt-tc’t-~’
authot
ttic4
po\itic)n\
I\\(1
I c~\lx)tt\ttllc \\ Iitc,lt
ha\c
Ioc~il
;ittthr~r’ttic\
I\
the .Ihc,
no \LlCh
c,ct-i,rttiiiati~,ti tLltlcltoll~
ILltlctlc~tl~ll
tot
hc~;IIltl
trlllc’ttot14
cc~iiiniittc~c I-or-
Illto
01 ptdlc~
‘tlc,I~Ic~Ll;ll~lc‘t~\
and
Ioc;it
ni;~n~i~~~t~--
;inc1 OLlt
11c
\\Cll~ll~C
I counsct
wt-\.icc’ 14raeli
;ittthc~t.tt\
clc~p~irtnietit~
\LlCh
budgeting. twtwccn
toc;it
tl1tcc3 ;I\
I he
tLIItIl;II11c~ttt~ll
to
c.ti,;itc
;I
Municipal
management establish
structure
policies
appropriate
for the development
Strategic
to their level of responsibility, of services
Pianning
221
they must
which reflect financial
resource
development and the impact of physical development. However, the traditional structure of Israeli local authorities strongly mitigates against such organization-wide cohesion. In a typical Israeli local authority, it is precisely the ‘headquarters’ functions, so necessary for developing successful local strategies, which are weak. Because of centralized &overnment, many of the duties of the ‘direct service’ departments remain heavily in~uenced by the corresponding ministry. In the past, departments such as education and welfare would have been more accountable to their respective ministries than to the local ‘headquarters’ staff - the mayor included. The government csscntially paid local departments to be its field agent in providing services according to a centrally-determined policy. This duality of allegiance remains, with government departments seen as representing the professional interest more clearly than the local ‘headquarters’. The ‘headquarters’, topped by the mayor, is seen as a political entity, biased towards the politically tenable, while the ‘direct service’ departments present themselves as driven by more professional considerations. The division between the functions of the ~headquarters’ ‘staff’ level and those of ‘direct service‘i’line’ reflects. therefore, divided lines of accountability. Put very schematically. the politicians topping the pyramid, primarily the directly-elected mayor. answer primarily to public. the city council and their political party. The senior ‘headquarters’ staff - typically, treasurer and town clerk - answer primarily to the mayor, although they can also lean back on their statutory role definitions to help assert some independence. The lint departments have a dual allegiance - to mayor and to ministry. There is an ambivalence at times as to which of these lines is stronger. Summarizing. the typical components of local government administration are as follows: Executive ‘headquarters’~~st~~f~ Mayor Deputy Mayor (Chief Executive) Treasurer Town Clerk (Comptroller,
responsibilities:
Legal Adviser)
Hybrid staffllinc roles: City Engineer (town planner) Personnel Director
222
Progress
‘Direct
in Planning
service’/‘linc’ Education.
departments:
Social
Environmental Ktxrcation
Services.
I>evelopment In this to -
while
actual
into
As the
the
and
funds
the
can
optional
group
I will
~~ ;I point
ot rcsponaihilitics
t’or- csample.
of local
author’itie\
ear-!
4ei-\ice4
hccome~
from
from
one
rctui-ll
loc;rl
2s cducxtioii
\uch
moot.
;intl
local
L)c’p;~rtmcn1~
can appl\
\uch
ot <)utGclc
anal
;I\ cduc;ltiorl
r)t 4ignilic;lnt
10 intra5tructurc
in ii position
tlecis~onx
the dcvclopment
the balance
incrc’;I\c\.
;~nd t hc influence
they are alho irccipicnt5
;ii-c therefore
to intluencc
\er-vice
managcrh
‘l‘lic wiiic
govci-nmcnt. dcpartmcntx
inipcdc
local
tar
‘headquarter‘
de&ions.
These ministries
patterns
arc
iiclt onI> major hpcndcr\:
are
development.
alkattion
ot local
on local
transferred
in hrackct.\
division.
authority
ser\,icc\
l~ixxd
Some.
;I single
authoritie\
with
titles nest.
llealth
~tncl C‘ontrc~l
roles
responsibility
hctwccn
social
the
to the
welfare
Public
Pl;inning
listing.
authority
Services
Service5
(0 CI\C their allocation.
on rc\;ourcc
r)f mlinicipalit~-\\,icle
tic4
I hc\c
pcjlicie\
and
their
implementation. Further
contributing
ambivalent the
role
of the planner
of town
However. theil-
to the
position hy law
planning
could
role
the
law.
This
closely The
main
the
the
tit\
:idopteti esccutive -
to central
organization
Israeli
oftcil
‘headquarters
while
Icvel.
taking
and
10 o\‘c‘I-~c*c laid
dc~ii
the cnglnccr’\
rather
than
not
dctu:ill\ lhu4
IlerMccn
the ni;l\or
It i5 d t‘;ir ~73 ironi
\\;I\ on
ciivcrgcnt
;go\ crnnicnt
thu4 nc\f lint*\
ircquircd role\.
.I‘hc
clerk.
10 the
1~
~rolc l~orni;itic~n
c,xiht
~upplcnicntcti ‘1%~; c>ui\tcncc
14 dctcrminc~d
rcllect\
il\ iiiclcpcilclcnt
/oc;iI
politic~;II.
of town
although
csccuti\,c>‘.
dots
cffcctibc
local government
management
qualification5 enipha4i5
ai-c tlicretorc
of cc>mptr-oiler
authorit\
ni~ikin~
gokcrnmcn1. which
the tllng
cock5
while
Thus.
IO p’omoling
conin:<
restricti1.e.
incorpoi-ate\
‘h~;ldc~~~~~~~t~r~~
as :I planncl-.
lack
the
builciing Icvcl
‘chief
local
i4 split
often
of 1rcaurci-
and
ol
authoritics. Israeli
authoritv
cach component
poht
of the
cnginecr-
5lratcg!
ad\iscr
I‘hc
of the
and
part
ot cith
inv;~luahlc
from
i\ in it\clt
roles
of Icgal
Ix
the!
to \tra\
of /cjning
position
hc qualitied
cnginecr\
at ‘hcacl~lll~rrt~r-4’
hy local
structure
not
dcvclopment
force\
authorit)
citv
on land-ux
statutorily-dctiri~L1
position\
local
focus
not
planning.
tend
to cnforccment
of an overall ly
anvway.
need
make
holistic
and.
‘l‘he
can. therei’orc.
and
nl;~n;~gcmerlt i\ the
ot ‘hcadquartcr\‘
enkjnecr.
the cnginucr
cross-depnrtment~ll. planning
wcahness
tit),
I)\ the \i/c
it i\ Incrc;i\inyl\ in tlic
\talutc
department\.
~~~l)c~litical
the cc)he\i\c.
I’lic
herlt;lgc:
and indi\~irlual ;ippro;lcli
ot the being
hoo1\4.
the ccntr;lli\tic
ot
the M ith
oi- pi-ote44ion~il
~u41oiiier~~o~~l~~~l
nii14( I~CCOIIIC~ IO cte~~lol~ aclniini4trati~c
ot accc~unt:ilGlit\
and
new
planning struc1urc.
\fcah
and \vith
its ~cah
01 non-c\iatent
~un~~~pa~ Strategic Planning
key executive not designed government.
positions
in both strategy
planning
to carry its own weight independently Small wonder, then, that the change
and executive
oversight,
of an interventionist in the roles of central
223
was central and local
government threw the traditional structure out of balance. Since the imbalance became apparent in the early 198Os, an effort has begun to evolve governance structures which can more readily adapt to future needs. In the following section I will show how the MPU programme was conceived as a catalyst and component for the strengthening of local government management.
CHAPTER
3
Developing Municipal lnforma tion Units 3.1.
EVOLUTION
OF THE
Strategic Planning and
CONCEPT
3.1. I. The institutional scene The decentralization process which started in the mid 1970s had, by the mid 1980~~ led to an acute noun-synchr~~ny between the growing responsibiIities of local government and the ability of its traditional administrative practices to discharge them. The delay in producing remedies while the non-synchrony widened, reflects how far local government was moving into uncharted territory. The formal framework of Icgally-sanctioned powers remained in position, as did the formal administrative structure of local government. These powers and structures, however. no longer reflected the day-to-day reality of local government. While the need to introduce changes to the operation of local authorities was becoming clearer, there was no clear leadership in grasping this nettle until the late 1980s. The bodies which may have been expected to address the need for change early on. such as academic institutions and the Union of Local Authorities in Israel, were preoccupied elsewhere. In academia. the widespread view of local government was of a backwater of little significance, a view reflected in the relative dirth of local government research up until the late 1980s (typically, two comprehensive and well-regarded books on Israeli society which appeared in 1989 ignore local government almost completely - see Kimmerling, 1989; Horowitz and Lissak, 19XY). The Union of Local Authorities, the national umbrella organization of the urban local authorities, was embroiled in political leadership battles and failed to develop a coherent outlook on the state and future of its constituent members. The Ministry of the Interior, until the mid 1980s. seemed more interested in preserving the status-quo and its own control over IocaI government, than in facilitating decentralization. Project Renewal, although very active in its local programmes, did not see local government change as a high priority. Its emphasis was on clrban rather than on municipal development.
Indeed,
in shaping 225
its operations
Project
Renewal
seemed
Municipal
fight the trend,
the Ministry
developed
a new policy:
autonomy by raising the quality of local government unnecessary the Ministry’s daily involvement. While
Strategic
to facilitate
Planning
greater
227
local
to a level which would render maintaining its traditional
role of regulating local government. the Ministry set about developing ways of carrying out its new policy and looked for potential partners. Among the partners and programmes it considered, was the JDC’s fledgling effort to effect the quality of local government management through the introduction of Municipal Strategic Planning and Information Units.
3.1.2.
Inventing MPUs
The professionals at JDC who were turning their attention to local government the early 1980s and came up with the MPU concept, had all had previous ties with Project Renewal. They had observed that Project Renewal was expanding the superstructure of services rapidly, using its own resources. This growth was outpacing the capacity of the existing municipal infrastructure to adapt and support it. The JDC staffers saw a very real risk of collapse once Project Renewal withdrew and left the local authority to fend on its own, with inadequate budgets and sometimes inadequate staff, for the newly expanded services and newly erected public buildings. As a result of this analysis. JDC staff targeted the ‘headquarters’ level of local government as the crucial element for intervention. Implicitly at least. it was assumed that line-departments could change, provided that the political cues, the leadership and professional support all pushed them in the right direction. in
However, without an impact on leadership, no such cue, no such impetus, would evolve. Add to this the centrality of the figure of the directly-elected mayor, and it became clear that an effective intervention would have to involve the mayor and be positioned above departmental divisions. With no officer at ‘headquarters’ level in charge of decision support. decision-makers were rarely supplied with background information, statistical analysis or financial analysis in connection with their decisions. This situation reflected the nature of typical decision-making: routine, year-on repeated decisions or decisions relating to service provision where the boundaries were often influenced by national government and. sometimes, by prior political agreements. Furthermore, most municipalities lacked an appointed chief executive. In its absence, the civil servant with the most comprehensive overview is almost always the city treasurer. However. the treasurers do not carry responsibility for the overall co-ordination of municipal activity and for the attainment of set goals. Thus, any kind of action which crossed departmental lines and required a modicum
of co-ordination
was either
a matter
for the mayor,
or chance.
228
Progress
in Planning
The upshot of these shortcomings was an absence of cvcn nascent notion3 of planning which would address the full range of local authority concerns in an holistic and strategic manner. ‘Holistic’ is a key concept which underpins much of the approach which came to be the hallmark of MPUs. ‘Holistic planning’. as I explained earlier, takes into account the interlinking of three essential component\ in the dynamics of city development. These are. physical development. economic development and the development and maintenance of human scrvicea. (A fourth component. although it is part of the balance between the previous three. 15 maintaining environmental quality by linking the pace of growth to the carrying capacity of infrastructures and to the character of an individual to&n or city.) The statutory planning system. with its role as regulator of land-use. directly addresses just one of these three components. Indeed. it might he \aid that in being the ubiquitous planning mechanism. land-use planning ha4 become ~111 end in itself. In an holistic framework. the goal of the local authority ix to underpin the welfare of its citizens and that is the primary focus of planning. Land USC in this framework becomes a means to an end - either through ensuring appropriate physical development. or through guiding development so as to benefit the public purse through tax incomes. or both. The JDC team concluded that the planning paradigm needed to be radically changed, with planning evolving into a management tool for clarifying. sharing and pursuing more broadly-defined local development goals. In this role. planning takes on a strategic concern with mustering a variety of forces in pursuit of :I common path. In terms of Israel’s centralized state, this was quite far-fetched. Consider, for example, that urban development, particularly in new towns and development areas. is carried out mainly by the Ministry of Housing ;111ci Construction. The Ministry must act in accordance with known zoning guidelines. but is not obliged to bow to the local authority in deciding how much to build. or where within the appropriate zones to start - two issues which can make or break a municipality’s cashflow. The goal of land-use planning was, therefore. to produce a plan - ;I spatial expression of land allocation for future needs. Holistic planning, in contra\t. aims to provide broad guidelines for more detailed sectional planning proccssch which subsequently take place (including, but certainly not confined to. land-use planning). The case study of Rehovot in the next chapter demonstrates how such ;I transformation of the local planning process can be achieved. The structural weakness of local government organization was first felt not so much through the planning side as through the executive action side. Mayors tried hard to be their own policy advisers and chief executive. but by the mid 1980s many of them were reaching a common conclusion. The burden was simply becoming too great to be handled without a supporting management structure. For a mayor
to realize
the shortcomings
of the local government
organization
Municipal
is one thing. quite another. threatens
To admit to it and to solicit assistance Indeed,
to undermine
rationalizing
local government
the buccaneer
Strategic
in trying planning
Planning
to change
229
it, is
and management
image which many mayors
cultivate.
This
image is politically and psychologically important. It keeps alive a fundamental and unifying ethos of Israeli society: the ethos of development. The story of modern Israel is one of overcoming odds of demography, location as security through aggressive development. It is an ethos which considers the development merit in its own right. It also tends to excuse mistakes. overlook opportunity costs and mitigates against long-term or holistic planning. Planning, alas, produces fewer heroes than development, and fewer usefully heroic moments. Its empowerment therefore threatens the evocative development ethos. An anecdote may help illustrate the prevalence of the development ethos. In 1991, I was explaining the MPU programme to a veteran official of the Ministry of the Interior. Having listened to the goals of the programme, he suggested a measure for the Units success: “The MPUs will be deemed successful”, the official opined, “if all they’ve managed to do is, every once in a while, cast doubts in the mayors’ minds as to their omnipotence, and slow them down . .” Even allowing for the Ministry’s instinct to control local government, there is truth in the observation about the haste in which local decisions are made, a haste which frequently attests to the superficiality of the decision-making process. Once JDC had identified the ‘headquarters’ level as a key to the performance of local government, the alternatives for intervention were either the planning and policy functions, or the need for stronger executive leadership. The MPU programme addresses the former of these two areas. There were two reasons for this choice. First, the planning task was judged more accessible to outside intervention. Compared with direct intervention in the daily executive management of local government, it was a less threatening approach and hence more likely to gain a foothold. Second. it was hoped that creating a platform for generating new policies would eventually help prompt the creation of executive structures capable of carrying out such policies. This is particularly planning and inter-departmental
3.1.3.
the case where coordination.
policies
might involve
long-term
Guidelines for the prototype MPUs
Once the arena for the intervention in local government had been established, the JDC prepared initial programme guidelines. These reflect the concept of the MPU, and served as a basis for discussion of the idea with local government and Ministry officials. The guidelines are as follows:
230
Progress The
in Planning
woulct
MPU
long-term
and
municipal
agenda.
trends
and
It would The
tocu\ and
making
It was to lx> 4tafted and
.ID(‘
MPUs
would
where
prior
populations
17) in~lividual4
and
suggcstc‘d
not
set it up themsclva
done.
after
were
local authoritk. i-ather
hilt
;I taxhion.
and
the
Mt’L[
point
scrvicch
ITL. niavor\
to local
it w;i\ wol-h.
2 unit.
Larger
If the!
did.
and tlaita
(E\entuallv.
authoritic\
had
howcvcr.
of 211 type4
.---- Iargc
)
council\.
5pccificall~
towns.
location\. 4ul’licient
Tel-A\i\
or another-.
and
an ~nlpact.
of \uc.h
as irui-21 regional
\I hich
v,oulti
l\raeli
Smaller it with
.Icrusalcm.
progr;ininic
al40 cstahlished
requc\tecl
to midtllc-\i/c
100.000.
the
which
to ha\,c
OI- pro\,idc
;I\ indeed
at one
whcrc
opportunitv
rclc~ant
require
tou n4. ;I\ bell
c~i~~aiii/atic)iiaI
4upport.
ba4is.
;I fair
Il.000
did
high-lc\cl
linancial
to IW rno\t
would
Guidclincs
office
~I-~~~~-;~II~II~c dircctor:\tc.
;I national
ot k-tmcen
sniallcr
on the
emcrginy
dftaii.5.
~~nal~leto \u\ta~n ~111MPlr
and
high
cbt’ th
Ic\cl
municipal
combining
pi~otcssion~~l
it w;14 a4~~1nied.
cities
‘4tatt~
\cnior
ot urixin
e\tal~lidi
demand has takcii
in particulal~.
topics
~tructiirc~.
W;I\ asumed
were
each
ot the
bc set up on ;I L c~luntar\
felt.
the\:
part
;l\xsvncnt
with
and
target
ayciida t7v identit’ving
thi4
replace ;in\ c.ii\ting
!5 \\ith
concept
cities.
to shape
;I knowlctf~~c
would MPI
provitlc
analyai~
It would
projectionz.
the esihting
cxpcrience
The
4cck
tutui-c
WOLIIC~ not
supplcmcnt
policy
angle\.
to hc an integral
MPll
The
on intormation.
interdi4cipli”;tr~
refcrrcd
to the
pr~~yaiiinic
directorate: would
.lDC‘
oItcl
zc,inl’i-~hc~rl~l~c
lin:tocial
and
prote\vonal
\uppcji-t
10 the
units . at leaht at tii-\t. An
t‘ffort
senior
~vo~ilri
Authorities The limited
The
nest
for
had
one
selected
for
MPUs
15. ‘l‘hc
and
pirtlb
choice the
and
ot the and
Intci-ioi-
the
I ‘n10ii
ii1 ;I\ ;I 01 I .oc;iI
prograniiiic
it4 pi-ogre44
cupcrlnierit
asxbd
pi-ior
in ;I
to deciGcbn5
had
the
from
in one
to h;r\e
advocate
pilots
wcrc the
pilot
13). the
on
the
overall to\Vns.
MPU
and
Yavne.
guidelines. Y:i\
support:
tjoth
~;Ivo~-\
nc.
ni~rna~cnient:
M ho c0~1lcl txconic
his pcc’rh.
clcmonstratc
I will
b\ I hc%
nia\ror To
o! two prtl\
4t;itt
ot municipal
id<-a among
L\;I\
unit\
pi-ogr;ininic
:r~~cl political
:iiid changing
khovot
t\\o
t\vo
;I n~i~ioii~illv-linoan for
basic
of the\C
\\;I\
I’or the
ot solicitation
updating
tllc selection
pr~~grarnme
of olq>ortunit>
to the
credible
ot the of location
rc\ult
conGderation\
location
evolved
experience
hlinibtr!
g ;IS 2 cloxl\-\~;rtchcd
op,i-atin
of locations.
MPI
reflected
and
the
of the
start
111 the de\c’lopmcnt
point
to he committed
;I strong
decelopnient ~c~uld
nuinber
pilot
at least
to bring
dissemination
self-selection. choice
in the
prograninic
wider-
sitcs
hc niatlc
and aIs0 to iii\ ol\,c xxkniia
partnci-.
now
turn
The the
towns
way
to look
the at the
Municipal 3.2.
CASE
STUDY:
INFORMATION
3.2.1.
Conditions
THE
PILOT
MPU
IN YAVNE
Strategic
BECOMES
Planning
ENTANGLED
231 IN
SYSTEMS
in the two piloting towns
From 1985 to 1988, the pilot MPUs in Rehovot and Yavnc were the focus of the programme. Through the pilot units, the hypothesis about the need for an intervention in policy could be tested, and new tools-of-the-trade developed. Rchovot and Yavne are close neighbours. located some IS miles southeast of Tel-Aviv. Although very different in character, each was typical in its own way. Rehovot is a veteran settlement, established as a farming community in 1890. The settlers were mainly from central and eastern Europe, although in 1906 a group of immigrants from Yemen created the settlement of Sharayim which became a neighbourhood of Rehovot. The city became famous first for its citrus, then for its academic institutions which include the Weitzmann Institute of Science, the Faculty of Agriculture of the Hebrew University. the lnstitutc for Settlement Study and a major hospital. In recent years, the town’s population has been stable at around 80,000. Unusually in fast-changing Israel, Rehovot urbanized in a fairly organic process of expansion and development, with a distinct civic and architectural heritage. It was the appearance of a mature, leafy. somewhat sedate town. The main drag retains a semblance of the village high street; some two miles long as it crosses the city from cast to west, it is lined with trees and low-rise building accommodating mainly small shops. Yavne, in contrast, is a typical development town, one of many towns and neighbourhoods of near-uniform appearance built all over Israel in the 1950s and 1960s to provide housing for the immigrants who swelled the country’s population. Its site has a long history. having been a major Jewish settlcmcnt in Talmudic times, in the first and second centuries CE. By the sixth century Jewish presence had all but ceased and Yavne became an Arab scttlemcnt by the name of Yibne. Yibne, in turn, was abandoned by its Arab inhabitants in the lY48 War and was resettled with Jewish immigrants. Yavne neighbourhoods were built in standard apartment blocks, yielding a monotonous and crowded urban scapc. The town was almost homogcnous in its class and ethnic composition, and until the 1970s was considered an undesirable residential backwater. Its location did. however. attract industry. at first mainly textiles and engineering. These provided employment and some municipal income, albeit at the cost of environmental damage. Yavnc pcoplc were an available pool of unskilled and semi-skilled labour for the industries, services and agricultural enterprises of its region. including nearby Rehovot. By the early 1980s the fortunes of both Rehovot and Yavne were reaching a turning-point. Rehovot was, in devclopmcnt terms, meandering, unable to choose between preservation of its traditional lifcstylc and an impulse to cash
Progress
232
In Planning
in on its location retail
consultant :I new
Shitrit.
success
Shitrit housing. location
in the
and
cicinity
of
Tel-Aviv
the
education
proposed
in
provide
ncb
build support and
the
The
interchange Mot
Kcncwul
to
Fol- teaching of the Shitrit‘s
plan
in suburban deprived 1985.
microcosm
the
L\ bile
Yavnc’4
tactol-4.
aII,
Shitrit
an
to
the
;I
wix*
nial-kcting
ail-tot-cc. [or-
olYer_ccl
the
The
\+‘a\4
10
land~to
SC,! Ihe
mlrhct
11h appt-o\,in and
with
for
initi:illb
go\‘crnmcut
to
nei~hhourhot~~~~
go\
emplo\
Ilccc~s;II-\
the
/onlng
\~‘;IL IIC
huh
to
c*rnnicnt
rhc
;tncl
\\ould
\Vhich
children
to
the
;I diI-cct
the
sytcni
planned
g
I71 rcloc:lting
pcrwxicd
education
school\
and
looking
to
the
relocate.
meeting-place
new
4~1 about
\r’a\‘nc
to
tcjr
turn;i1-ound
Iwcoming
;I\
:i~-ui\
wcrc
uncicrtooh to
L\
, Shitrit
clout
ncighhourhoo~t~
was \trategicall!
of the
three \ulwrl>
match
ot .c)lcl‘ and
c’oa\tal t’rojccl
the
‘nc’\\‘
~cll-etlucatcd
the
bc\t \‘:I\
in
nc
4l”)usc4
pcrscjnnc1. cohe\ivc
It ~2s
an oppcjrtunity town.
It\
interchange
committccl
nc
maax
political
co-opcratcd
nc\\
the
cle~~clopment.
govcrntncnt
p(x)’
a\wl.
high-prcjtile
~~ police.
pcr\onnc1.
the
l’orces
Ya\
tortes
rnortgagc\:
ot
hecome tot-cc4
But
01 ;in
on
ncwcomcT\
critical
their
seeking
in creating
staffs.
security
Iargc
;I
l’rorn
Inhcr-cnt
ahsenc~c
and
ot
wcurit\,
\vith
part.
the
significant
and
and
w)cI;il
attracting
11 \ul’fcI-ccl
dorniitc)r\~
that
t’ol-ccs
for
thoce its
mass
thi4
the
subsidized
invcst
countrv
By
for
to pro\,idc
highway.
to\\
depcndccl
;t \ iahlc
;I cc)n\incing
wcurith
sccurit\
for
\,ision
Yavnc
obtain
the
hcnctits
authorizing
tli4
in lsracl
to\vn‘\ I>\
114 onl!
t>!, the
contidencc
Gncc’
‘T‘hc
govcrninent.
changes:
mayor.
rlcl~hhotlr-hoot14. ‘l‘he
. b214 niarrccl Shitrit‘s
dwellings.
loans
in the
low-tlensitv \ysteni.
a critical
7‘0 to
proicct.
change
limitations.
education
prcwidc
;I home.
hundred
uncierwritc
the
Third. to
non-salary
several
clccterl
Lihud
leaders
W;I\ to be achic\cd
Yavnc’\
Second.
R;IS timel!.
iclca
chapter.
town
of redc\clopmcnt.
municipal
;I dramatic
making
market.
nei~hbout-hoods
marketing
the
charismatic
procca
known
‘l‘hi\
realizing
svstcm.
to invcst new
1071.
high\va!,.
dcveloptncnt.
place
of
highway.
Iahoul-
and
and as ;I polio
In ;I later
In
(15)
nc~~,Iv-d~velc,petl ;I poor
limitations,
to the
cv~~l\cd
exemplar!
best
image.
Y‘el-Avi\
coastal
thew
access
huge
scrvicc\
adjxcnt
Given First.
his
into awrc
approach ;I turnaround.
an
01 housing in an MPLI
politics. and
contingent
the
Icad
of the
expansiotl
interested
young
stipulatcti
;11so acutely
poor
the
one
Yavnc
its charx?er
was
with
for
I,!
lor
rapid \va\
thi\
wt
\V;IS to him
to national
vision
rniddlc-class
at how Id
Shitrit made
2 move
composition.
look
N;IS getting
Soon.
Shitrit‘s
bv wc>king of Kehovot
ot Icadcl-4,
in Yavnc
facilitated
image
mayor
I will
meanwhile.
gcncration
Mcir
good ‘I‘hc
function:
Yavne.
of
and
development.
in atlcirc\sing politicallv
to dcmonstratc
enipowcring transforlii~ltion
four
also
elements
;I lwr;lgon \~a4 well
the
astute.
how
prc-wquisites
its poiicie4
cx~ultl
of it\
up-allci-~clrnili~
uriclcr
wa!.
of clecentrali/~itic,n
li\tecl
it gave
in that
‘I‘hc
tar
the
transform
\ucc‘c’\\
I.ikud ;t
Icdclcrxhip.
tom n \\;I\
cat-liar-:
the
;I change
in
Municipal
population
was leading
was visibly
in charge
was politically
to a pressure
of attempting
empowering
for better to transform
the mayor;
services;
Strategic
a directly-elected
the town;
and Project
Planning
the Likud
Renewal
233
leader
government
was providing
the funds necessary to overhaul the education system and rehabilitate older neighbourhoods. While the town of Yavne forged ahead, propelled by charismatic leadership and favourable political winds, much of its municipality seemed relatively unaffected by the changes. The development process was managed by the mayor personally, helped by his own associates. Municipal departments were used when they were needed, but their routine operation was not systematically reviewed in light of the needs of the redeveloped town. In seeking to establish an MPU, and do so early, mayor Shitrit hoped to achieve a number of goals. First, to help his municipality catch up with the development of the city. Second, to continue the momentum of innovation and maintain the town’s newfound progressive image by being at the leading edge of municipal development. Third, the mayor’s vision of MPU work included developing an information network which would keep him better informed on the municipality’s performance, in line with the dominant personal role which he played in everyday management. Shitrit’s high national profile and his personal interest in the MPU idea, as well as the changes the town was undergoing, made Yavne an ideal location for one of the two pilot MPUs. The personal interest, also shown by the mayor of Rehovot, was essential but also carried a price. Both mayors saw the new units as a means of pushing forward their agenda for city and municipality. Hence, the MPUs fortunes and character were to be closely tied to those of their patrons. The task of developing a more general, generic model. based on the two pilot studies, would be sensitive and complex. I will now turn to describing the MPU model which was developed in Yavne, and the lessons from the two pilots which underpinned the subsequent development of MPUs.
3.2.2.
The Yavne model
The pilot project municipal -
in Yavne
decision-making,
was underscored readily
expressed
by a specific approach by the following
to improving
syllogism:
Planning is a tool for support of decision-making. Planning, like decision-making, had to be based on hard data on municipal trends and conditions. The best source for real-time data on the city is the municipality’s own operational systems and records. Therefore, a pre-condition for comprehensive planning perspectives is access to the information derived from the operational level.
234
Progress
in Planning
Available
~-
from
the
Making
--
-
recor&.
availahlc
from
bitsine\s
the
ahout had
effort
conditions
MPU.
A4cr
team
trusted
mavor.
bv the
foundatic;n
for the
work
to design mayor.
for
statistical
graphic
the
reprcaentation IS-3
accurate course.
expediting
the
put
to get tlic
operative.
L‘0111p1-011114c~
ni;iti;igc’mcnt
I I‘ to \\crrk.
‘Hit
the
SLYY)II~. ~1htc~h tcjrJl\
;I\ LSC~II ;I\ tthttig
,~IIr~~tla\ctl
the
(;~K.~.I~IoI~;I~
lhc
\\\ith
d:it,i
iI\ cntplt;i\i\ tI;ItNIct-
cl;it;ttxi~c\. bc
planner’\
accttt.;itc,
iLlI’
oil
\pcn(
t\ IO
u ttti m~tint~~intti~ li‘lttlcl
tl1;111
Itl~~t-dill;llc~
cc~ti\tttc~t-;iblc
;incl l)cr\u;l\ltng
211
iornl~rc‘hcn~i\c
10 ~‘lllc’tt;1lt1.
dircx?oi
it
t1;1\\ CT.
trolc
1llC hll'l hold 10 tll;lhc
w tth thclm
II pl;~nntny
1hci1~ C’O-O~~C~I~;III(~II
t \: ClUld
c \Lt[~pot
tl1\t;IlIcYI
iII1CI
rt4k.
II ttttout
\\\tc’m\:
\rtpport.
trottt,lc-sh~)c,tin~
Lhctii
ttmc
10 \\ot-I\
L\ trh
computer. Furthermore.
tc)
nc moclcl.
tti I\r;rcl
through
con\til~~i-:tt)tc
trom
(1 rc~iaott;tt~l~
)‘a\
kind
1~ ~1~1~ to appl\
h;ltdL\;iI.c
c\ccltti\
\IICIl
d4 ti:i
bt-ou$1t
munic.ip;lltt!. uxc.
dcpat.tmcnt\. ;ltlrl
01 it\
t-clcot-(Ix.
in\oI\t,x!
in mcbt
gathcrtn,
lll~ldc
and
(’
~ii~~ntiltcii
ot computert/in,g
(I< the
\\oultl
3tup
and \\;I\
d;tta.
ixlied
esi\ts
The
1.1‘.
planning
simply
into
time. ot
It aI\0
opcrationat
17‘. plannin,
\\a!\
opcr;ltii,nal
to pro~~nt
on inuot-mation
impert’cctions
effort
orfic~ct-\
L~;I\ hit-cd.
c%\~~cIu\ \\c’t-c
~- ;I ‘lir4t’
W;I~ L\ trittcsn.
ct‘l‘ort.
of the
use ot new
response
efforts
to
~~lltiat~l~~
t;iught
(1~1’) h;tcl tlccii
;lppropt-i;ltc
to CL\ i\c
10 the
mapping
pi-ofilc
hostage
implementation
chasing
and
niunictpdlt!\
n~t~ht~ottt-hooi!4
fc)t- ‘ticacl~~tt;trtct~\’
xlectcd
\oftwarc
nc\\
dcpatdment~
ptx~,icction
IWS
high
such the
effective
(Ipet-ation;ll
pcrniit\
planner.
to\\11
the
mutticipalit! l’it-\t.
tool4
othc,r
and
antI
to tlepcnd
made
balance
ot the
11 01 httildtn~
cspct-inic,nt
tcchnolog!
t\\ofold.
analvtical
1 awl
ot the
in \r’avnc.
operational
analysi\ and
was assumed and
clat;~
deci~ioii-maI\cr~
ic)niptttct-i/cd
plannd
of the
was
and
it was ii costly.
Of
~tt10r
\ucc‘c\\.
information
cli\,crsc
MPI
had
operation
computerization
of the
Between
was also
grantin,
an accomplished
Stup.
Since
task
progt-c\x
an Ml’L”\
which
MPII‘\
interfaces
the
-
the
specialist\‘
routine
and
c%\ cotnl~ttteri/;tttott
tht-oitgh
the
for
ot the
IT
coI~c’~~t~on ot trc,tl-time
;I ioiii~~t-~licttst\~el!
to ct-catc Uouttdcred.
the
the
in to plan
quit
registration
was a member
The
Iacilitatc
use by planncrz
in real-ttmc
school
eventually
Icssons
could for
IicctrGng.
Although
To
tcchnolog!,
data
levels
in Yavne
computer operational
it had
been
hcjpcd
that
local
the Atttotnatic)tl ct_xnernmcnt. authorities) ~,ould support the
local
dccentrnlization the
Yavnc
coalition
of coniputin,g devclopnicnt
with
the
were
unhelpful
their
bailiwicks.
force
to compete
to\vn‘s The uith
troasurcr’s his own,
ncb
m;lin
ot ic~tll[~~ltlng
sulyjlict-
(c)\\nctl
nc c~xpc~riment Iti~tc~td,
the
Automation
\\ytc‘tii
bith
out
01 ;1t1 tntc>rc\t
it ircy~ondccl
intcret and
hi\
\V;IS to prevent intercxt
\cr\
in stallins
computcri/cd the
ICC’\
c)t in
clctcn5t\~cl!,
<‘c)t-pc)r~ttiott’\
cuisting
\L‘l\
I)\ ,I cx)tt\ot-ttuttt
to it\ OL\ ii rii~tinI’t-~tiii~-t~a~~~~l
treusurcr. g the
\‘a\
function\.
115 ;I tht-cat
in linkin
the
(‘orpor;tttc)tl
ice-..
t-~l,t-c~~‘nt~ltt\c’, Iunction
ri\cb ot ;I ‘\t;lt’t‘ the
MPl.1
\ccitig III tti Icwl
coal~~~xd
\\tth
Municipal
the competitive
needs
of the Automation
Corporation
Strategic
Planning
235
of whom his department
was a major client. With the software and hardware installed but only partly operational, the IT experiment lost its main client with the resignation of mayor Shitrit following his election to the Israeli parliament. With his departure. the energy and powers of persuasion which might have eventually facilitated the ‘computerized municipality’ were lost. The respect commanded by Shitrit and the local loyalty to him were such that he was able to push through his agenda for development which often bypassed the traditional municipal structure. That the staff of the municipality still co-operated with the mayor is a tribute to the pride in Yavne’s new direction which Shitrit instilled in veteran residents and in municipal workers. In reality. though, staff training was haphazard at best; the benefits of the new system were not clear to people used to doing their work manually; no incentives, in prestige of salary, were offered for incorporation of the new technology. In short, the ambition proved too great for Yavne’s municipal government of the time. Shitrit’s successor was not sufficiently convinced of the benefits of the system to place his clout behind it and risk confrontation with his workforce. While imprcsscd with the technology. he was realistically sceptical as to whether the MPU would ever have the time to ovcrscc the system and actually provide him with planning support. In the end, the work which the MPU had done which was not related to IT, proved more enduring and influential. Clearly, the MPU in Yavne exposed the boundaries to introducing innovation. Yet the innovation being resisted was not so much the MPU, as the new technological platforms which came to be identified with it. The complexity of changing the routine operation of established departments required greater resources and authority than the MPU was cvcr intended to muster. The effort to directly induce change through the MPU rcvcaled the need to build an acceptance of the MPU’s role before it could start having an impact on the way things are done. Subsequently, far greater emphasis was placed by the programmc’s directorate on identifying key staff and ensuring that they are consulted prior to establishing an MPU. In Yavne, the MPU depended on the aura of authority bestowed by the involvement of a powerful mayor. That proved an insufticient basis for a concept of planning which involves networking senior and middle-level managers across departmental lines. Co-operation within the municipality was shown to be crucial, and it became clear that to be empowered, an MPU would have to be seen to offer some advantages to those collaborating with it. The broader support base would also help sustain the status of the MPU at times of political uncertainty and change. A second lesson concerned the distracting effect of data collection. The Yavne MPU’s relationship with the municipal agenda became that of a sophisticated camera present at the photo-opportunity - with no tilm. Following Yavne. far JPP4,:3-c
236
Progress
less
emphasis
W:I\
subsequent of
fhc
MPU.
difficulty
the
thee
elcmcnt\.
hlO\
More
The
Each
pilot
been
and
mayors’
from W;I\
-
the
neu
the
co-operation
the
mayors
was
itsclt
each
h\;
watch
for
of
municipal
3.3.2. The agrcemcnt
one
urgent
the
tte~rl
ruIc\
:
tot-
the
WA\
leadership MPI
OI
Irtdecd.
IOI-
‘I hc
~m~gt-~~t~~t~lc.
Mf’L1\.
.lIX
and
I \\iil
10
non
turn
for
future
in
with
the
mayor.
the
and units
WCI-c
wet-C.
ho\{
administratic,n
and
lo
of
Ministry
the
the
unit\
hich
the
t\+o trc~ot.
trc)ttt IIlc
ptIot
CIIW
IX
\ou~ht \~cIcottlI~
~I-OICC‘~~ uttcqui\oc;tl
;11tc1
~~ it the
01
core
\‘:I\
\\()I-I\
I>! p~~littcal
ttlow
ir,lplprrIptltatiolI 111 1’;r\,nc
IWS.
inlcgt-altoit.
populattc~rt
UIII~\
C~II\LIIC
:rgcttd;~
01 the% munictp;tI
tic.
track
the
in
RIPI”\
wppt-c~~c~i.
anchot.
Intct-ior
c‘c~nccpt C\CIl
the’
cittc\‘
I’~~tctiicbt
gloat-arltce the UIII~\‘ inHuCnc,c.. IIOI ;Ictmini\tt-attc)tt. I tic ;I\\oci;ltic)tt V, ith
otf
10
the the
hll’ll
\b\tctii.
ho\\
\\tth Yet.
g ;iti int’ormaliott
cspcrimcnt\ of
1~
;\t the
c’;iw
thrown
for country-wide
~uccc’ss the
i\\uc’\ the
huilclin
utltt\
tc> ;i~~c,nitiic,~l~itc
c\pcdicncc
it could
in
gap
t;the
it\elt.
political
idcntif!,ing
of
MPLl.4
to in
tnunictp:tl
the
pl;iii~iitl~
y~oii\ot~\.
number
unit\
h!,
distraction
the
hilling
Icaon
g)vcrncd
in
that
not.
01’ the
ndtional
\\crc
IKW
01 the
interaction
\\;I\
did
growth
The framework qualilied
continuing pt-o,ct-~itiitiie’~
the
pact-\
though. the
the
m;tvorh
cIcti1uti1~
‘I hc C\pct-icncc\ I\ C‘I C’ dn;iI\ /cd III 4 II! .II>(’ (I lellcrm~rn ,~ttd fiankiri. I OSS) ot it> \pon\otCn, cr ttt;i~~~t: I-0Ic dctinttic~rt~
imprint
Houcvcr.
directing
not.
Ma!;c)r\
emharras\
case,
the
project
succecdccl
of
\+ hich
did
the
enc.
W:I\
the
unit5
Ynvnc.
the
it
with
to
In
pilot
real
of
threatoncd
in
and
the
hard
issues
of
pt-~yt;~tt~tnc’_
the
q)ttntl
c~omrni4xiottc,d
through
;I
hich
bore
instrument.
association
Both
tot-
capat>ilitie~
offer.
rcchnc)log~
MPLI ho\+
\tt-;ltCgy
or~~lniz;ltion;lI
L\
t-cport
agendas
address
ho\v
core
on
profcaional
and
demon4tratcd and
MPIl\
shapccl
to
-
pro.jcct\
pilot
conclusion
was
the the
planning
I)ISSE\lI\\I.\‘I’IO\
well
evaluation the
had
ot to
highlighted
Y’avnc
cliacmination and
P: ‘IO
worked
of
I’aiIut-c
tix‘
MI't!, Inste~~d.
the
genct-IC
‘technical
no
clatn~~e
ot
the
lessor~~s,frorn the pilot projcv.ts
two
cletailcd
the
limited
:I
tool5
THE
was
~rdmtntatration
generic
cxaminc
concept
develop
htt-csd
there
17‘ to
component
.Int’ormation
that
onl!
soverntnent
to
3.3. I.
prograntmc
noting
introducing
local
proceeded clarifv
the
that
caused
of in
on the
emphasizing
pilots
change
.3 .3
of
it is worth
two
to
placed
marketing
Finally. the
in Planning
th;ll
change\ The>
t\io
\cc,ut-cxl\
thcit
tocu\
III
i\
and. point4 the
10
fabric
ntaint,ttned.
oj’ ,MPl’,$ ;ItlcI
to
t
\ct
up
\c\ett
led
to
mot-c
;1tt hlPI!\
M.inicipai
For the total of nine units,
tripartite
funding
arrangements
Strategic Planning
237
were made involving
the participating local authority, the Ministry of the Interior and the JDC. The three would pay the running costs of the units for the first three years, after which, subject to review, the units would be integrated into the local authority. From the tenth unit on, the agreement stipulated equal funding by the Ministry and the local authority for the first three years, with JDC providing professional support. In each location, the MPU would be guided and monitored by a committee chaired by the mayor and composed of the partners’ reprcscntativcs and senior local managers. The role of the JDC as the professional leader and implement~~r was confirmed, while the Ministry became the major funder and political hacker. Crucially, this partnership enabled the MPUs to establish a ‘dual allegiance’. On the one hand, the units owe primary loyalty to the cities in which they work, to the mayor and their professional colleagues. But, on the other hand, there is an allegiance to the broader ideas and ideals of the MPU programme, and to the group formed by the personnel involved in the MPU programme country-wide. Furthermore, the JDC emerged as a powerful external anchor for the units in day-to-day work by dint of the combined clout of professional backing and funding. JDC support enabled MPU directors to pursue a direction which may have been unpopuIar locally. by claiming they were doing so at the JDC behest. JDC had an (~pp(~rtunity to express its position in the local overseeing committees. JDC confirmed its professional role by undertaking the task of staff selection, placement and training for the programme as a whole. By so doing, it could continue to ensure that MPU professionals were selected on merit and retained a measure of indepcndcncc within the local authority structure. The post-pilot agreement with the Ministry of Interior reflected the programme’s transition from fully-customized products to a partly ‘mass produced’ approach. In Rehovot and Yavne every move was particular since it was being undcrtakcn for the first time. Based on this experience, subsequent MPUs could fail back. at the very least. on a more generic ‘what to look out for’ list. The programme directorate at JDC took a number of steps to support the quality of MPU work as the programme expanded. Setting up staff-selection parameters and testing procedures was one way to build-in quality. Another was the local preparation of local authority staffs prior to the establishment of a new MPU. The professional support provided to MPU staff in the field aimed to ensure that units do not lose valuable time and credibility by fumbling for answers. Through the programme headquarters at the JDC, each unit has access to planning expertise. to details of topics addressed in other units and to a network of contacts in the worlds of local government, academia and other planning organizations. The pilot projects inf[~rmed the evolution of an ideal-type (~perati[)n~l~ model.
Progress
238 It is this reflects
in Planning
everyday
operational
the distillation
of the pilot
In practice. blurs
management.
I will
luvc
the MP1Js they
Second.
effective
begin this
mentioned
contrihutcd
time.
of the ncut chapter.
starting
with
and timely
carlicr.
planning
It
the practice\
which
I Lvill
upon
planning.
to local
‘I‘hcir- l~litnnttl~ planning
comlx)\itc
for
policy-making
ot holistic
the intervention
2nd
model
go~errinient
the notion
dtxrtbe
IOGII ~o~~r-r~r~~~r~t
hctwccri
;I unique.
input\
b!, elaborating
after
holistic
MPUs have c~olved
the
in I\rxli
and houndaries
boundaries.
chapter
to planning
have opcrationalizcci
departmental
delivering
is the subject over
of an holistic planning practice
on two levels. First. work
which learnt
units.
The emergence
3.4.1.
model
of the lessons
pl;tnning
model
;~lr-~;~tl\
ttcptov~4
I)\
the MPUs. Holistic
planning
the future together
emerged
the roles,
in response
of local
development
pcr$pective\
to the need tot- ;I bt-oacf-ba\cd
authoritia.
It cmhotlies
the impcr;tti\c
and goals
01’ the diqxtr-ate
\ t\icjii 101 101 pulling
‘\cr-\ i~c prc)\~tcling
dcpartmcnts. Israeli
local government
has only
cohesion
in a multi-service
organization.
acted on instruction relatively
littlc
from
need for
now tind themselves The
choices
the elderly. politics with
Previously.
govcrnnicnl
and wet-c tutitlCd
clccision-tiiakili~.
to choose
where
urgent
/one
Gngle-purpose
the ric‘cd l~jrdepartment\ I>\ it.
tlo\\c\cr.
to inLest
nec&
their
inipro\
concct-ncd
\\;I\
I)\\n. XC‘;II~CCI cx\ourc’c\ I~uilctitlg
in, ‘1 da\-care
mav ha\,e been 4li;ip~d.
authoritic\
lhcrc
lcjcat ;~itthoritic~~
fr-orn cli\ct-\c arcd4:
mav vie with
thcae decisions
of national.
acldrc~stn~
long ;I> opcr-ational
each other
tc) an industrial
begun
As
local strategic
having
pit against
new access road
central
txxently
;iiicI
Cithcr
d
4C’I\ICC\ 101
timed.
L\tth tli~
iI\ tliL. i,ld~~rl>,
01
roadbuilding.
Underlying
choices
interconncctedness noted
before,
there
-
Physical
-
Development
-
Economic
-
The The
components
I\ rho
of the urban
cqu;ttt~~n.
;\\
I
of thcs;c:
dc\~clopmcnt. of human
\crvicc\.
devcloprncnt
task itself
as an esprcssion
is to create
each arca can jointly information
as roads ot- \ct-\,icc‘\ tor the ctdet-I!
are four
environment.
MPU
such
of the basic structur-al
inform
;I commtm decisions.
and synthesize
it.
of an ;tmalg;tm ground Failing
In addition.
01 qu;tltt>-ot-l:tc
40 that pt-:tctttioncr-4 that.
the MI’I:
must
IV \vot-kin g with
tndicx(cJt-\ tram
gathct- the
litic-ctcllartnlcti~4
Municipal as an in-house
the bottom
professional
up. The holistic
planning approach
resource,
Strategic Planning
the unit can influence
239
policy from
thus seeks not only to encompass
the scope
of the local authority’s work and pull it together for the deliberations of the senior decision-makers. It also undertakes the more didactic role of informing policy thinking in the component parts of the local authority and shaping it. Over time, the MPU’s involvement should have a ratcheting effect. As more decisions and policy moves arc based upon agreed goals and analysis of options and projections based on hard data, a return to arbitrary decision-making becomes less tenable. To succeed in synthesizing information from the different elements of local government, the holistic planner must therefore be a general practitioner in planning. In addition to in-depth expertize in one or two areas of planning, she or he will be highly aware of the various systems which make up the locality. A specialist planner, typically, has a deep vertical knowledge of a particular system, and is called upon to apply this expertize in what is usually a concrete, time-specific, intervention. In contrast. the holistic planner’s commitment to any particular body of knowledge or methodology will be based on which tool is appropriate for the job in hand. MPU planners address issues with an awareness of the way the local authority is divided, yet without being bound by these divisions. To be effective, given the non-departmental mandate, the MPU planner must be available to - and maintain contact with - anyone relevant to its work. Availability means being a part of the municipality, a partner for consultation on matters large and small. For the planner, every call for assistance should be an opportunity to demonstrate the value and viability of the strategic, holistic approach. One MPU director observed semi-seriously that making a cup of tea in the staff kitchen could be an opportunity for demonstrating strategic principals (such as economy of effort) . This explanation of holistic planning renders land-use planning, despite its primary status in planning practice, as a particular specialization, a means to an end having no claim for exclusivity or dominance. The multiplicity of actors, processes and topics in a local government guarantee that no one approach can be held up as an MPUs holy grail. It must adopt a variety of means for impacting on the policy and decision-making processes. In pursuing a systemic impact on local government, the MPUs have evolved four typical - one could say, generic - types of intervention. The range of intervention-types, as well as the circumstances of their application, have become part of the ‘accumulated wisdom’ of how to have an impact in the local authority environment. The intervention types, which I will look at individually next, are: -
Preparation of strategic plans. Rendering policy explicit in order to influence the decision-making process. A ‘municipal brain’ role - being available as an independent, departmentally
240
Progress
in Planning
imaftiliatcd.
authoritv -
planning
all-piirposc
Collection.
collation,
analysis. clisscmination
demand or at the IJnit’s
3.4.2 _ Prepwatiort
-
Statutory
-
Sectoral
and pl-ofcasional
plans.
ccntred
upon
and its holistic
;I
particular
leanings.
mav lx
and profession&. the MPU
taken
threatening This
That
as ;I challenge
prerogative.
Indeed.
services departments.
as well
has
land-use
can propose
of the city engineer. be
on
siic~h :I\ tlic ctdcrl\ . or t Iw
scrvicc such as leiaurc. \pc)r’t. ccIuc;itioii.
any, of thcsc tasks, the MI’lJ
arc involvccl in the statutory
planning
ot d:it;i.
l;ind-we.
specitic populations
bodies inside and outsidc the local authority.
cm
prescntatioli
or transport.
In undertaking
remit
2nd
initiative.
plans. xldrcssing
retailing
perspcctivc.
the I(tc;~l
of strategic plam
future clirection of
departments
frc~our~~c lor
staff nt all Icvela.
operato The the
hccr~
overall
MPU\
entry
to estahlishctl
planning
it sets thcsc
in p~~~~tner~h~p v, 11h other
parficularl>
cxc
process.
Bcc;~uw
as other.
will
tr;l! .
txst\\ccll
\\her-c MPl~x ot it\ holistic
goals for the plan Mhich go l~cyc~nd the goal\.
\vith
the hacking
trt the role of the citv cnpinccr the MPU
llltc) Ihc
Iulancc\
typically
citv-has&
of the
214 hoklcr
take ahice
trttm
ill;t\t~~.
of the the
i~un~a~~
and citv-a idc [~r~~llii~~~~ioll~.
Municipal
when constructing
a set of goals.
the MPU has an opportunity departments
In these new partnerships
to synthesize
in the city into a holistic
the planning
planning
Strategic Planning
and role-definitions
efforts
perspective
241
of different
which can form the
basis of decision-making. The expectation of a finite process and a conclusion committed to paper is, however, only partly applicable to the MPU which emphasizes its systemic contribution to local government organization rather than the individual product. Coming up with tangible products is, however, important to the MPU’s credibility since it establishes familiar professional yardsticks and may thus be a means for broader dissemination of ideas. The MPU’s challenge is to use the framework of conventional planning to introduce more novel notions of strategic and holistic thinking at departmental and ‘staff’ levels. A particular category of strategic planning generally avoided by MPUs is organizational development planning. These processes, which are becoming quite common, are carried out by either management consultants or process engineers attempting to devise more efficient management structures for local government. Because of the MPU’s dependence on the co-operation of its peers, it was felt that MPUs could not afford to be associated with initiatives which are commonly perceived as destabilizing and threatening. However, if organizational changes are to be useful and not merely correct faults but also anticipate new challenges, they have to be informed by a clear analysis of the local authority’s operating environment. Providing such analysis is. of course, the clear prerogative and mandate of the MPU, making some collaboration essential. The MPUs become involved although avoid being party to specific proposals for reorganization. Rather, through providing analysis of future trends and their impacts, the MPU seeks to reinforce its position as interface between the local authority and the forces re-shaping it.
3.4.3.
Rendering policy explicit
Local government’s commitment to continuous service provision leads staffs to value stability and continuity over radical innovation or policy shifts. Most local authority business thus appears routine, with the policy long-decided upon and having attained the status of received wisdom. To reach the underlying policy, MPUs often have to expose it and render it explicit by extrapolating it from decisions that appear strictly operational. First of all, though, the MPUs must find the decision-making areas. Some are obvious and are billed as decision-making gatherings - typically, a committee structure. But, in reality, the formally-constituted committees are only some of the meeting-points in which decisions are made. The local authority is full of junctions, giratory system-like, where decision makers enter from different
Progress
242
directions,
complete
different their
in Planning
directions.
role:
some
be effective.
a pirouette I‘he
or t\zo with
cardinal
arc informal.
the MPII
rule
and then
Iocatc the giratorics
i\ ~-
or perhaps
rnu\t identit!
each other
bawd
in the arena
thcsc forum>
and
hcxl
in
and understand
politics.
of party
reach
off
‘1‘0
\+ith its Inputs at
[hum
the correct times.
MPlJs
mu4t ;llso ha\,e ~rcgard to the d~ci4ion-m~lking
favours urgency anti novelty ahc)\~cimportance. speed
the appreciation
LIP
familiar.
by exposing policy implications
addresses itself
‘I‘hc challcngc
to the future.
quantifying
anti
which I dacrihed.
In contraxt. the ‘run&ring
as it\ starting-point.
broader context.
13~ being prcscnt at the deciGon-making
Participation
In this important position
and ‘outsider’
represents
a11
policy explicit‘
imminent
mode
decision within
forums.
the MPU
;I GUI
advance.
‘r-etlection
the MPLJ epitomizes
(1%-3).
on the part of the I~KII
The
in action‘
equates et’fecti~~c~ p1annin,I) with ;I continuous
seeks
to turn
the manager\ on the ‘polio
Its position
its dichotomic
rolled into enc. In the \\orcfs of Schiin
MPU
practitioners.
them 214much as possihlc.
is unannounced in
agenda
i\ to
of the
is more crucial than comprchensi\,c pi-cparation.
component cjf its work.
as ‘insider’
the MPU
plxx~s
and
if the decision-making
even
sometimes
the MPlr
producing strategic plans.
takes the praent provide inputs
for
of the nev, and prevent the intuiti\c‘ clismisd
tirst mode of intervention
The
agenda. which oltcn
2s ‘insidei-~orltsidcr’
on decision-m~tkin~.
infuencc
giratorv‘
authorit\.
It
themselvca into more rcflectivc
enipowcrs
the MPU
is as involved as the insider-s hut unbound t3y their traditions.
uniquely:
it
~~hligations 2nd
workloads. There
is, 1 hetieve. also ;I p\j,chologica1 Gde to this posture.
the MPlJ
has to think
municipal
tcrritoq
professionals
ma\
outsi&
the cstablishcd
and tit)’ limit\. 4urc>.
I have
of discipline that
found
who have had contact Edith MPL’ \, cn\‘\ more time did lcgitimaq be ii fail-y ~oninion something iust
These
or two
influences
of the MPU’\
;I more
holistic
at certain
of the MPL!
involccmcnt
Mayor
;I wi\h Lvhich
in
which
othcl
government
local
bhoni the\ per-ceivc ;I\ haking .I here sccm4 to
among profcssion~tls
to he part c>t
and to make cleci4i~)rl-rnahing more than
approach
arc hidden. even subconscious.
I‘hct \ isible
in the dav-to-day decision-m~tking to decision-makin, hc con4dercd
may tormalizc
‘giratories’.
role This
practice.
by obligating
has happened
Kevieu, C’ommittee’ has been established.
hehaviour. llltimatuly.
tndced. the
its participation in liilat.
where
:I
It meets weekly and
in the city. The committee
and is convencti and co-ordinated
effect
i\ that. graduall\.
0 t~econie’r normal incorrect
the Mf’ll’\
discusses all proposed dcvclopments Deputy
their stalls
freedom
in the ‘giratol-> ~.
decision-making
new ‘Projects
echoa
many professionals
(;ind untler4tarld~it~t~) dc4irc
its absence may eventu;dl\ local authorit),
-
The
--- ot clcpartmcnt. of
IO pur4uc rhcir prc)fcs5ion:il curiosit!
wider than the here-an&no\\.
;I round
tloundarics
by the MPl.1.
i5 chaired
by the
It\ membership
Municipal
includes
representatives
of all major
departments.
Strategic
Planning
The MPU director
runs a
decision-follow-up
system which enables
him to ensure
that where
approach
collaboration
departments,
or their concurrent
requires
between
243
a holistic input,
it
is supplied in time for the next committee meeting. The issue of formalizing the role of the MPU in decision-making processes within local authorities reflects the complexity and risk of the MPUs approach to gaining systemic influence, and is often debated by those involved in the programme. Theoretically. the position of the MPUs could be supported by legislation which would require certain plans to be referred to the MPU for examination. whereas at the moment the MPU’s access to decision-making is a matter of skill, co-operation and even personal favours and luck. Proponents of creating a statutory role for the MPUs argue that such an arrangement will mean spending less time in the repeated efforts to penetrate decision-making processes. The legal anchor might also guarantee MPU funding in perpetuity. Opponents of legal anchoring fear that a defined role, intended as a baseline for MPU work, would become a trap. Once the legal requirement is fulfilled, there is no obligation to let the MPU remain a part of subsequent decision-making stages. The discussion around legal anchoring reflects the stress which MPU staffs are under, constantly having to re-establish their credentials. To be able to expose the policy underpinning of routine decisions. the MPU must persevere when it can easily be sidetracked and bypassed. To succeed, having made planning impinge on the way in which fellow professionals go about their own work, MPU staffs need reserves of confidence. tenacity. resilience and tact.
3.4.4.
A ‘trouble-shooting’
service for municipal policy and planning
The MPU has inherent characteristics that make it a natural all-round advisor to local authority managers. It is independent of service provision and therefore lacks a direct interest in resource allocation; it has a store of multidisciplinary knowledge; its staff is often among the most highly qualified in the local authority. Typical trouble-shooting tasks include: preparation of portfolios for official visitors; economic evaluation of contractors’ proposals; liaison with outside consultants on various topics, particularly those with organization-wide implications such as computing. The availability of an MPU for trouble-shooting activity is essential to its position in the local authority. While the scope of the issues involved is not necessarily either strategic or long-term, hearing questions keeps the MPU abreast of developments and concerns within the local authority. It also provides a platform to demonstrate the MPU’s abilities and opportunities for networking staffs from different departments who turn out to share similar concerns. The MPU must, however, guard against being swamped by ad hoc work.
244
There
Progress
in Planning
is a tendency.
particularly
in smaller
local authorities.
to use the MPC;
as a ‘municipal brain’ to which any problem which does not fall directly into an existing pigeonhole is referred. And yet. despite the distraction. response can he important. If it represents the tirst contact with a particular dopartmcnt. it ma! be that the MPU is being tcsted through ;I minor issue, as its counterpart decides whether to involve it in a more wide-ranging move. Just occasionally, an rrd /lot, request can provide an opportunity for the MPI’ to establish an instant reputation. One newly appointed MPU director \\‘:I\ askccl to evaluate ;I portable traffic-violation ticket printer. In front of the mayor. sales representative and senior municipal staff - most of whom \verc swing him fog the first time - the MPU director deliberately and without warning droppctl the machine onto the carpet. No one else had thought of performing this obvious test. The MPU director immediately established ;I reputation for indepcndcncc and originality around the municipality and a sense of pride in the way he had sho\vrt the town to he nobody’s fool! Furthermore. curiosity about ‘the man who threu :I computer onto the floor’ helped temper the caution which seems to naturalI> greet a new MPU director.
3.4.5.
Using
data
Most Israeli local authorities lack all but the most basic dater about their population. economy and services. Therefore. gathering. collating. analyzing and disseminating data is ;I cornerstone of the MPU’s role. Yet. as the \r’a~nc experience teaches. it is also ;I minefield in terms of the burden of commitment which it can impose on the MPU. Since Ya\,nc. there have been no attempts to establish ;I comprchcn~~vc municipal database. Rather. each MPU has selected ;I number of’ basic loc,~l indicators which it updates regularly. Some are standard - migration and unemployment. for cxamplc. others reflect particular local WIICCI-IIS: a rc\ort like Eilat monitors hotel occupancy while Kiryat Gat may take ;I \pccial interest in the progress of its large population of Ethiopian immigrants. Data is also gathered as part of specific planning efforts. or used to prcccde and stimulate such an effort. Other means of gathering data ct~co~~~pass pr~m:~r! data collection through survey\. either custom-designed or multi-purpose. Nationally-maintained databases such as the Population Kegistcr and Value Acldcd Tax Collection are often accessed to gain locally-relevant data. Sometimca. ;I iink is established with a municipal department to facilitate routine update of cxscntial information. This may involve training an officer in a department - education is a typical example - on how to fill a spreadsheet template with student figurc4 gathered monthly from schools. Ultimately,
holding
data enhances
the MPUs
power
-
an important
245
M#n~~~p~l Strategic Planning
issue given influence
that the professional
credibility
in the local authority.
Therefore,
is the MPU’s MPUs
main
are becoming
claim
to
equipped
with
up-to-the-minute means of displaying data, in particular GIS systems, while the same time they are often at the fore in clarifying issues of data-protection and privacy.
at
The four modes of intervention developed by the MPUs enable them to influence various aspects of local authority planning and management processes. Preparation of strategic plans and collection of data (the first and fourth modes) are less unique to MPUs. Local authorities routinely use outside experts to obtain these products. The fact that they do so reflects the inability of many local authorities to carry out these operations in-house. In my view this is a serious weakness, often overlooked because of the proliferation of contractors available to survey and plan. While the MPU cannot bring all planning in-house, it can and does take controi and leadership over planning processes involving outside partners and consultants. The prevalence of outside consultants in the first and fourth modes is closely related to traditional definitions of planning. If planning is seen as a series of ‘one-off’ actions, there is little reason to employ permanent staff to do it who then become a fixed overhead. Thus, the MPU establishes its unique contribution where its vision of planning as a continual process is most clearly expressed in rendering policy explicit and through the ‘municipal brain’ function. Here the holistic approach to planning finds appropriate platforms from which to impact on the way the organization works as a whole. Balancing the different types of intervention is a dynamic constant in the managenlent of each MPU. The balance must combine the daily involvement which arises through ad hoc work, whilst leaving sufficient time for more in-depth work and also ensuring that the MPU’s focus on the holistic, strategic and long-term is not blunted. In this chapter I have demonstrated how the activity of the MPUs has produced a particular blend of insider-outsider interventions, combining independence and involvement, influence and an inter-departmental perspective. In the next chapter, three case studies will demonstrate the impact which MPUs have had on the management of local government and the development of planning.
CHAPTER
4
In Action:
MPUs
This chapter
presents
Three Further
additional
detailed
Cases
examples
of MPU work in practice.
Together with the previous description of the pilot MPU in Yavne, the case studies illustrate the relationship between the theory of MPU operation and its application. It is a relationship of constant exploration, with MPLJs discovering and defining anew their operational boundaries in response to changing local circumstances. needs and opportunities.
4.1.
THE
ROLE
CREDIBILITY
OF
A PLANNING AND
AUTHORITY
STRATEGY OF
IN THE
RESTORING
MUNICIPALITY
THE OF
UM
EIFAHEM
4.1 .I. A strategy for reviving a town and its municipality Urn ElFahem is the second-largest Arab town in Israel. with a population approaching 30.000. The MPU in the town started operating in the wake of the 1988 municipal elections which, in Urn ElFahem, brought about dramatic change. The Islamic Movement, in its first election attempt, won the mayoral race and an overwhelming majority in the Council. It defeated the Democratic Front for Peace and Equality, the nationalist, communist-affiliated party which had until then been considered the mainstay of Israeli-Arab politics (Rekhes, 1993). The victory of the Islamic Movement sent shock-waves through Israel, as it faced up to the prospect of an Islamic revival in its midst. Yet, ultimately, the victory of the Islamic Movement in Urn ElFahem was rooted in particular local circumstances which owe more to the dynamics of urban development than to mass religious zealotry. Once in power, the Islamic Movement had to devise a strategy which contended both with the expectations of its local electorate and the need to calm the apprehension of the central government officials to which it would be turning to for help. The local situation could have hardly been worse. The development of the town’s most basic infrastructure lagged behind its population growth and 247
248
Progress
in Planning
gcogruphic
spread.
classrooms
fell short
development rampant.
Not
alI house\
wcrc
\trects
stinted.
The
municipalitv
mor;il
and
I”“fe~sionalisrrl
staff
conncctcti
of rcquiretncnts.
to VXC;QJC‘. the
wx!rc
eucrtecl
~~npa~ccl
littlc
IOM ;rntl
;tufhorit\
numl~c~-
ot
cc)mmcrcial
and
: tas art-car\
the wnw
ucrc
01 powcrIc5\nce
pervasive. The reasons suffered
t’or thih
hy Arab
situation
local
wet-c
authoritie
fat- ;I full xxount):
;I lack
preCous
municipal
~iclministrationa:
population.
The
their the
state
Ministry
grant.
made
Littlc
poor
local
revcnue5
yet the
Front’\
factor:
a plan
begun
being
‘deposited
with
an intcrcst.
political
lwciyct
in IWi
had earlv
tailctl IWOs.
tnatle
to take
grant
support
IWO
011 the
pat-t ot
illu\tt-;itc
The
thcw auditccl
10 the
t;tctor3
;itid
account\
to
iollouiny
mini\tr\ to\\ n’\
account
Iilf-‘ahem’\
01 Urn
to whmit
~idjustmcnts
rate-baac.
in I%%.
The
leacicrship.
on another had
poverty
Kownteld.
tt\ own
allocatect
ot changing
block
demograph!
nced~.
to the
municipal
and the trelativc
the
u’;I\
dtwd\antagcs
and dhilit~
co\t-of-living
or no adjustment
\truL.tural
managct-ial
municipal \ince
the
(WC A-H:ri
and
tnunicipality
Interior
mainlv
ot- accumulating Due
The
of the
guitieline~.
of ingenuity
of the
interconncctiori.
threclold:
in Israel
and
the
with
lack
in 1970. for
shortfall \c)me
of an :rtid
rcvieti‘.
It i4 a stage
professional
IWOs
this
can
the
plan.
the
plan
the
hO”‘cb ot pat-:ilySng.
toan’\
the
i4 opctt
pt-OC~LICC dc;~dlocl\
I,!
o\cr
\tagnattcjtt
I hc prcparatton
it had rcachcd
point.
involvcmcnt
for
w;15 theretore
blamed
/c)ning
~~ppt-oxd
which
grant
juatilication.
by the At
x~ounted
in the
municipaltt!~
ot wch
statutot-v
phaw
01
to contest
134 ;iny)iic
1111lc\\ that-c
i\ \tt-ong
iii the
I’lati-applo\al
process. The
abscncc
01 an up-tcdttc
development:
unless
Urn
EIFahcm’s
This
state
cast,
rudimentary
local
of levies
and
taxes.
building.
Once
has tuo
it will
have
to the
I950\
immccliatc
since
frotn doing
building
lost
/oning
placin
clcvelopment
-
an!’
;I I-oom g ~tpon
c‘a\t\
de\clopmcnt
--
to an csi\ling
c\cn
homc. the
rccc)gtiitioti may
\\hich
III
i\ tllc~~~l.
it ct-imtnali/c\
municipalit\
iec\
on (111
i\ III Iorc‘c
I~CM de~c~loptiicnl
the
licenw
;I \hadcj\\
which
to tic-lacto
houc\er. and
plan
cot~wq~~cnc~~~:
\o ;imounts
is up.
plan
the /oning
4~~41 iis xlcling
authority
the
uith
back
development. the
hut
dating
of illcgalit\;
prcvcnts
appt.o\ccl
it complies
tt \\ould
and full
01 the
illegal
charge ha\c
it
l~urclcn rate4
othcrwisc
collcctecl. Against it was Second. the clinic; services
background. hy the
in contrast
most
classes.
thi\
un~aintcd active it was
involved
impletncnting which
with
of local
local
the
Islamic
ultimateI\ the
Iyront‘\
grassroots in dcvcloping
programmcs and
n~ttiond
Mo~cment
futile
c~ttcrcd
cori~t-otlt~ltion~ll
inaction.
the
organization\.
1sl:itiiic Apart
childcat-c
multiple
po4tut-ing hlo\ctiictit l’rom
programmcs:
to combat
drug
authoritic\
had
al~~isc
t’ailcd
ptx>mi\c. ol’ the
opening and
had
ot- ganiotig otlicr
to pt-o\ ide.
First.
Ict-c~tlt. Ixxwtiic religious
;I ft-ce health ncccss;tr\ E\senti;tlly.
the
Municipal
Islamic
Movement
against
by the state,
improve
everyday
suggested
that even if the Arab
it still had indigenous
resources
Strategic
population
Planning
249
was discriminated
which could be mobilized
to
life in Arab communities.
Besides its track-record the Islamic Movement brought with it into power another important asset - the credibility of its leadership and of the elected mayor, a young Islamic scholar. Less visible, but ultimately probably as important, was the leadership’s pragmatism when dealing with State authorities. Anyone willing to help us, declared the mayor after his election, is welcome irrespective of ethnic or organizational affiliation. Because of its Islamic and communal credentials, the new leadership was able to seek assistance in rebuilding the municipality from organizations which its predecessors would have avoided for ideological reasons. On the political side, an invitation was extended to the Minister of the Interior to visit the town. The minister, upon hearing the results of the elections which brought the Islamic Movement to power, had gone on record saying that the State of Israel had brought radical Islam upon itself by ignoring the needs of its Arab citizens and added, for good measure, that the country would come to miss the Front. In response, the Urn ElFahem leaders invited the minister to visit the town, become acquainted with its situation and with their goals and record. When he did so, the minister was somewhat contrite and offered the town an unusual commitment to assist it bnancially and professionally. By a stroke of fortune exploited by adept political handling, the incumbents in Urn ElFahem had the minister committed to helping them, for a while at least. A major component of the professional help package was the setting up of an MPU. This had already been proposed by the JDC, following a study which it commissioned on the possibility of setting up MPUs in non-Jewish towns. That report judged that an opportunity existed to work with the new administration in Urn ElFahem, which it found to be open-minded and aware of the need to rebuild the municipal structure. The proposal was resisted initially by the civil service at the Ministry of the Interior. However, with the minister looking for ways to make good his promises to Urn ElFahem, he personally authorized the MPU. The chosen director was Rassem Hameisi. an experienced town planner and geographer, who had conducted the JDC feasibility study on MPUs in Arab towns, mentioned earlier. Hameisi’s first task was to chart a way out of the stalemate in which the municipality had languished. His conceptual framework was that the incident with the minister had created an opportunity to significantly alter the dynamics of Urn EIFahem. He recommended a three-stage policy which combined (I) a breakthrough in the planning and development stalement with (2) a reassertion of the municipality’s authority. On the financial side (3), Hameisi pushed successfully to update the municipality’s accounts. The ministry responded positively, agreeing
Progress
250
to increase and
the
ftic
town‘s
allocation
enahlcd
the
embark
upon
proof
in Planning
municipality
of the efficacy
However
vital
rate-hasc planning
the
work
while the
i\ ;I po4sihilit\ cit!ywide Ix
Loning
plan.
for
the
w,hich was ‘The
citywiclc
ircGclcntial 01 t hi\
/oning plan\
more
issue
I-adiccrl
if innocuouslv
local
authorities
enforcement outdated
of the
have
zoning
abdication
-
to major
Given
this
adopted. regulation.
infringed
move
10 IinJ
ot I\I-;IcII
dctailcd
21. I tic condition with
i\ that
and
the
/c)nlng
to lin;lll!
hullding
pl;111n111,(1 \\;I\ opportunitv
out
1 !ndct-
C omnlittce.
rcyul;itc
to
IOLXI
;I !\:I\
tar \niall-x~:ilc
”
g;tin
in c\l\ting
plGniaiul\’
of m:ikin,
;I
political. ~“ml
It
~t~ltenlcrll
1\11’11 p~-o~x~~cd the next \tcp. \tal.t
\I.!ilc.h
ha\
with for
c!c
prc5ent
place
of the
local
cc~mniunitic\.
tlcvclol~nicnt
thal 01 thei-c
;I technical ~overnnicnt.
ottc’n
‘I hc4c
txx2u4e
arguing Although
C‘cntral and
ycar4.
irrcle\;incc
reprc4ent\
authorit!.
in :I p:irti:il
the
,\i-:rtj
01 the
cili/cn\.
il noncthele44
I>! the
o\cr
\,ic)l:rtion\.
bccausc
codes.
IS cstrcmc%ly
icyiilation4.
to mcr\t
n~\ctl\
/.oning
ccjrrlniunitic\ valid
14 untcn;it~le
argument.
Arab
cnl’orcing
taken
with
;I I~lincl
g regulations c
a\,cnue
the
111 I\racli-Arai,
coclc~
of po\vci-
context.
the
which
Enforccnient
\5;14 toughc~netl
appc;iIs public
by the
mayor.
Ix)licq’
;I\ it was pollticall\
initiati\,e\
first.
forceful
diid
municlpxlitv
was ;I\ no\,cl
development
the
conv~nwd
\tlorlgci-
ai-hitrat
t7l;imc
to1
m;~nncr.
the gc>\‘crnmcnt
01 the dcla~cd
;ippro\
aI 01
plans.
zoning
At
the
the
to the
/onin
no Icgal
for leaving
;I
hc‘ con\~\tcnl
fai1s I0 conipl\
in this
friction
;~i.c’:i\.
IO turn
regulations
has enforcccl
\\;I\
icf f’l;lnning
piecemc~al
construction
zoning
if popular
t-eniaincd
\va!’ to do 1~141 that.
pIan
rcgulatic)n
tcndcd
of fairncxs
its part.
that
ircsiclential.
is an element
leading
still:
of outdated
MPI;
dc\ ice,. it was 1x~\\il~le
on
yonins
Much
even
to
plan
conning
of enforcing
controversial.
monc\ and
pro\ ided some \isihlc
is pcnclin, ~1 apprcn
thi4
new
at Icast tcniporariI\,.
small-arca
new
rcgularlv.
creating
;ippi-ov;il
clctailed
pi-ice
the
lo do that
the, IIi\rt
Using
meant With
\\;I\
code
The
through
municipcrlit!~. The
mar-c
Thi\
thl-ough
:I tcchnic;tl
\+ith
in the
IIN
\c’;I\.
tc) come
of s;iinins
nciFhboLlrhoods. foregoing.
roads.
aksiatnncc
found
clcpoGtcd
dpulatccf
approv;iI
lo tllc
progr;m~mc~.
supplier\
:I\ p;l\‘ing
.l‘hc onI\
there
by the
planning
and
had
Hamcixi
development
propounded
a\~ailable
it\ workers
\t;thilit!
iiiipissc.
plan
grant
for capital
the new financial
ii nt’w
nc~
block
funds
of the new ~ldministr~rtion.
linnncial
law.
the
such
for the rnunicipalitv.
the planning plans
cap.
to pa!
elcmcntary
that long-term
that
huclget
ot ticvelopmcnt
to help
M’CI-e ma& rights-of-wav.
application
Typically.
an infringing
the
disarm
ILII’C! r~\k\
of mar;I] II~CCSS~I-~
p~-opoxxl.
: tahc
gradriall\. whose
primar>
antl
tooI
oi cntorcing
\\;I\
x\nchi-oni/ccl
usc4 01 their ~‘a\
authorit!,
thl.ough
adju~tnicnt
would
the public
;ind the tit!
chal-gc
Icacler\ building with
iic\j
oppo4ition.
any
to irc\itlents ‘I‘he
ft2ncc troni
the
right-ol-bav.
propcrtic4
pcr\~~;~\~on. the
ma&
pc~-~)n;~l
ircquirc Once
inter\cntion
;I pr”pL!‘t! ill1
illcgall\ 11101-c
o\\‘Ilc1-
O\\llCl cc~llsclltcd.
01 to
Municipal
the city’s building the particular
department
property,
could be isolated
came in and widened
complete
for a while,
with pavement.
until consent
Strategic Ptanning
the stretch
251
of road outside
Such a newly-finished
was given by neighbours.
stretch However,
the
policy adopted was not to wait for neighbours to agree, since such a wait would have created ‘planning blight’. It would also have incurred the resentment of people who had given up land which they saw as their own, only to see it remain undeveloped. The patchwork road widening, although cxpcnsive in comparison to doing a whole street at a time, was essential for establishing the credibility of the council. and for ensuring that those residents who co-operated were not seen by others and by themselves as having been gullible. The second phase, running in parallel to the submission of detailed plans for many areas of the town, was to hire building supervisors. In so doing, the municiplaity acts as an agent for the state-mandated local planning commission. Becoming ‘self-policing’ in this way is most unusual for an Arab municipality. The MPU encouraged the leadership to fly in the face of the received political wisdom and to emphasize the positive aspect of the community re-asserting its own governance. Further supporting the re-assertion of municipal power was ;I public information campaign explaining the planning process and its proposed dcvclopment direction. The publicity campaign involved circulating written material; an unprccedcntcd exhibition of pians in the city hall; consultation with other municip~il departments. especially social services; public~ltion of newspaper articles; and meeting with groups of residents and professionals. White educating about plans, the information campaign also aimed to alter citizens’ perception of planning. Planning was portrayed as an expression of a wide variety of local needs. an indigenous process signifying a renewal of community strength and cohesion. This is in stark contrast to the passivity or reactivcness of many Arab communities in the face of
II
seemingly arbitrary and intrusive planning process. The third component of the strategy was to turn attention to pressing needs in human services and, in particular, empIoy additional social and community workers and provide more classrooms for a rapidly growing population. Initially. less emphasis was placed on the human services: the priority was to push forward developments which would strengthen the financial base of the rnunicip~~lity. An exception. however. was the construction of IKW schools which was supported by government development grants. In defining and pursuing these policies, the personality and capabilities of the MPU director, as well as the MPU’s status within the municipality, were of central importance. For a period of two years. the MPLJ’s role in the reconstruction of the local authority spanned planning and executive managcmcnt. The MPU was given almost total political and personal support and was authorized to mobilize virtually all the city’s existing officials to scrvc the devclopmcnt directions which were
Progress
252
in Planning
agreed upon. Hamcisi’s
training
back the strategic direction
and cxpcricncc as a town planner enabled him to
with the detailed knowledge nccdcd to communicate
with the national authorities.
prepare planning documents and supcrvisc
preparation of other submissions helped establish see Grossman
4.1.2.
-
the Icaders’ trust
while his personal bxkground
the
and belief\
in him. (f-‘or ;I more literat-> sketch of Hamci\~.
19Y7 -. pp. 111-716.)
The Urn ElFahetn
experience:
Central to the direction
strategies
in everyday
taken by the MPII
tnatta~etnettl
ElFah~m
in Urn
wa\ It\ tlctinltlon
of ;I critical strategic path for I-cvcrsing the cvcle of dcclinc in Mhich the toL\n and its municipality authority
appeared caught. Subsequently.
to lead the implementation
prominence of the MPU
the MPU
of the politic\
\\;I>
gl\cn
wide
it had l’ormulated.
was possible thanks to three factor\. C;ir\t. the political
support and co-operation which it \~;I\ given. Second. the MC~!-,IW~~ municipal structure Without other
areas
debt\ to pa), the MPli
physical dcvelopmcnt
which.
mcanwhilc.
framework
could propox
for a11 initial
abilitie
of the MPII
cnablcd him to cxcrci\c. l‘hc ability
planning proved especially crucial to Urn Elfahcni. charting 21grand. multi-year. strategy.
Simultaneously.
small-scale
multi-departmental.
to ‘zoom’
in and
out.
ticr
to mo\c between tic].\ ot
At one Ic\cl. multi-million
the
wax
MPI.‘
redcvclopment
I’oI- htratcgic
Um I~lt~ahcm cxpcricncc
The
planning.
Kathcr.
the hlPL;
\uggc‘\~\
mu4t bc ably
charting the gi-and
that the neces\ar! small plannin, 0 \tc’p\;II-c taken \\,hich
The operation of the MPIJ EIFahem.
in Lim EIFahcm
contra\t\ \h;lrpl!
with the c~c~I~c‘c~~
Because of the rclati\e \vcakne\\ of the municiplait> it4 Icaders
in its scope and matlc
the
expected the Lslt’11 to chart MPU
level. In Yavne.
bv contrat,
strategic
exercised
control
III
;I COLII-\cwhich \\;I\ holl\tIc
;I partner in c\ccutl\c powc~- 10 the politIcat
the MPI!
w;14 percci\ctl ;I\
h!, an aIrcad),
pcn+c~-lul
ma\‘or O\CI-the \\orkingh of hi\
municipal organization. In :I scnsc, the IJM evolutionary important
.il ot
its realization.
tried in Yavne. Urn
to
director uhich the
moving between Icccl4 or abstrxfion.
design but also ensuring underpin
ywitchcd
plan\. ;I one-block at ;I time cftort L\hich L\;I\ the
key to carrying out the strategy as ;I e hole. ih no ‘correct‘
then
though. it wa5 :rl\o enxurin g the cleation and appi-o\
detailed development
that there
;I \tratcg! I\ hlch
period.
no option but to uait.
hat!
The third factor is the particular MPU
ot the
which meant ;I lack of entrenched clcpal-tmcntal intcrc\t\.
departmental
clearly prioritized
rangIn
‘l‘hc
ElFahcm
phase in cievcloping
theme.
MPU
dcmonstratcd
pl~unning-man~i~cmcnt
as it goca to the heart
of the
role
the
ahllity
to skip
p;~rxligmz. ot MPI
an
Thih
14 ;I\ catalv\t\
i4 an tar
Municipal Strategic
Planning
253
change in local government. While I will deal with this notion in detail in Chapter 5. it is still worth noting that the phase bypassed in Urn ElFahem is that of corporate
control,
a phase lying between
departmental,
parochial
management
and the goal of more strategic management which emphasizes common goals and empowers rnanagers to attain them. It is this corporate middle stage (fashionable in Britain in the 1960s and 197Os), which the mayor of Yavne sought to recreate through the computerization of the municipality. The MPU in Urn EIFahem provides a clear example of an ‘activist’ MPU. That it occurred in exceptional circumstances is more an explanation than a cause for surprise. It is unusual for a ne~fly-appointed professional to get such freedom of action without there being a corresponding leadership vacuum. The exceptional circumstances in Urn EiFahem, of a strong political leadership in a poor town with a weak municipality. facilitated the broadest demonstration of the utility of an MPU.
4.2.
THE
REHOVOT
MPU
TURNS
TOPICAL
PLANNING
4.2.1.
~reukiug the Gould in education and laud-use ~~anuing
STRATEGIC
The Rehovot MPU was one of the original pilot MPUs, set up in the mid 1980s. In that first of its two eventual incarnations, it was operated by an outside consultant who acted mostly as personal policy advisor to the mayor. The model had clear advantages: first. the MPU was focused on issues of policy. while its peer in Yavne was becoming bogged down in technology. Second, the closeness to the mayor meant that the MPU had access and influence within the local authority. Against these advantages. however, stood the aloofness from everyday decision making and departmental workings due to the non-indigenous staffing. Furthermore. during the piloting period (19X5-1988) the sitting mayor lost the support of the majority in the council and became a lame duck until his replacement in the 1988 clcctions. Nonetheless. the MPU managed to product ground-breaking policy documents which, for example, led to a limitation of retail expansion and a reevaluation of the way public properties were allocated to religious institutions. The second incarnation began in 1990 with the arrival of a full-time MPU director who was to work with the incumbent mayor Michael Lapidot as an integral part of the municipality’s senior staff. The new MPU director, Yoram Tcvet, was a Rehovot resident recommended by the mayor. His background was in management of complex real-time control systems as a senior air-force officer, and since his demobilization he had also worked in strategic pianning in the private sector. Despite the mayoral endorsement, Tevet’s initial months were an uphill struggle. The new mayor’s administrati(~n was unenthusi~~stic about reviewing policies, and
254
Progress
Tevet’s
own
access IO the mayor
of identifying them.
in Planning
council-members
While
this
provided
made the mayor probationary
year
for
effective issues
opportunity
consultant location
of school
dcpartmcnt
national the town music.
the education
jointlv
policy
parameters
with
Encouraged education ‘piggyback’ 1091.
onto
New
zoning
administration had thwarted 1987.
in Rehovot.
t’c)ut that
the atppl~~m~ntin~
t’ocu\ing on a~\.
\cicnc,c.
uscl’ul.
drew
tire.
results:
clc~partmcnt to ;1llo\4 tt 10
the ;tcaclemic since
the ability dctniled
of expcrimcntal institulion4.
to combine
ct;t\sc\
Although
the chat-ting
produced
on ;I
of broad
;I significant
change
issue. ;I tnot-c holistic
the MPLI
for
scouted
process.
on ;I process
I~\
In the cL\c‘nt. the dixxt\\ton\
in introducing polic!
Iltc~
di\owncd
the t-c,-tt-aming ot the planning
planning.
a cruciai
institution\.
it co~~Id ix
An
;tppt-o;tch
to the
mot-c opp,ortllniticxjt-tunitics to
opportunit!
of Ian&use
\oon prcsentcd
planning
aimed
it\clt
plans which
wet-c nccehsary
an initiative trends
tot- scvcral
was overturn&
wcrc
to permit vision
for
leaving
reasons.
in 1988 left dramatic
;I hiatus
expansion
l’he
lame-ditch
in planning of retail
the city had been articulated. their
marh
on the town.
tcrma.
It
development Meanw~hile.
A \igniticant
in
;tt produc~tng
plan.
but no nlternativc
demographic
through
Reho\ot‘\
aI\0 pi-oposrd
education:
and the xadcmic
tackled
as the town emhnrked
a new zoning
izlPl.’
and the initiation
the MPUs
an esi\ting
:itlll7itlou\
c\pct-t\ brohct-cd
school\
and with
immediate
EIFahcm.
by its succcss
debate
end
hclpccl the cducatton
for- in\oI\iny
The
The
capxit\
suggc‘\tetl ;I more
(he education
as p~~litically
schools
in the wav the municipality
consultant.
with
had initialI!
in Israeli
asked
in Reho~ot
in Urn
concerned
spccialiaxi
organizations
led to tuo
__b\, locnl
dcpartmcnt
an outGclc
the potential
if the proposals
education
scale than
on planning \i;t the t-outs
and so on.
parents‘
by the MPlJ
conducted
1~15
had pi-o\cti
direction
the education
from
which
trend
more
the ,MPU
department
for
then
h\. the .II)(‘
dcparttncnts
the help of academic
growing
it\ involvement
paradigms
Tc\,et
the crisis.
one which
strategic
in local education.
studies
with
tactic
tht-ough it also
procases. to lire
intervention
other
pi-ojcctions.
With
with
cautiously.
portrayed
MPIJ.
to csamine
another school\
‘test the water’
smaller
The
institutions
environmental
initiated
primarily
\ought
consider
Proceeding MPU
that wcrc
its demogtxphic
acxicmic
of comprchensivc
came when plan
facilitie.
the MPlJ
to defuse tactic.
;I general
development
w;15 appropriate.
the JDC‘.
Forceful
to wet-h with
reachins
to do this planx
de~lop
framework
tic sought
:I forward
prepared
was up.
to ;I risk\, to uork
agetid~is.
planning
lirst
instead
that he tried
to ;I IL’\\ risky
work.
rtxorted
and attempting
access to decision-making
to the point was rcquircd
switched
their
He
to the mayor
the municipality
MPUs.
from
commissioned
with
of the Interior
in other
of particular His
with
hi\ part.
arising
him
feel thrcatencd.
and the Ministrv Tevet.
was sporadic. close
in two
numbct-
Municipal
of middle class families, typically with children entering were leaving the city in search of appropriate affordable numbers
were temporarily
boosted
in 199tK1991,
Strategic
Planning
255
middle or high school, housing. Population
however,
because
of the massive
immigration to Israel from the disintegrating Soviet Union. Pleased with the apparent change in Rehovot’s demographic fortune, the town’s political leaders wanted a zoning plan that would provide for the town’s expansion by permitting residential development of agricultural land within the town’s boundaries and the annexation of adjacent areas - mainly citrus groves which had earned Rehovot its early reputation. The tactic, basically, was to make a land grab while the country as a whole was relaxing planning and conservation regulations in a drive to provide housing for hundreds of thousands of new immigrants. Naturally, the landowners involved were not opposed to the town’s ideas: the mood was one of seizing the moment. At first, the MPU saw in the nascent statutory planning process an opportunity to address the flight of the middle class families. Their needs were rather different than those of the new immigrants, with the latter requiring entry-level housing while the former were looking for more spacious and less dense, yet still affordable, housing. The MPU argued against zoning for maximal utilization of land as appropriate for the new immigrants. Instead, it argued that the city should attempt to create an internal migration of middle class families by increasing the stock of larger family dwellings. This, argued the MPU, would activate the local housing market and the smaller, cheaper apartments sold by families trading up could be bought by the new immigrants. The MPU soon found its involvement expanding beyond the technicalities of housing densities. Once the annexations and the unfreezing of agricultural land were approved, a proportion of it was turned over to the city for public use. Typically. this land would be used to provide services for new neighbourhoods in the same land parcel. This practise enables developers to create showcase neighbourhoods, complete with local public services which makes for easier marketing. Flying in the face of this convention. the MPU suggested that the windfall of public land should be seen within the context of citywide public services. and its development guided by long-term goals. The unit analyzed the existing allocation of public land in Rehovot’s different neighbourhoods. It factored in the land use implications of the emerging proposals for changing the education system. Above all, it framed the debate on using the windfall of public land within the context of articulating a long-term vision for the new town. The new land whether designated for private or public development - was, the MPU argued, a once-in-a-lifetime resource for realizing such a vision. In seeking to articulate a vision for Rehovot the MPU was in a somewhat awkward position. It had been wrongfooted once by becoming involved in local
Progress
256
In Planning
politics.
and issues
domain.
To protect itself,
it introduced It argued
ii notion
borrowed
tax-base).
avoided
from
the vicinit\
discussion
marketing.
competition
Kchovot’s
into
direct
for
real advantages:
lay in prcaer-\,ing
and mature
buildings niodcrn
look-alike.
trees.
unusual
institutions
and
on supporting Kchovot‘a
by
image
development capitalize
it5 history.
-
might
Two.
cnsurc
this positioning
effort
In steering advantage. key council direction
planning
succcccied
members
the MP11 has performed
assumptions
explicit
of it5 academic process focu\ an>
by prcvcnting
retorm
opportunitic\
oU the education
\ccrc ud
to \trcngthcn
it.
process
to addressing the question.
agendas.
Indeed.
its ascribed
Kchovot‘\ it
could
in con\-incing
wccccdeci
ot o\crall
prcp;tI-cd.
be
role of extcrnali/.in3
and dctining the paradiqs
competitive
‘\f hat kind of Kehovot‘
that the quotion
;I zoning plan
twfbrc
ix
and
hv findin, (1 IICU ~vavs to l’urther-
and
as the city engineer
as well
had to bc acldrexsed
ot the building
that the planning
innovative
in placing
and the planning
much
C‘itrus Ciro\c\‘
and
than diluting
that idcntitb
one. en hancc t hc po5itiL.c 4idc ol
this character
(for example.
rather
where
proposed
that new dcvctopment
the statutory the MPU
on both the political
doing.
erode
With
out tar its mix c>tolder
it h> the reputation
in two way:
‘The C‘ity of’ Science
which
it\ hl$torlc
in tho ccntci- of the countr\
upon
The MPIJ
on these strengths
system).
located
conferred
thcsc advantages
settlement.
stand5
in ;i country
It is con\cniently
aura of i-cspectability
an
Kehovot
Instead.
the town.
(which crcatc and
developments
advantages
visually.
of the political
of ‘vision‘.
of ‘positioning’
as ;I town that grew out of’ an agricultural
identity
came some
has
led it once more
the MPU
that in the regional
a solid
sustain
of vision
In \o
polic!,
rendering
of dehatc CILCI-;I crucial i4\uc for
the city. It should hc
noted
that
the importance of placing land-uhe planning In ;I local
strategic context is particularlv land-use plans. Thcsc British
Structure
express an csplicit intcrdcpendcncy that the MPU
great bccausc of the limitation4
do not require a strategic statcmcnt
Plans.
A
In other words, the land USC plan ctoc\ not neces\aril~
hctwecn devctopments:
succccdcd in turning
that i\ outside its Icgal KX~V.
01
‘l‘hc tact
the zoning component ot’ planning into ;I is therel’orc ;I signitic:int
achievement.
new brieff’or transport planning
Through articulating
the notion of competitive
positioning.
the future development priorities
came potential benchmarks While
statutor’!
broader police. Nor dons it in\,ol\c ;I notion 01 timocalc
means. rather than an end unto itself.
1.2.2.
01 tsracli
in the manncl ot
the MPLJ twgarl a p~-oce~xof
for Rehovot.
With
thcsc prioritie\
for assessing development plan\.
it was busy developing the conceptual framework
plan and getting it approved. the MPLJ also began
lor the new landuse
considering
the implications
M~~jcj~a~
Strategic Pfanning
257
of its concepts for various citywide systems. The connection with education was established early on. Next, the MPU turned to look at the transportation implications of its proposed ‘positioning’ of the town. Due to a very rapid expansion of private car ownership and almost unparalleled traffic densities, transportation is a key issue in the development of major Israeli towns, especially those which, like Rehovot, lie in the center of the country. With almost no passenger railways, transport planning in Israel means, primarily. roads. Typical Israeli transport plans are adjuncts to land-use plans, sharing their demographic and locational assumptions and adding transportation assumptions. High among these assumptions is that the preference for private car use is one which the planner is duty bound to accommodate. The MPU proposed something different: that transport planning be subjected to the same hoiistic principals which underpinned its proposed development strategy for the city. In practical terms, the MPU suggested that transport plans should reflect the overall marketing goal for the city by seeking transportation solutions which do not violate the essential character of the town - its organic structure, the intimacy of its centre, its ‘greenness’ and its relatively leisurely pace. At the same time, one of the goals of the transportation plan was to ensure the continued viability of Rehovot’s commercial centre, the ribbon development along its historic main street. Finally, the transport planners were asked to anticipate the development of a regional rail system and its impact on Rehovot’s access to its surroundings and, particularly, the metropolis of Tel-Aviv. Although these goals may seem unremarkable, it is still highly unusual for a municipality in Israel to set such goals; no less important, it was unusual but welcome that the Ministry of Transport agreed to contribute financiaily to the planning process. That the Ministry did so was the result of support at the senior professional level, where recognition was given to the fact that as decentralization takes hold, towns will want more say in their own transport systems, and will be less willing to adopt blueprint solutions. The Ministry thus embarked upon what it perceived to be an experiment in decentralized planning, conducted under favourabie conditions because of the willing and active involvement of the MPU. The MPU, for its part, secured the support of the appropriate council members and the city engineer, so ensuring that the town presented a united front on transp~~rtation issues. The fact that the MPU’s approach to transport planning brought support - and financing - from the Ministry of Transport, further underpinned the credibility of the MPU.
4.2.3. Evaluatingt the MPlJs achievements At the time of writing the transportation plan is in progress. The wider land-use plan has been given preliminary approval by the District Planning Committee,
Progress
258
in Planning
so the underlying
principle
planning
seem
process.
Rehovot
pattern
impact
which
likely
represents
Rehovot
interest.
backing
These
there
with
wcrc
to open door\
municipal
demonstrates provides Despite
cyclical.
in most
policies.
His
himself
predecessor’s
had significant
contacts
the policy
far short
of the
and support
though
provide.
Ultimately.
existence. and at the on the MPLJ
hacking
which
of the Rohovot
MPUs
at Ica4t.
Rehovot.
I‘hu\.
JDC‘
policy His
the MPU.
to cxtxutc
hi5
planning.
conclusion
change creates
from
encmics.
his B>
the MPLJ
demonstrated
and outside
departmental
while
lowering role
the data collection to i’acilitate
ES!
external
and
It used its innocuous
sufficient
that
the municipality.
it>
as ;I ticket in Rchovot
credible
tot fell
acct’ss to.
processes. of the mayor.
in great
the hxic
part hy the MPU.
importance
increases
when,
rcfcrcncc
plans.
lixed
11~ the
minimalistic
and fragmented.
The
tic’s more
and overdue
acti\,ity.
still
with
on the way planning
is thought
the
restructuring.
has scme
been t’elt at the departmental
the
statutq
points. impact
eventual
ot MPI!
has now
of the town’\
as has been the case in Rchovot.
an enduring
sc\~cn years
paradigms
are bxoming
of the statutory
is inconsistent
and their
presence
was originally
with
threat.
although
;I 5ct ot agreed
an impact
in ‘results‘.
u4n g thcsc
and
the hope’ tor
despite
the MPlJs
toward\
or explicit
inside
of decision-making
though.
and it is having
required
it proved
The
the!, arc.
the MPlJ
support
both
support
shaped process.
at the time
was able to bc mot-c effective,
of tlccision-mahing.
to go. But
very
conferred
professional
and the
made more
education).
the council
planning
the overt
process
processes
with
contacts
pattern
to close down
itself.
important
planning
and static
the MPlJa
closely
W;I\ conccrncd.
vision.
Yavnc
of,
without
ongoing
in Rchovot.
worked
;I potential
hacking
dehatc
dcvelopmcnt.
statutory
In this,
wa failure
the MPli
;I> ;I base.
Even
these
hecn disdainful
it had support
entering
future
political
the MPU
and
man intcrcstcd
;I
as far as the mayor
profile
mayor
in policy
was that chxmatic
the mayor’s where
sitting
haa often
the MPU
policie
identifying
tlcaling
which
the o\,eraII
he lacked
to hc
failure
However. the unit
in
departmental
while
of the Mf’U
cxperiencc,
of the indcpcnclent
intcrcst
LYIXS
successor
proclaiming exposing
(when
credibility
The
;I g-cat
took
However.
plans
The
position
was used to protect
its succc’ss in 1W--1992.
established
paradigmatic
;I
the MPUs.
is more
history
Thi\
the importance
for
EIFahem.
the
the
since the MPLJ
and traditional
in Urn
planning
in academia
of Transport.
into
E1Fahem.
to asserting
typical.
politicians weak
organizational
use of the .lDC’ sponsorship. Ministry
llm
approach
more
competitive
and integrated
with
and O~CII.
lack of previous
and then
piecemeal
particularly
was consistent
Because of the weaker director’s
developed
C‘omparcd
is prohablv
‘This
had to contend
vested
more
;I
on IocaI planning.
the MPLJ
to endure.
way Ie~cl.
of and carried
out
Municipal
in the line-departments. executive-managerial strategic and holistic
Eventually,
managerial
4.3.
CHALLENGE
AND
4.3.1.
AND
this will also translate
THE
259
into
coherence. Then the work of the MPU in introducing planning may prove to have also been formative in paving
way for more strategic
MPL’s
one hopes,
Strategic Planning
the
approaches.
OF MASS
IMMIGRATION:
NATANYA
LOD
Mass immigration
and the role of local authorities
The MPU programme was conceived because of the conviction that local government was playing an increasingly important part in a decentralizing Israeli society. For most of the 1980s. this analysis was mainly the concern of ‘insiders’ rather than a popular perception. Towards the end of the decade, however, immigration made the centrality of local government far more evident. The mass immigration to Israel which resumed around 1990 was addressed through a process labelled ‘direct absorption’. Uniquely, direct absorption placed localities in charge of a supreme national endeavour. By conceding its leading role to local authorities, central government gave unprecedented credence to local authorities and to the pattern of more decentralized governance in general. The significance of immigration for Israel can barely be over-stated. The influx of immigrants is not merely an important boost to the country’s pool of human talent and to its economic prospects. It is considered a vindication of its very character as a predominantly Jewish state. To be placed in charge of the success of absorption is thus to be responsible not merely for the lives of hundreds of thousands - it is also a responsibility for a national vision. Why did central government part with this responsibility - and the potential kudos that comes with it? Not surprisingly, it is another example of ‘decentralization by default’. The idea that government should dismantle much of its immigrant absorption apparatus and hand responsibility over to local government was in fact a reaction to nearly 20 years during which immigration was a slow trickle. Rather than maintain an over-sized, centrally controlled infrastructure for absorption, it was considered more effective to give local authorities responsibility for looking after the few immigrants who were arriving. In the 1970s and 198Os, the typical route for a new immigrant would involve a stay of up to two years in a specially-designed facility, the absorption centre. Services in the centres were provided by their own staff, backed by the resources of the absorption bureaucracy of the government and the Jewish Agency. Local contact with community and local authorities could be delayed, and limited initially to integration into compulsory education. Immigrants emerged from the
260
Progress
in Planning
absorption centrc into the community in a gradual fashion. and from the local authorities point-of-view. could then be treated like any other new resident. In contrast, under direct absorption the safety-net of the absorption ccntrc and its specialist staff was to be restricted to immigrant families or groups with special needs. For the majority of immigrants. the policy advocated providing the newcomers with resources and guidance to enable them to fend for thcmselvc\ in the community. This meant, primarily. finding housing independently, and tackling the various service agencies and bureaucracies to obtain education. vocational training, welfare services and so on. To assist in these tasks. immigrant\ are provided with grants and loans. and have access to special advisers provided by the Ministry of Absorption. volunteer organizations and local authoritie>. From the standpoint of local services, direct absorption as originally conceived meant only minor adjustments. Extending services for the occasional new immigrant family placed only a limited additional strain on the services. It ua\ assumed that with low overall immigration, established community support structures, voluntary and municipal, would be able to assist the immigrant\. Ultimately. any additional hardship caused at the start of the absorption process. would be more than compensated for by the increased and immediate contact with the local community. As soon as the mass immigration from the erstwhile USSR began, it became clear that central government had neither the resources nor the flexibility to resume the lead in absorption. Direct absorption became the rule and government. local and central. found itself committed to making the procedure work. For its part. the MPU programme interpreted the immigration wave within the decentralization paradigm to which the MPUs were, of course , already committed A seminar was convened to inform MPU directors about direct absorption procedures. Officials from the Ministry of Absorption unveiled their csscntiall!, ‘hands-off’ approach. By the end of the day, the MPU directors were convinced that the local authorities were facing a potential emergency . given the onus being placed on them and the lack of clarity regarding the support which the government would provide. Returning to their local authorities, most MPU directors encountered sccpticism. Only a few mayors seriously entertained the possibility that central govcl-nmcnt was indeed relinquishing its role. The MPUs focused initially on alerting their peers and political leaders to two critical consequences of direct absorption. First. that municipalities had to prepare for dramatic increases in their populations bb conceiving a new range of services for the immigrants. in order to substitute tar the traditional absorption apparatus. Second, that the impact of mass immigration on national resources would be such that any local authority not actively pursuing absorption would find itself divested of resources which would be directed to where the immigrants settled.
Municipal
Strategic Planning
261
Although a sense of urgency was beginning to manifest itself, only a few local authorities started making contingency plans. The first of the two cases in this chapter looks at the way in which the Natanya MPU promoted and facilitated a process of contingency planning which mobilized and motivated residents and service-providers, just as thousands of new immigrants started pouring into the town. In contrast, the second case set in the town of Lod is one in which the town was slow to face up to the impact of immigration, and the MPU became instrumental in highlighting the opportunity which immigration represented, Natanya typifies the efforts of an entrepreneurial MPU, supported by the mayor, pursing a holistic agenda and willing to make the occasional sortie into executive action. In Lod, on the other hand, the MPU had first to find ways of empowering itself sufficiently to enable it to make its point. Operating in different circumstances and deploying very different means, each MPU strove to place the challenges and opportunities associated with immigration at the center of the municipal agenda.
4.32.
Natanya
Natanya is a fairly prosperous town with a population of over lO~),O~~O, on the Mediterranean coast about half-way between Haifa and Tel-Aviv. With a good record with previous immigrations, it was an early favourite among the newcomers of 1989 and 1990. Direct absorption presented the town with a lengthy list of issues to contend with. The MPU’s approach was based on clarifying these issues and using them in part as a means for taking a more holistic look at the issues of development and service provision facing the city. Among the local strategic and organizational concerns emanating from direct absorption, the following formed the basis for the MPU’s initiative: -
-
Initial welcome: organizing municipal systems to support new arrivals in their first hours and days in the town. Recruiting the maximum available resources from within the loca1 authority and voluntary organizations to support the absorption effort. In deployment of resources, establishing more flexible and collaborative working practices. Ensuring that resource allocation did not tip too far against existing weaker populations. Looking at the long-term social and economic issues of integrating veteran and newcomer populations. Assessing the needs of special groups among the immigrants, such as children with learning disabilities or older persons with restricted mobility.
Beyond its concern for the absorption process itself, the MPU was convinced that Natanya’s success in absorption would open up considerable development
262
Progress
opportunities.
in Planning
Together
absorption
effort
Anticipating
extraction.
exercise.
What
which
the MPU
undcrpinncd
co-operation
pro~ss
by working
which
partics
and Welfare
and Labour:
and voluntary
-
Significantly.
into
to ovcrcomt
population
unique
planning
onu process
the
st'nse
urgency
of
traditional
the scrvics
Another
covered
break
rcprcscntativcs
education,
barriers
for
to nc\\ immigrants
from
tradition
WI\
the private
muni~ip~~lit~.
From
bcyctnci the capacity
nature
it
the: outset. doomeci
WIS
topics
attempt
than
around
existing
barriers
and
asscrtccl
without
task
in the planning
sectors. that
to
down
rather
as offcial the task
of the ~n~~~l~~ip~iit~ alone.
to fail
of concern
and employment.
to melt
participation
the MPU
werr
city
rcprcsentarivcs
topics
;I\ ;i hericx of goal-orientated the
and voluntary
was not only
business
integration
around
topics
included
such 2s Absorption
the main
cultural
it was ;I tlclihcr;itc
with
party
ministries
rcprcscntatives:
groups
different
working
The
WCIK organized
structure:
set in motion. Each
community
housing.
the groups
orgimizational
very
and
and trt use the
of government
organizations.
immigrants
the MFYJ
in parailcl.
local representatives
remould
tht
in the city.
addressed
new
IO compress
in order
that
and its existing
a comprehensive
phases,
mohiiization
as ensuring
of local dcvclopmcnt.
location
esscntiaily.
was.
the combination
In the pl~nnill~ officials;
lcvoraging
set in motion
did
and
it saw its roic
based on the city‘s
the MPU
planning
MPUs.
other
the maximal
providccl the influx.
of Soviet
necessary
with
the involvement
forccx.
process
partners of direct
hut that
of
to the ~~bs~~rpti~)n
by its
of thu community
as
;I whole. Each
working
also specific asked onto
party
to suggest the rental
stock.
The
vacancies options
uas
rcsponsta markct.
in or&r
most
the planning
the
for
wcrc
Thu
housing
rnan~
twvn's
was asked
it~_~~iiy, and
~Ippr~)pri~it~ process
issues.
to immccliatcly
group
advcrtiseci
\vccks to product
;I t'cw
of getting
means
tmpioyment wcrt
given
to targctcd
plans and policies. Reflecting the need for broad
market.
for
it policy.
but
esnmpic.
was
holiday
properties
the nvailablc
mc;ms
to r-ccommcnd
At
to make
vacant
increase
to suggest
the local l:ibour
askal
not just
group,
The
~~)niInitrn~nts
housing
of ensuring
that job
the vocational co-opted
to support
training
partners
in
the eventual
absorption plan
was shaped
organizations into
so as to place
involved
the sole service
cxtendcd
provider.
also good
for
The
~~o~~-iocai
to any agency
came and brought With
in absorption.
to also include
as partners
communal
support
the municipality
wishing
rather i&a
agcncich.
in new rcsourccs,
than
of orcating
to tat
of absorption.
at the ccntre
The
\ecking
to
of make
local scrvicc MPU
network
01
the municipalit), networks
offer&
Natanya
new ideas in absorption.
expertise
each scctoral ;I
The
wa4
and itself agencies
and prestige
-
ail of which
of the MPL!
it was natural
were
local moraic.
pi~nnin~
being
the designated
domain
for
the
Municipal
Strategic
work of the different committees to be co-ordinated and supported which for two months did little else. The MPU, however, extended turning
the planning
process
into part of the operational
solution
Planning
263
by the MPU, its mandate by to the task which
it was addressing. The MPU was able to step successfully onto the administrative terrain of established departments, for a number of reasons. These include, the mayor’s backing; the importance attached to absorption; the absence. in common with most Israeli local authorities at the time, of an executive director; and the character and experience of the MPU director, Shraga Weisman. Like Hameisi in Urn EIFahem, Weisman found ways of acting as a de-facto executive without dropping the mantle of planner. Furthermore Weisman. again like Hameisi, could reconcile the two professional personas because of his previous training and expertise as a town planner. In leading a planning process, he was as it were playing his strongest suit, and his command of the process from a professional standpoint also made it possible for him to assume a leadership role. Natanya became a pioneer in producing a local planning process and a model for direct absorption. The plans and principals which it established interorganizational partnership and the focus on the needs of immigrants above existing structures - became national blueprints. Lod, the site of the second absorption-related case-illustration, operated rather differently.
4.3.3.
Lod
Lod is an ancient town. lying at the very center of Israel. In 1948 Lod. then an Arab town, was captured during Israel’s War of Independence. Most of the Arab population fled, but some of those who remained continued to occupy buildings in the town center. In the late 1940s and 1950s. the town was settled by new Jewish immigrants, mainly from North Africa, who occupied some of the abandoned Arab houses as well as mass housing in newly-built ncighbourhoods. The town’s zoning plan designated the old Arab town centre for comprehensive redevelopment but there was never enough money available to compensate sitting property owners. As a result, the development of Lod reached a stalemate: the Arab residents refused to move voluntarily, while the authorities could not conceive a plan which bypassed them. Despite its attractive location, Lod languished as a solidly working class town, with poor property values and a lacklustre reputation. Somewhat to the surprise of the town’s leaders, its lacklustre reputation did not put off the new immigrants from the Soviet Union. To them, Lad’s stalemate presented an opportunity: cheap housing within easy access of the largest and most varied labour market in the country. After the surprise, came enthusiasm: this was Lod’s opportunity to grow, to acquire a ‘ready made’ professional class, as well as
Progress
264
to increase
m Planning
the Jewish
majority
70 “i,, of whost
town.
in the
rcsidcnts
were
Arab
in l%Y. Regional
competition
future
of Led.
within
fifteen
highway.
‘The
kilometrex
Once
drained
was another
government of Lod,
the new
town
of its existing
buyers.
Successful
absorption
‘puller’
of population.
new land would So,
after
for
thcrc lives
OWL‘
of the immigrant ;I path
Looking
at these
lay in spurring to make Lad’s
absorption
second.
21 respect4 The
MPU
and its partners actually
revealcd
that
was &signed
existing
data about
s~iti~f~~~tiorl
future within
cvt’r
At
its most
cast.
not only
on the
a WC
from
two clcmcnt\
jllf~~rnl~~ti~~ll and tinancial
about
the
support
rcscarch
it\
and
chctxc in orrlet
invttlvcd
and
huld
ho\ve\er.
immigrants
the MPI!
JDC’
the
immigration
to hc awaiting
which
2 datahasc
of new
hccausc
their
arm,
t’rom the
a detailed
report
placing
the census their
wz.
survc!‘.
\vas ticsigned
thclr
to facilitate
the I.otl
It wa
to the
initiative
wa
cat-ricd out explicitI>
utilization
WC J DC-f3rookdale.
Loci in the national
;mci
absorption
in the co-operation
rctilting
which
~l~~pl~~~rli~nt
designed
Nationally.
retlectccl
mailing
and
and with
immigrants.
of questions
on the LotI
IcwI.
svstcm
where
‘t‘he census
naticmat
in Lotl
stage involved
an espcrimcntal
conditicm~.
in the town.
ubsorption.
perspective.
living
of lift
It\ first
to tlcterminc
unreliohlc. totat.
str~li~htf(~r~v~lr~I
of the ncu
census
services
the MPIJ’s
purp~>sc\:
cc’nsus.
I l,(I(IO -
somu
managcmcnt
immigrants
of direct
;I unique
-
aspects
and the prominence
(for
that
rlisacminate
wcrc‘ thoroughly three
municipality From
in numbers.
It? difficulty.
professional
was neccssal-y
with
various
systematic
the context
this
the il~lrni~r~llits,
with
In panrltct. tracking
which
and its credibility
of the IKW
seemed path
ancf
dcvctopcd
records
~tdministrative-t~tctical.
the tirst
the needs
The
in this
in the town
lived;
followed
process.
housing
impact
self-image
of I_od.
Officials
analyze
-
This
ctt a historic
would
convinced
high-prolitc
institution
as ;I land.
Institute.
of all rcsidcnccs
immigrants
to yield
gather.
Lod
divcrsitication.
to address
do so with
outside
Rrookdalc
a sweep
First,
()I’ being
agricultural
in the town
Failure
hccamc
mayor.
risk
establish
way out
to scttic
the fortunes
priority.
town
by potential
of lo\v-density
~o~~~~~itn~~~~t to the ~il~s~)r~~tiol~ process
its rtpcrtoire.
immigrants;
population
:md centralistic
yrcatcr
could
to atljacent
was ;t potential
the MPU
a kc); to the a new
a serious
bypassed
but also on thu town‘s
altering
;t high
runs
the kind
to consider.
and
held develop
families.
hrtd started
families, factors.
;t claim
Isntcli
in absorption
for
Lod
and being
to initiate
immigrants
the municipality
powerful
to invoke
their
in turn.
of growth
opportunity
it would
side of the Jei-usaletn-Tel-Avis
is built. class.
it stake
was also the cost of failure
a historic
JDC
succt’ss
Then,
in seeking
from
it.
the immigrants that
of the new immigrants
\,y upw~~r~~l~-m~~bil~
Loci.
deadlock.
middle
and help
enable
why
on the other
of Modi’in
of some
is sought
reason
had announced
with
the
of local
t W3).
eye was important
Municipal
since it illustrated town’s image.
how innovative
Yet, by raising
approaches
to absorption
the profile of the census
Strategic
Planning
could improve
265
the
the MPU took a calculated
risk: it could not predict how municipal leaders would deal with results critical of the city, but the tie-in with national institutions meant that such results could not be suppressed. Upping the stakes, though, was necessary in order to place absorption higher on the municipal agenda. Tactically, then, the Lod census like the Natanya planning process, served a dual purpose. It not only produces a specific product, but was also intended to have a systemic impact.
4.3.4.
Lessons from the role played by MPUs in immigration
absorption
The wave of immigration which swept Israel in the early 1990s affected virtually all areas of Israeli life and governance. The Natanya and Lod cases demonstrate the MPU’s role in conveying to the cities the importance of the events engulfing them and in producing appropriate responses in the as-yet unfamiliar context of direct absorption. The mode of intervention adopted by each MPU reflects its respective position within its municipality. The Natanya MPU became the visible leader in formulating policy and mobilizing for its successful execution. The Lod MPU had to work in a more low-key fashion, avoided direct policy-making and focused instead on fact-finding as its launch-pad. The Natanya MPU could go somewhat beyond planning into the realm of execution; the Lod MPU was confined to nudging and steering municipal leaders into accepting that planning was necessary in the first place. Most MPU’s became deeply involved in absorption, and none have been untouched by it. In several other locations, censuses or surveys of immigrants are planned or have been carried out. In Ashkelon, the MPU developed highly sophisticated computerized models to anticipate the impact of the new immigrants, combined with new building, on internal migration. Its ultimate goal - to provide for more accurate placing of public facilities such as schools, in light of likely population movements. The MPU in Kiryat Gat has embarked - once more with help from JDC and the Brookdale Institute, on a survey of over two thousand Ethiopian immigrants who have settled in the town. This poses unique challenges due to the need for translation and cultural sensitivity in obtaining and analysing information (see Benita et al., 1993). In recruiting outside support for absorption planning and research for their cities, MPUs demonstrate their capacity to act as bridges between national trends and agencies and local interests and practises. In terms of decentralization, this bridging represents a new and less hierarchical relationship between local authorities and the wider world. Information, guidance and support are no longer channelled from ministries to their corresponding departments in local government. Rather, local authorities operate in a more open market for
266
Progress
information, identify
in Planning
intelligence
and recruit
The
resilience
dealing
with
deciding
the emerging
was dramatic. strong
and adopted reality.
to municipal
to
grew
because
10%
is dramatic
or.
in eighteen
months
the municipality profcssionat
accotlltllocl~ltcd
so
-
;t failure
in
ca\c\.
the impact
It rapidly
detnands
the risk
factor\
in some
had a sufjicicntl)
core.
the
municipalitic\.
paralysis
it is adept at
have heen important
idcntiticd
j’txed
of trauma
10 provide
Iv
the
ha\ become
new serviccc
;I
;~nd to
priorities. has accentuated
ptaccd on local
authorities
However.
it not for
were
absorption
authorities. The
ancl
weaker
In scvcrat
Immigration
direct
population
and a competent
tradition,
leading
redefine
Natanya’s
new practices.
newcomers.
LI!XX~ than
to which
paradigm.
of immigration
It was not traumatic
working
it is incumbent
and the extent
decentralized
the local impact
When
where
partners.
of a local authority.
whether
traumatic.
and rcsourccs
tong-term
flexible
the dcccntratization
would
Direct
the non-s\;nchrony
have had littlc
absorption
challenge
and responsive.
bctwccn
and the Icvcl of their
i> to sustain
which
decentralization
fhih momentum
survey
ant!
had taken
chance of cucccss in
has moved
Lod‘h
the t-csponsibitities
c;tpabilitic\
is ;I pointct-
al!
;I
but
a
by creating
further.
services
of tools
lOSO\.
local
few
notches
t‘cw
to the kind
rcso~tt-cc‘\.
place in the
that are
t~cccss;~t-!
j’or-
such success. The
different
different
rcqonscs
relationships
MPU
spent
white
;t lot of titne
the emphasis
the mayor. pyramid
With
mayor.
the MPU.
effort
qualifications In dealing facing
Absorption human
emhraccs
scrviccs;
expanded
for
;I doubt
societv
issue.
the MPI
as ;I \vholc.
the entire
: profound
the newcomers;
;tuthot-it! through
interests
1s took
but for
N hich empouered fostering
municipal
;I scnsc
ot
tnanagctnent
on one 01 the% tno\t preAng comtituniti~4
trangc 01’ local govcrnmctit ch:rngc\
to demography the economic
and Lgenet-:ition
of Ihe local authority.
local and national
;tcccs\ to the
cast o\‘cr the professional
2nd it\ urban
the need to adapt and build
obligations
working
and lint-managers.
ot ;I challenging
was never
b\
clirectors.
absorption
Israeli
of tlclcgated
mandated
and initiate
officers
I.otl
o the decision-t7iakitt~
em!>hasized
to improve
the operation\ there
of the MPU with
dcvelopmcnt
employment where
c;tses.
the Mf’U
The
department\.
projects
flattenin,
wa\ cstahlishec!
stature
1Jatattya highlight e~tahliahment~.
lint-rnan;t~enl~ilt
mayor
existing
by virtue
the MPIJ’s
to improve
that
with
and
municij~a!
on indej~cnt!ent
attempt&
In Natanya.
In both
physical
surprise
wet-c‘ credible
In Lad,
structure.
issues
MPUs
reasons.
a united
\v;ts more
with
of ;I ccntratistic
it is of little
in Lorl
anr. I :Itcit-
alliances
even as it repeatedly
Both
different
in Natattya
absorption
MPlJs
forming
the weight
in Lad.
‘sideways’
to direct
between
converge
It is. most
operation: rcc!uiring
ne’r~’
changes
to
base \o as to provide
of acltiitiotiat in 4liort.
in particular.
t-c~~cti~~~
;I model
~onspic‘itolt~l\‘.
to
tiiect
strategic
the
issue.
Municipal
After running, Attention other
the first rush of immigrants MPUs have ceased to immigration
aspects
of urban
and once basic local systems
their intensive
has become change
Strategic
involvement
more integrated
Planning
267
were up and
with immigration. with MPU involvement
with
and development.
The MPU involvement in direct absorption has been a vindication of the programme’s underlying assumptions about decentralization. It gave MPUs a vital issue to contend with and, most unusually, a vital issue to which there was no existing departmental claim. The distance between MPU policy-making and implementation was, correspondingly. relatively shorter than with other issues which are ‘pre-owned’.
4.4.
SUMMING
UP:
THE
MPUs
IN ACTION
In this chapter I have reviewed samples of MPU operation, taken, as it were, from the MPU casebook. Rather than provide exhaustive case studies - which I hope others will do, in time - my priority has been to supply a number of diverse and informative ‘cameos’. These real examples of activity throw into relief some of the more analytic and opinionated contours presented in the chapters framing this one. The five cases illustrate the MPU theory, and also serve to demonstrate the way in which MPU work involves a constant exploration of operational boundaries. The case studies reveal the diversity of operational circumstances under which MPUs operate. No local authority is like another and, indeed, from time to time an individual local authority will also change its own behaviour. New topics and evolving political circumstances can lead to dramatic shifts in the way an authority operates - only to revert back to old form as circumstances change again. Examination of a number of MPUs does, however, reveal patterns, recurring themes and generic principles which have evolved in the field. To succeed, the MPUs need a combination of professional versatility and tactical prowess. To have an impact on the way local government business is conducted, they must seize issues which are central to the local authority. The UM ElFahem case shows how much can be achieved if the MPU is able to deal with core issues, and receives political backing for the Urn ElFahem example is also most glaring power vacuum in its exist in the mature municipalities
defining new professional processes. However, the one where the municipality displayed the professional organization. Such spaces rarely to which MPUs are a late addition.
Typically, an MPU is unlikely to receive unwavering political backing. As the cases of Lod and Rehovot illustrate. the MPU must make establishing trust with its colleagues a continuous concern. In Rehovot, the eventual breakthrough was achieved in topics which were initially second-tier items on the municipal agenda, but where a partner with explicit authority and responsibility could be identified JPP4,:3-E
268
Progress
and co-opted.
in Planning MPUs
can rarely
have to be won over around
an issue.
through
prevail
less
or by being
in a straight
threatening
a useful
power
approaches:
partner.
initially
struggle: either
collcagues
by working
conforming
to am>ther
agenda. Lod The
shows
Yavne
sufficiently became
how an inroad MPU.
for
act of detiance
against
The
an MPU.
This
reflects
the lack of a strong innordinate relative
arc relatively for
public
municipal support
power
advertising. -
shows
actively
are rarely
just
how
If it consistently MPU. there Urn
The barely
an MPU
time
mayoral
support
in Yavnc At The
external
mavor\
to act
are v;~;III.
the
and citizen\
‘l‘hcrc
i\ no rcul
force
dcpendcnt
on
inay)i-.
an out-of-lint those
who \vill not
\tatcd aim of pr~m~~>ting ;I govcrnancc.
in lichovot.
it\ mission
for
Then
csamplc.
C\cn whcrc
the III;IVOI-\
irrespective
01 the
of pi-emoting
ita agenda.
it CC~;ISCSto bc ~111
arguably. that for
;I time
the operation
end ot’ the \calc. Nat:tn!:r
can CIWC~/ it\ mandate. critical
concentrate
i\ often
to municipal
meant
to
and given
ih strong
arc‘ clear11
seek wavs
the other
for
council\
can bc. Yet
it must
the MPl.1
on the programme’s
clcmcnt\
have found spcmsc)rh.
and still
;Irc’ indepcndcncc it benclicial
\o creating
and I-C~;I~II and
to lean from ;I balance
to
influence.
Professional
staff
the professionals eventually work.
both.
with
situation
agenda then.
and impact.
prcs)r
the MPCJs
The
mavor\
the town
initially.
election.
it possible
affairs.
approach
that an MPll
to
to\\:~i-d\ the
at Icast
direct
the town within
has to retain
as an MPU.
In maintaining
to time
still
l‘hc
2s an indirect
,Ittitude
cxecutikc.
makes
to spar
-
as it exists.
demonstrate
in approach
influence.
mayoral
on computing
performed
chief
standpoint.
though.
accepts a diffcrcnt
emphasis
EIFahem
afford
discourage
the MPU so long
their
of municipal
and long-term
changeable
attitude:
through
svstcm
an MPU
absolute.
arc ‘problematic’. mayor’s
from
it
mayor.
was too strong
the I-caction.
in such cast’\. Local
and cannot
ma!‘or
of the mayoi-‘\
influence\
The
instead,
be intcrprctcd
Yavnc‘\
account
tw and ~a\.
of the municipalitv
holistic
in part.
towns-where
in scrutiny
mayors,
or who
attitudes
hands.
of mayors
integrative.
could
factor:
in smaller
uninvolved
Problematic more
in their
censure
whcrcas
a structural
particularly
economic
But
and statutorily-protected
power
as ‘loners’.
may.
office
into
the agenda of ;I powerful
the importance
of the mayor’s
tenor
municipalit!.
take
in the local authority.
effort
the MPU
five cases demonstrate
bccauae it did nol
through
the mayor.
out by his staff.
made in a \CI-y difficult
failed
managers
pushing
of the computerization
be frozen
MPU.
phase,
the agenda of others an instrument
thwarting
All
was cvcntually
in its pilot
This
seem
inside
co-operative suggests
accept developments
more
forthcoming
and outside towards
that
local
which
the MPU govcrnmcnt
offer
in accepting
the local authorities
them
or.
the MPI
Is.
Almo\t
in the C;IS,C studic\.
at Icast.
did not activcl\
professionals
arc reasonably
an opportunitv
to do their
work
,111 ~c,-c
hinclcr
it\
open to bcttcr.
Municipal
provided
any threat
which innovation
Strategic
posed to their existing
As long as the MPU’s work does not carry such a threat,
status
Planning
269
is minimized.
it tends to be welcome.
A vital element of removing the threat is a willingness to share or completely cede credit for developments which lie within the remit of an existing department - an approach followed by the MPUs in Rehovot and in Urn EIFahem. Alternatively. as in the case of Lod, the MPU may articulate a challenge to the existing order which is felt to be necessary by other officials, whose position will not allow them to speak their minds. The scope of MPU involvements has been as diverse and interdepartmental as the programme sponsors could have hoped for. The issues which I have highlighted - refocusing local authorities at a time of decentralization (Urn ElFahem, Rehovot. Yavne); the role of information systems in planning and management (Yavnc); rethinking education and physical planning (Rehovot); immigration absorption (Lod. Natanya and elsewhere) reflect, individually. matters of great concern to specific local authorities. Taken together, they outline the cutting-edge of local government thinking and of the challenges facing it. Yet, while the MPUs have dealt with many significant issues, others have eluded them. Only a few of the MPUs. for example, have been involved in their local authorities’ attempts to resolve deep financial crises. Notably out of this arena, despite the pervasive effect of the crisis on their local authorities, were the MPU’s in Rchovot and Yavne. At the opposite end of the scale, MPU’s in Urn ElFahem and Be’er-Sheva have played important roles in analysis of the crisis and formulation of remedial policies. In fairness. budget planning is normally the preserve of the treasurer and the political leadership, so it is reasonable to assume that MPU involvement will be rare. In Be’er-Sheva and Urn ElFahem, such involvement occurred against the backdrop of weak trcasurcrs, and strong faith of the mayors in their MPU staff and in their own overall control over the municipal administration. Not surprisingly, perhaps, the two go together: the mayors who feel in command of their municipal structure arc more willing to give the MPU an opportunity to extend its involvement, despite the risk of occasional disruption. The platforms chosen by MPU directors to promote new policies rcflcct their abilities and the particular local circumstances of each decision. Hamcisi in Urn ElFahcm. Wicsman in Natanya and the Lod MPU director. Sarah Kaminkcr, were all experienced planners. This enabled them to make greater professional headway with less political fallout than was possible for Tcvet. in Rchovot. who initially seems to have been driven by a more executive instinct. Ultimately, however, Tevet’s cxpericnce of working in complex organizations, the qualification in town planning held by his deputy. and his own growing cxperiencc in the held. enabled him to establish the MPU as a credible force. The case studies all point to the importance of the MPU directors being blessed with tenacity and resilience,
270
Progress in Planning
needed while the MPU bides its time, building contacts and a reputation to he utilized when the opportunity to tackle policy materializes. Applying this lesson the Yavne effort with its emphasis on computing, highlights the dominance of
to
the mayor which almost obscured the importance of building up wider contacts in the municipality. (Because of the importance of MPU staff to the succc’ss ot each unit, I have elaborated on their desirable qualifications and background in Appendix 1. ) As regards their ~~~n~nernent to policy, stipulated in the MPU i~rogr~~rIll~1~‘~ original guidelines, quite a bit of flexibility is visible. MPUs have p~)siti(~n~d themselves at different points on the a~ti[)n-planning ~~~ntinuuill. The positioning in the case studies examincd here has been determined by a combination of structural factors and specific tasks. The Yavne MPU had no chance of engaging in executive activity while for the Urn ElFahem MPU this was impcrativc. Yet, MPUs involvement in carrying out their own recommendations strains their ‘policy only’ label while. conversely. the presence and planning inputs of the MPU can act as a catalyst for setting up stronger staff-level executive functions. an important goal in itself. For MPUs, which start life as outsiders. the taste ot executive power may be tempting. ~UcStiOJlS which should then be asked arc. ho\\ far to become involved. how to withdraw. and what is a reasonable compromise which leaves sufficient time to pursue the planning agenda. In at least two casts where MPU staff found themselves attracted to the executive side of municipal work, they left the MPUs rather than remain in position and alter its meaning. This was accepted by the programme sponsors as the least undesirable option: particularly in the programme’s first years. it was felt that maintaining the clarity of the MPU role was paramount.
CHAPTER
5
Theoretical Perspectives: MPlJs and New Organizational Directions for Local Government In this chapter, I will discuss the way in which the MPUs route to strategic planning relates to the development of the broader paradigm of management in local government. In highlighting the unique features of MPU approach to strategic planning. I will contrast this approach with strategic planning in the business sector. The comparison serves to clarify the unique features of management in local government. It is especially necessary since, as I will show, there is something of a drive to emulate business-type strategic planning in local government. In critically discussing the private sector practices I will further clarify the case for MPU-type strategic planning, linking it to evolving conceptualizations of new forms of corporate organization.
5.1.
THE
THEORETICAL
5.1 .I. Strategic planning
CONTEXT
FOR
LOCAL
STRATEGIC
PLANNING
in the MPVs and in the business sector
In this paper, I have shown a particular approach to strategic planning developed in Israeli local government. Strategic, in this context, describes a planning approach which, while anchored in the routine responsibilities and capabilities of local authorities, nonetheless takes a flexible, multi-disciplinary approach when looking at future development. The MPU’s flexibility applies not only to boundaries of discipline and department but also to the time-framework of planning. I have argued that effective strategic planning is not necessarily synonymous
with long-term
planning.
In fact, to be effective in the context of local government, strategic planning must frequently focus on short-term issues and on the implications of immediate and routine decisions. It is not an aloof approach: rather, it seeks to be in the bloodstream of the local authority and to eventually achieve system-wide 271
272
Progress
infucncc. adding
in Planning
To
do 50. it must
rcniain
issuch
and foci when
required.
deliberately
located
lint-rcsponsibilit~ At
this
celled
neither own
expressed
explicit
approach
;I svstem for
Most
form
applications
approach.
suited
mixed.
govcrnmcnt.
Even
considerations Professor
‘strategic military. appropriate
them
with
agent
for It is
of change
into
non- prepared
route
to
is also unusual
from
executive
;I management \;tructurc.
plan5
cxpcricnce
corporations
-
through
;I
or the
strategic life.
It is ;I
I( ;trrtvc\
author-it\.
adopt4
tried
in Iocal
to go 11). rc\ult\
for that mattc‘r
militat-\
same
here
to bc implcmcntcd.
is anything
rcvicu
The
is relatively
v,
has also txcn
structures.
or military
Ilu\~nc\\.
its cst;lbli\hcd
the nccessar>
if the Israeli
there
;I\ ;I spur
emanate\
have been in
Managcmcnt.
have an impact
Schiin
the MPU
-
i\ ;I c,lear. legitimate i\ not
ncccssarilv
true
stron g cxccuti\ c‘ m;~nagcmcnt,
on de&ion
of MIT.
making,
the war
of it in business.
to its competitive
When
imagery
in Jcrusalcm
of ‘strategic
came to local government
uses of the concept.
it accepted
speaking
interpretation
understandings
planning’
and business
still
to
and in local political
c~rganizational
forms
outputs.
Donald
contrasted
conventional
to carry where
will
and on expected staff.
In private
things
of its \,ervices.
MP1’
the established
inRuence.
of doing
change.
The
hc
b\ the
planning.
to authoritarian
of corporate
the need for
can
practice\.
a legitimate
deliberately
planning
from
~a!’
to LISC planning
reform.
within
of strategic
however.
right
part
which
from
m;magcrs.
Here.
management‘s accepted
reform
than
and dcrivcs
government.
admit
and
clariticd
an osmotic
of ;I neu
21-c
and timescalcs.
c t~~il4
in management
their
culture.
~Llxded
and in the character
comprehensive
of strategic
bv senior
arc at bat
for
rather
fully
be
or through
a way of bringing
to either
through
role
can also he
corporate
of is\ucs
must
a messngc
attempts
osmotic
new stratcgics
send
organization
tactic,
the llus
contact
planning
an influence
endorsed The
should
the MPLI’\
are few corporate
to strategic
function
didactic.
direct
the \hapcr\ and them.
of common
Given
change
change
being
support
of csisting
C;ILI~;CS. which
perspective
affecting
not yet ready
implement
LV;I~
goals in ;I \\;I\ N hich Facilitates
cvcntually
of a guerilla
with With
common
if there
through
in the local authority
something
Such
consistent. even
of the MPU
the organization. This
agcncla.
the MPLI
the fr;inicwork
intcracth
common
and holistic
Whcthcr
work
the MPLI
or even elements
nor
consistency
Icadership.
change
goals.
in its methodology,
thu very
level. outside
the local authority.
org~tnization-wide
frequently
(hi\ role,
in the local authorit!;.
and articulating
across
the MPU’s local
Icvcl.
action
identifying
assimilation
close to the csccuti\e
facilitate
at headquarter-staff
of cxecutivc
includes
To
department\.
headquarter-st~lff
directors
immediately
pointed
third-hand,
business
which
environment.
Schiin
to
;I
planning’
forum to
out that
following
borrowed
of MPU
the more
the term
came with
it. which
However.
strategic
the term
military from
could planning
the
be seen
;I\
hecame
Municipal
something
of a formula,
the competitive share?
with standard
environment?
and so on. The purpose
‘scanning
questions’.
Who is the competition? is to identify
a route
Strategic Planning
These
include,
How is our current to competitiveness
273
what is market
which will
ensure the attainment of the over-riding goal - profit. These conditions, observed Schiin, simply do not exist in local government, making the use of the term ‘strategic planning’, metaphoric. The assumptions which underlie the exercise of strategic planning in business, were not themselves able to stand the test of time, either. Traditional strategic planning assumed that the firm was a single entity, able to be steered. It further assumed that there was a determinate problem of strategy to answer, namely, how to win in the marketplace. And, last but not least, it rested on the assumption that the problem, by its nature, was susceptible to rational solution, and that the connection between action and future outcome could be predicted. These assumptions lead to the emergence of top-down detailed planning which derives from ‘strategic planning’ at senior corporate levels. However, these assumptions are not necessarily true even for businesses, let alone for local authorities. For one. effective planning is not always done top down; much of it emerges, argues Sch6n, from competition among middle managers. In local government, the basic assumptions of business are further refuted: -
In the local authority there is not one actor. but many: departments, political parties, neighbourhood and other interest groups. The activity of planners falls into the context of a political environment, one which has its own rules of competition and bargain-making. There is no single, monopolistic planning process. Rather, there is a multiplicity of planning processes inside and outside local government all of which contribute to shaping the decision-making environment. So, concluded Schiin, “the model of strategic planning, borrowed from business, is not applicable. That it is not applicable to business either, is heartening. Simply. its assumption of hierarchy and rationality in the organization, is wrong”.
Meanwhile, the function of ‘Long-Term Planner’ started to disappear from businesses around the mid 197Os, ,. when it became clear that no-one read their plans” (author’s notes of seminar held on June
17, 1992 in Jerusalem).
Ten years after the date placed by Schiin on the demise of the typical U.S. corporate long-range planner, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development sponsored a booklet which transposed business strategic planning to local government. Titled ‘Strategies for Cities and Counties: A Strategic Planning Guide’ (Sorkin et af., 1985) and appearing at the height of the Reagan years, it is unabashed about borrowing methods from business which rest squarely on the
Progress
274
rational
in Planning
assumptions
introduces
questioned
by Schon and. indeed.
by the MPU experience.
the topic thus:
“Strategic planning ha\ hwn \+~clcl> IIWCI I>> malot- c~q~or;ttion\ Gncc the IYhOa. Onl) reccntl) ha\ II heen rcc~qnircd a\ ;I \;IIuIIIAL’ pr~~~c~ tor refining and focusing the actions that ultimatcl\ clctemrne the tatc 01 citic\ and counties” CiAld. p I ).
The characteristics of strategic planning .‘--m I1 I\ I, tocrlsed ,‘“‘CC\Slh‘ll c~lncsrlrratc\ -~ ~ -.
;Irc:
on wlected 1\\115\ It e\plicltl! con~i&r~ lhc II’U)IIIC‘C‘~ .iv;iilahk It LILI~\SC’\ strength\ :~ncI \\cxhn~\w\ It considers maior c‘vcnt\ and change tahlng place crut~de the organization juridlctlon. It i\ ;Ictio~~-~~rlentat~tl, mlth strong cmpha\i\ 01, practical ie\ult\..‘~ (r/xi/)
Basic steps for strategic variations arc possible:
planning.
says the Guide.
are as follows -
01
although
“I. .SW~f/~ ~‘111,(101f))i(.111. Itlentlf! kc) fdctor\ .md trend\ Important tar the iuturc Lktrrmine hou extCrn;ll Iorcc\ will ~nllucnc~ ewnt\. 7. .Y&c/ KC,! /\.~LIP.\. On the h,l\i\ 01 the wan. chomc ;I le* 1\4uc5 \s ho\c \ucccs\tul resolution is critical 3 Set Mi.wrm Slnlcvmvrtt (II H17d Cir~rrl.~.tdalrli4l the dlrcctl~m for the btrategy development prc,cc\\ by wttinp penCral goals. 4. Erwmd wld I~rr~r,rrrl ,~l~trh~\i.c. I.i~~ii in depth iIt outside forms aftcdlng achirvcment d the goal\. Identify strength\ and \~eakncsw~. along with the availability of I’L’SOLI~CZ~ 5. lkwlo~~ C;ods. Oh~wliw~. (uI(/ .\‘t~~rr~,q~~~~. Rawd w the external and inteixd ;~nalyw\. dccidc N hat can hc achw\ed wth tnycc‘t IO each ~\\ue and how it \+ill Ix achiocd. (,. Ikwlr~p Ir,rl)le,rrc,r~rirti~~~~ Pldrf. Ik \pccllic ahl,ut tinwt;ihl~. rcwurcc\. ;ln~l rcsponsihilttic\ tar cxrl\lng 1lut \tr;lteglc actl~ln\ 7. ,Mor?/ror. (;,v~lncc~. crr~;/ .SCu,, f+nwre that \trateglea ;II-c c;rrrxxl out Adlust thcrr as nwe\sar) in ;I changing cn\ Ironmcnt. ik prcpxrccl to update the plan when maior change\ occur in the cnvironmL,nt.“ Crhi~l. 17. 7)
Among
the benefits
of strategic
“.A toc‘u\ 01, ;Iccmlpll\hlnglHlg
the
plannin, QT\vhich the Guide
Im[~““tarlt
lists. arc:
thnp
Community ducati~m dnd c~~n\ell\u\-lluil~ii~~~ lk\cloping 2 \harcd w\i(ln that cktencl\ pa\t the nekt clcction“ Positioning the tit! 01 count) ICI \CIK opp~~rtunltic\ Shedding new light on important i\we\ through I-ik:orous anal\v\ Helping to idcntily the mo\t cttccti\c uw (II levwrcc\. including public tunds Providing mc’chanIbm\ for prI\ ;rtc-puhllc coopcrdtlon .‘. (rhicl. pp. 5-8)
This upbeat and might
lead
assessment
of strategic
the optimistic
reader
planning’s to negate
potential Schiin’s
is a typical
concerns
sales pitch.
regarding
the
rationalist model. The guide’s outline of strategic planning sounds like an MPLJ’s idcal. And yet, the MPU cxpcricncc has shown that Schiin is right about the ‘messiness’ of local government. Indeed. it is far more immune than private business to ‘silver bullet‘ corrcctivc formulae. To introduce systematic change to Israeli local government requires more than a strategic planning exercise, however comprehensive. These rarely address the dichotomy which is fundamental to the MPU concept, of form and product in local government - using the goal to reshape processes, and using existing processes to obtain innovative goals.
It
Municipal
Strategic
Planning
275
Another important point about MPUs is that they are cheap. The Strategic Planning Guide warns that the “Dollar costs of formal strategic planning are Few Israeli local authorities are prepared to invest likely to be considerable”. their ratepayers’ money heavily in discretionary planning processes. Indeed, the very cheapness of the MPU liberates it at least partially from a heavy load of expectations and an overwhelming and immediate need to prove its ‘value for money’. Without large budgets at its disposal, and because of the inconsistent exercise of executive power in many Israeli local authorities, MPUs have often to fend for themselves in establishing their authority. The most important foundation is the highly-qualified staff which has been recruited to MPUs and their relative freedom from dependence on political patronage. Instead, MPUs are seen to be strengthened by the patronage of their outside sponsors - the Ministry of the Interior and the JDC. The respectability which MPUs have assumed enables them to be peers in the inner machinations of the political and executive processes, without having any real power in terms of services or budgets under their control. Given the circumstances under which MPUs operate, their relationship with the body of the local authority often departs from the business-based models sketched by Schon and detailed in Sorkin et al. (1984). A more appropriate framework of organizational analysis is offered by British management scientist Sir Geoffrey Vickers. Vickers argued that, for executives, goal-setting - the meat of corporate strategic planning - is actually often secondary to the main activity which he described as maintaining continuing relationships inside and outside the organization, with the overall aim being ‘course holding’. The work of Vickers has been applied imaginatively to the field of local planning by Yewlett in a paper published in Wales (Yewlett, 1983). As an aside, it is perhaps not surprising to find more useful conceptualizations of strategic planning emanating from Britain. Britain has endured constant tinkering with its local government system on the one hand and, on the other, has a private sector with a record which, until recently, did not commend itself for emulation. To illustrate the dichotomy of process and concrete goals, Yewlett provides an example offered by Vickers: “ Those who recognise the difference should not. I think, be content to mask it by giving to goal-setting and goal-seeking a meaning wide enough to include norm-setting and norm-holding; for goal-setting is a distinct form of regulation. with its own specific mechanism; a form less important, in my view. than norm-setting but important enough to be separately distinguished. For example a man who loves power - which is a specific relationship between a man and his milieu - both seeks power and exercises power (For such aspirants .). as they go through their daily work, chairing a difficult meeting, conducting a complex negotiation, they enjoy - amongst other things - maintaining their relationship with their milieu which is exercise of power. This is of course no criticism of them, so long as it is within their role.” (Vickers. quoted in Yewlett, 1983, p. IO.)
276
Progress
in Planning
For modeiling a decision-making approach which facilitates maintaining a relationship with an environment over time. Yewlett turns to the Strategic Choice approach articulated by Hickling (see Hickling and Friend, lC,XX~.Their approach homes in on choices which they SW as essential links in any decision-making process. The existence of choice is a prc-condition to planning. Each choice must be made in its strategic context. The approach is cyclical but still sees devclopmcnt as time elapses. Recurrent thcmcs reprcscnt norm-holding over time. while the gearing towards decisions focuses the process on looking for real advantages and trade-offs at any given point in time. It thus links the short and the long term. but the long term is expressed not by specific goals hut by the relationship to an environment which is to be maintained. Yewlett ends his short paper with a neat, almost romantic. metaphor: “And what of planner\? Under goal-setting, they arc like rally driccr\ 011 ;I rnkstcr) rally. trying to work out a map tar the whole rlt their future trip. or at Icart A large chunk of it. But there is no map. for the analogy is false, and the road ahead clot\ not exist until we reach It. Strategic choice muy encourage such planner\ to put down thcar mapping pens and s&c the stcerinp wheel with both hands instead .’ (/hid. p. 75) Ycwiett’s observations contain an analogy to the way in which an MPU director ‘navigates‘ the municipal system. it is guided by strategic aims. manifest in ;I consistent pressure to alter thinking rather than in a pursuit of ;I linear order ot landmark goals. Yewlett’s critique combines with Schdn’s scepticism to reinforce my opinion that MPU-type strategic planning is not only substantively diffcrcnt than its namesakes in cithcr the military or business spheres, but also better suited to the milieu in which it operates than borrowed tnodcls.
5.1.2.
Injluencing the machine of local government
Strategic planning runs the danger of becoming aloof of the evcryd:iy concerns of the officials who arc expect& to implement it in their practices. Indeed. as Schiin observed. in the business setting it typically c~~rnrnenccs in such alt~tfness and may never ‘make contact’ with the line-practitioners. Ideally, therefore, strategic thinking should not be confined to strategic planners. Rather. it should be an intcgrat part of the way pcuplc think and work in all spheres of the organization. A key innovation of the MPU approach to strategic planning is its aim to disseminate the influence of strategic thinking throughout the local authority organization. MPUs seek to go beyond the confinca of their small staff (usually no more than two, often just one) and create ;I wide cadre of workers who see strategic thinking and planning as part of the context and methodology of their everyday work. With this pcrspectivc. the strategic planner assumes a didactic role. largely unsung. as it steers towards a particular way of thinking. A~th~~ugh this process is greatly aided by an executive level which
Municipal
encourages
staff to become
necessarily
dependent on such a positive
more empowered,
Strategic Planning
277
the Lod case shows that it is not
attitude.
Philosophically, then, the MPU approach to strategic planning is tied in with contemporary thinking about the organizational structures appropriate for multi-task and financially ‘lean’ organizations. These structures emphasize flexibility, empowerment and flows of information, all webbed together by an explicit corporate purpose. The organizational paradigm indicated by MPU’s contains four interrelated elements: (1) (2) (3) (4)
The changing role of local government and the new demands placed upon it. The professional capability of local government to discharge its new roles. The role of strategic planning through MPU’s in helping shape local authority practices to bridge the gap between (1) and (2). The development of management practices in parallel to the development of MPU planning intervention strategies.
A lesson from the MPU experience, backed by the literature on strategic planning, is that there is a link between the orientation and authority of management, and the concept of strategic planning deemed acceptable or appropriate. It appears that the more hierarchical and authoritarian organizations the military and business - adopt strategic planning as a standard procedure. They tend, as Yewlett indicated, towards a goal-setting pattern of strategic planning. Such a pattern, incidentally, provides for easily measurable outputs and performance review which is appropriate to business, where profit and market-share are accepted common measures of performance. It is reasonable to assume that the managements of such organizations feel secure about their ability to set goals and ensure that they are adhered to by lower tiers of the organization. This is management by command structure, feasible where clear lines of vertical accountability exist. In conventional hierarchical organizations the looser form of strategic planning, embodied in an empowered, free-roaming MPU-type planner, would indeed be extraordinary. Israeli local authorities with their typically weak management structures, are now at a crossroads. They are moving away from the parochial, ‘small town’ management which characterized them in the past. The quality of planning and management is increasingly understood to be of vital significance. Now they have to decide whether they seek to emulate business and military practice by equating a strong executive with a centralistic executive, or search for an alternative. third way. If one were to characterize the evolution of local authority management, one would say that the MPUs belonged to the most recent of three generations which run as follows: First generation
-
Traditional government
fragmented management; in a centralized state.
passive
local
278
Progress
Second
in Plarinfng
generation
(‘orporatc
---.
planning
moniror
as
~overnmrnt‘x
attempt
an
local authority
to group
activity.
increased role; reliance on information
technology as ;I means of ensuring monopol)
-~
generation
(and interdepartmental)
is scctn as ;I ‘science’. where
ctc\irat>le to impose rationality ot c\,cryday
L)ccentraiizcci
tor
local authoritic\
arc
transitions
making
context in Shenhav.
mainly to statutory
land-use planning
ail directly
everyday running
management
of departments:
at all Icvcia.
characterized in ;I
yiciding little
level
director-gcncral;
ycariy departmental
and
indcpcndcncc
planning confined plans:
a
multitude
the leading
the trcaaurer.
mcmbcr
as the person
who can tell the mayor
oftcrl
of a dirccto--gcncral
ci\ii service.
with
accelerate
the transition
as head and co-ordinator
from
as was the USC‘ in CJm EIFahcm. trappings
of a contemporary
meetings,
for
cxampic;
first
generation arc more
computcrizcd
attempt to bring into line the dispcratc activities general, second-generation of which is a tighter
and more
centralistic
is a predictable
antithchis
professionalism
of the first
generation
of the executives
appointed
are in business
or in the military.
of hierarchical
and centralized
outdated.
this
that
regular
on decisions
control
which.
type of management
over
management.
However.
In
the hallmark
and lack of
it is also logical
local government:
should
and an
the organization.
as WC have noted
management.
staff taken
of the various departments.
to the informality to run
types,
stcreotypicai
management is becoming the benchmark,
Centralism the world
noticeable:
can
to the later
management.
follow-up
The
of executive operations
managcmcnt
In second-gcncration
organization
possibly
the
into ;I small number of divisions.
con\olid:rted
is becoming more common. I have suggested that the presence of an MPU help
in
of the headquarter-staff
not bc donc.
of dcpartmcnts
appointment
used
bctwccn first and second
The second generation lean\ on ;I more professionalizeri multitude
crcatcs
technology
accountable to the mayor; influence of politicians
level executive is gcncrally can
of
1091 ). The first gcncration management
to the civil scrvicc; ;I weak or non-cxistcnt
what can and
senior
information
better decision-making
is also characterized hy ;I dominant political
of departments
empowerment
managements (theac types have been usefully
broader historical
it is possible
by getting a handle
a4 well as vertical communications.
horizontal
facilitating Most Israeli
whiic
paradigms:
decision-making.
work.
nianagcmcnt:
linedepartment\ facilitative
generation-type
management’s
perspective and
Man;lgemcnt on the detail Third
senior
on o\.erall organizational
on high-icvel and
and
in response to local
before,
it is ironic,
be adopted
in terms
their
role
of
models
have a history if not sadly
in a11era which
has
Municipal
Strategic Planning
279
large, centralistic corporations falter. Furthermore, major corporations are increasingly attempting to generate informality and cross-departmental working, to ensure faster and smoother flows of communication. Highly visible examples of troubled monoliths include IBM and General Motors. The former failed to recognize that its core business of mainframe computers was no longer at the core of its milieu of data-processing, leading IBM to chase the wrong goals with all its corporate cohesion and tradition. General Motors’ complex hierarchies are at the root of its difficulty in developing new products economically, at a competitive pace and with high quality (Womak et al., 1991). Judging by this record, it seems likely that the second-generation management model being adopted by Israeli local authorities wifl find a frustrating gap between its rationalistic pretensions and the reality of local government. This, as we have said before and as Schiin pointed out, is uniquely ‘messy’ in comparison with the business world. A lesson could be learnt from the attempts at ‘corporate planning’ in British local authorities in the 1960s and 1970s. It was assumed that technology could enable managers to chart all aspects of the local authority’s work, setting goals and monitoring their achievement in detail. This approach was inspired by manufacturing industry’s tradition of breaking activities down to distinct and linearly sequential steps. It was also a reaction towards the increasing complexity of government and service delivery, a quest for a ~technological fix’. The ‘fix’, however, was flawed. The planning and monitoring systems were too detailed to be operated reliably or cost and time-effectively; they stifled flexibility and creativity - or were ignored for the sake of these less quantifiable characteristics. Exercising authority to achieve compliance with the demands of such systems was time consuming and damaging to staff relations (for a review of the corporate planning fashion in local government, set, for example, Stewart, 1983, pp. 166-173). The ‘strategic Planning Guide’ quoted earlier (Sorkin et a/.. 1984). is similarly rooted in the culture of corporate planning. with its centralized authority. It takes strategic planning all the way to detailed plans, seeing detailed planning as an integral part of strategy-making. But l would suggest that it is mistaken in presenting strategy as the machine-code basis of programming the local authority. If construed in that way, strategy becomes oppressive and dispiriting for managers and employers, and will be doomed by being both too detailed and insufficiently dynamic. The third-generation management type is characterized by looser operational management control, coupled with a strong organizational sense-of-purpose and a clear articulation of overall mission backed by a holistic planning perspective. In the terms proposed by Yewlett, the type of relationship which the local authority wishes to have with its eIlvironment are made very clear. The operational details and decisions as to how each service embodies these relationships and pursues seen
Progress
280 them.
are left
definition
increasingly
with
Adding
is. of course.
political
arbitration
to the complexity
organization
and thus
is one fixed relations
ih ;I third:
the physical
holistic
represent
operates
with
planing. several
other
which
-
They
are professionals.
-
They
arc professionals
skills. -
with
taking
of the relationship
which
organization-wide
Urn
Id
remain
or have been part In fact.
few
Part
the management
move recent of their
years
reforms.
appointment The
role
The
professional
ahillt>.
--
the ncccl
MPU
which
on gcncric
staff
also
arc’ consistent
;I\ much
the local government
as on applied
cn\ironment
holistidly
and arc Icgitimized
of basic indcpendencc.
incorporates
in
MPlJ
staffs:
professionalism.
suggest
proccsses
in IOGII gjvcrnmcnt
that.
with
with
which
rcquiro
at least xomc of the clcmcnts
have bith
cncoul-aging
case-studies
concept
tvpc.
That
permitting
Icgitimizing
proper
management
existing
staffs.
hclpcd
guide
MPlIs
just
ah the\
in Natanva.
with
which
-
then
director
of directors-gener~II
So MPkI\
management
‘gcncration5’
through arises
types.
onI\ nia!‘or
to bypass
change.
To
mayors.
is \onicwhat
mav feel in looking
hecau\e.
Not The
proccccl
cast’s where
having
ot zuch
local go~crnmcnt.
a c;~xual ohscrver
the organizntional from
the ‘third
one type to anothct..
in one authoritv.
have been two
of two
from
it can he temporal.
structure
with
til-st OI- ~cconci-Fcncr~rtion
local authority
arc appliccl
or topical.
mo\t in tune
far an> manifc~t~ltion4
in Israeli
progression
of an Israeli
moved
appears
\aid, w
and far-between
ii linear
neutralizes there
\uggc\ts again
to embody.
their
local authorities
of the confusion
management
which
relations
local and national
arrangcmetits
an emphasis
of the transition
styles
bc departmental
list
type of managcmcnt
to towns
to suggest
management
for
which
the MPLI
have been introduced
misleading.
and financial
-
with
and Kehovot.
management
nianagcmcnt
attempt
level
staff.
in specific
philosophically
efficient
with
to view
MPlJ
incorporated
So,
This
can lx pal-t of the relationship
these
generation’
;I fourth.
chosen
perspectives. The
EIFahem.
sovereigntic\
Relations
positions.
with
were
tiscal
environment;
in staffing
;I third-~cnel-ntion
attention.
is ;I multi-hcrvicc
of this
government
the MPlJ’s
;I mandate
a new relationship
indcpendcncc.
The
analysis
management:
independent
Sustaining
the local authority cnvironmcnt.
have ;III agreed-upon
They
managers.
strategic
1,i.s ti \,i.s :I composite
new departures
third-gcncration
and junior
and calls for
of priorit&.
environment.
with
of middle
crucial
is the fact that
component
a second: for
to the initiative
of environment
combined
citizens
in Planning
fqucntlq.
can the distinction ma!
create
it by making
illustrate
this
;I new. ;I political
point.
war\’ of the political
no director-general
at
all three
at all.
in fallout
to the simultaneous
generals. is discussctl
in &tail
in Appendix
2. NOM.
I would
Municipal
like to take a closer look at the paradigms management
5.2.
THE
suggested
5.2.1.
Postmodern
FOR
Planning
281
of local government
by the MPU experiences.
CHALLENGE
PERCEPTIONS
for the future
Strategic
OF A NEW THE
FUTURE
local governance
PARADIGM: OF LOCAL
DEVELOPING
NEW
GOVERNMENT
and management
In the previous chapter, I offered a sketch of management generations in Israeli local government. At present, the second-generation type, with its assertion of centralistic management authority and emphasis on a budget-planning process governing the local authority’s activity, seems to be prevailing. However, there is also a third generation in the offing, to which the work of the MPUs frequently alludes and which I will further explore in this chapter. Starting with the character of the local authority itself, third-generation management looks beyond the boundaries of local government’s direct influence. It seeks partnerships and non-controlling influences to ensure proper services. This view has emerged as a reaction to the more dogmatic pressures for privatization, and as a positive response to popular demand for improving the consumer-type interface which citizens have with local government. It is also an invitation to create a plurality of services which can be more sensitive to the needs of smaller population groups, creating partnerships with specialized non-profit organizations to facilitate a more flexible and targeted delivery of services. Two features stand out here: the capacity which must be developed for negotiation and communication with outside groups, and the potential for expanding services despite financial strictures, which targeting and partnership may deliver. Looking at the implications for staff in the local authority, third-generation management calls for line-service managers to have considerable flexibility in ensuring delivery of services. Note that I did not say, ‘how they deliver services’ - a clear distinction should be drawn between responsibility for the delivery of services and the undertaking of their direct production. At the extreme, the local authority need not produce any services by itself. Like a supermarket, it can act as purchasing and packaging agent, buying in services from specialized producers and packaging them in ways accessible and appropriate for the local population. From the consumer’s point-of-view, the process of buying-in and ‘stacking the shelves’ is largely invisible, and the actual identity of the producers is almost irrelevant. A clear conceptualization of third-generation local government has emerged in Britain, rooted in its concern with local government and its well established welfare state. The political challenge posed to local authorities by the Conservative-led governments of the 198Os, produced a new climate for assessing
282
Progress
in Planning
government’s function and impact (for an account of British local government in the 14180s. cf. Duncan and Goodwin. IYXX). Rodney Brooke’s ‘Managitzg thc~ Enchlirl,q Authorit>~’ (Brookc. IYXY) provides a systematic outline for cyxrating a ‘third-guner~ltion’ local authority. Brooke. local
a former Chief Exccutivc of Westminster City (‘ouncil (a historic Central London Borough) reviews the ri\t’ and decline of the corporate local authoritv - something akin to our ‘\ccond-gcner~ltic,n‘ management type. The idcal of ;I rational management rcgimc which the corporate local authorit), represented. hc argues. collapsed under the prcdictahlc strain\ of an erratic and unprcdict;lhlc operational cnvironmcnt. This contained - as it l~aci in the past -- strains between politicians and service managers. 7‘0 thcsc was added ;I fisc;~l crisis. and the fact that government granted loc:~l authorities inadcquatc control over local services. Instead of a corporate outlook. what emerged by the late I%Os was ;I fragmented local government systcni. riddled with fiefdoms and internal competition. Then came the prcssura of the 1YXOs. requiring ;I new framework of reference for local authorit) operation. Brooke names this framework ‘*the enabling authority” and in describing its emergence hc may ax acll be writing about Israel: -I-he po\cer\ <~ll<~rted to iw! ~o\c~nm~n~ 11, l3r1ta111 l~~llo\~ no ~ntcrn
Brooke times the paradigm-shift away 1’1~omthe corporate authority around the early 1970s. ‘This is also the time Schiin mcntionh in connection with the emerging doubts about traditional corporate strategic planning. I)avid Harvey. in his insightful “TIIc C‘orzrlitiorl o,/’ Po,strllotl~,~rlit~,” (Horvcv. IYXY). joins in the pinpointing of the early lY7Os as a time of paradigm shift..Harvey
<‘it\“] ~2, writtcv at ;I momc‘nt v.hcn uppw’ ii\ common dew2ptol-~ 01 urtutl Ii\ ~ng. It v,ii\ also written at that cusp in intc*llectual hi\trjr! when vxncthlng called .l~~~\trn~)d~rrlt~rn emerged from it\ chrysali\ of thr anti-modern tcr c\tahli\h It\clf
Municipal Harvey
uses the term ‘postmodernity’
to provide
Strategic
a positive
Planning
283
label for
contemporary reaction to the rationality of the ‘modern’, and its assumption to impose universal rules and models on diverse phenomena (for a fascinating exploration of the modernist paradigm in the United States, see Tichi, 1987). In that sense, the enabling authority is an attempt to bring government to contend with a new perception of reality and grapple with its consequences. Management science, to use the rather-old fashioned term. has also been grappling with the notion of superceding the hierarchies formalized in traditional mass-production and implemented in most corporate organizations. Exploration of the postmodern business organization is still fragmented, and undoubtedly conscious of the historical investment in the existing management systems and production technologies. Yet, led by the ‘management gurus’. changes of perception are evolving to suit the needs of the turn-of-the-century world. Tom Peters, a senior ‘guru’ who in the early 1980s wrote (with Robert H. Waterman) the influential “In Search of Excellence”. has recently turned to exploring what could be termed the corporate organization of the post-mechanical age. In his latest tome (“Liberation Mmugement: Necessar) Disor~unizution for the Nanosecond Nineties”. Peters, 19X!), Peters raises some points which I find irresistible in the context of this discussion of management structures. Peters advocates learning across sectoral boundaries, imitation and adoption of good ideas from one industry to another: in one example, he cites a car dealership which adopted methods used by a pizza parlour to make customer’s waiting time more enjoyable (pp. 605-606). Boundaries are ‘soft’, to borrow Raban’s phrase (fairly, I think). Peters’ entire book is. in a sense, constructed in a ‘postmodern’ style - the argument pursued eclectically. its underpinning drawn from anywhere relevant, demanding that the book be read to-and-fro, so bringing the reader into the paradigm. Usefully for our discussion, Peters looks at the dilemma and role of strategy. Organizations, he notes. need strategic focus but can become over-protective of such a focus once it is achieved. trap”:
He terms the problem.
“the vision
and values
“All good ideas eventually get oversold. The importance of corporate vision and vaIuc\ is no exception To empower workers to focus on quality XKI scrkc. the time had come to chuck the four-pound policy manual and imtill a papcrlcs. shared notion of ‘what’s important around here’ that left plenty of room for individual initiative. The idea was - and is - right. But there are caveats. Over time. value+in-action get clahoratcd. Before you know it. a value st bccomcs more rigid than the rult‘ book it replaced What’s the answer’? surely not to return to those I .OOl)-page policy manuals. How about, ‘review your values and update them rcgularl)?’ Sound\ good. but cxpcriencc suggests caution Most value review proce~se\ arc ;I waste of time. Or wor\c: They frequently end up producing even snore convolutions The only solution I can con.iurc 1s to creak a corporals federation of l>uGneh\ unit\ independent enough to cl-ate their own v:iluea .” (Peters. 1091. p. 616). JPP4,:3-f
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The way Peters sees it, then. the institutional challenge revolves around creating operational units which relate to each other in a manner that ensures renewal and creativity. Relationships are paramount: relationships between people within the organization, and relationships bctwcen the organization and the operating environment. Peters suggests that the best way to maintain tlcxibility and creativity is to address the operating environment through ;I multitude of facets. It is challenging to relate this model to our analysis of local government. We saw how in Israel a great deal of effort went into creating ;I common cause fat departments which had been indcpcndently accountahlc to single-purpose central government hierarchies. Local government is grappling with the co~~scque~~~s of chaotic decentralization, trying to get its own constituent parts to accept that they relate in fact to a common entity. It is often attempting to promote such cohesion by adopting the ‘vision and value thing’ and by creating workplans which are probably the equivalent of the I .OOO-page manual. IinfoI-tunatcl~. Peters demonstrates how this type of management is being supcrcedcd in precisely the business sector which the local authorities arc rushing to emulate. Within this confused and volatile context. the MPUs have been engaged in holistic planning as a means of promoting an understanding of the interdependcncc of different activities in the local authority. What do these efforts mean. in the context of Peters’ model? Peters’ model would \uggcst that the \tresh should once more shift to the individual service. However. the individual service is now in ;I different context of relationships. There will be no return to the cxtcrnal lines ot hierarchical management which led directly away from the locality and from local accountability. Instead, each service needs to develop its OU’II partnerships with relevant suppliers in its tield. and at the same time maintain a dialogue with the public as well. Basically, within broad parameters of budget and realm. the line-manager would have to formulate a provision and service-supply stt-atcg! and wet-k out hcrvicc parameters with potential clients and suppliers. The MPU is then ;I kc! instrument for facilitating the circulation of ideas. the raising of compctcnces and the creation of overall long-term strategies. This vision of MPLI work ih. ot course. only rarely part of today’s reality but it dots demonxtratc the kind ot paradigms IO which the MPU relates. For the ultimate in flexible organizations. management experts ha\c coined the phrase “the virtual corporation” (cf. ntt.sitlc,.s.sWccX.February S. 199.3). The term alludes to an existence on the borderline of realitv: the phcnomcnon clcscribctl is of companies which have ;I minimal tixctl ccmponcnt and which opcratc through a network of ad hoc partnerships. supported by xlvancccl col7lmunicatlon technology. Each partner can concentrate on ;I ‘core compctcncc’. creating ;I network which, ultimately. can be good at all aspects of its operation. While this form is not yet fully apparent in husincss. and is far rcmovcd from the
Municipal
reality
of local government,
such a model, would represent
it nonetheless
the local authority
presents
some challenging
with its fixed constituency
a hub for a network,
essentially
285
Strategic Planning
notions.
In
and accountability
a political
decision-making
and
co-ordinating body. To carry out its aims and policies, it would rely on outside or arms-length suppliers and form partnerships for the delivery of certain services. Furthermore, it would foster horizontal tie-ups between its suppliers. For example, in combating drug abuse it could contemplate a bid brought jointly by a law enforcement agency and an educational organization.
5.2.2.
New structural paradigms for local government
Three principal points emerge from applying organizations to local government: (1)
(2) (3)
the literature
on flexible
The importance of having a hub which sets the direction for the local authority, creating its operational paradigm. The ‘core competence’ of this hub is mediation through the politicai process of conflicting demands on resources. The importance of creating structures which not only facilitate or impose horizontal collaboration, but actually reward it. The need to support the creation of units, inside or outside the local authority, with appropriate core competences.
With these three components, local authority as follows:
one can identify
(1)
The political process, levels of provision.
(2) (3)
maintaining access to services, in terms of cost and geographical location. maintaining quality - ensuring that the local authority’s approval is a trusted measure for quality. Support of innovation, on the assumption that a fragmented service supply system is unlikely to be able or willing to afford new research and development beyond what is necessary for maintaining the competitive position of each individual supplier.
(4)
producing
policies
the role of the third generation
for defining
service
diversity
and
While Brooke’s model of the enabling authority does not envisage paring down as far as a ‘virtual local authority’, it does attempt to establish a portfolio of relationships to characterize contact between the local authority and its environment. Like the ‘virtual corporation’ theorists and like Vickers in the 196Os, Brooke is looking to the de~ning reIationships through which the local authority might succeed in repositioning itself in a manner appropriate for the present and
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Progress
future.
the
in Planning
shys away from a definition
Hc
characterization
of the local authority’s
in which the local authority
rejecting ;I ‘shopping list‘
by function.
scope. Instead. he tries to look at the way
will continue to hc at the center of local communal
sees eight huch types of relationship:
He
control over ;I third party through direct contracting; partial control. agency --
where the
for cxamplc.
partnership,
;I
authority
local
controls
part of the operation ot ;II~
and an external
agent>’ combine to pur\uc‘ ;I
school:
where the authority
common aim: part-ownership. purchasing.
whcrc the local authority the Iocal authority
where
is part-owner
01 ;I compoGtc hod\ :
has intlucnce through if\ purchastng
policy: support of cxtcrnal regulation.
where
agencies. the
voluntary:
uwally
local authorit\
has licensing OI cnfot-cing power\
affecting the operation of an external capacity to influence.
the and
:igency
(Brookc.
Local authorities. of relationships Israeli
The
and still
where
IWC).
p.
argues Drooke.
agent) :
there
is no direct
hctween
local
grow cotnpctcnt it1 maintaining
must
to bc able to carry out Ihcir situation
link
role
is a far cry from ;I premeditated
‘virtual’
local authorit!
are caught in two conflictin, 0 trends:
first.
the dcccntr~tli/atic,rl
by-default procesx leading to an accumulation of ncu’ responGbilitic\. increasingly
apparent financial and orgtni/ationat
directly-provided The
Israeli
local authority
dichotomy
decentralization: government
exists
control
to local
central
authorities
thus
over
They
under-funded bolted
criticism
end
and
usually
with
frotn the sinking
policy. Ciovcrnmcnt
of it4 pet-fortnancc
up taking
arc
And,
against
government
this,
to c~~ncede
I‘~c
:rrl~l
intlucncc
over
sv\tcms
becomes
Lvorkct-s
alt-cads tla\c ‘tailurc
\vhich
-
L.ocal
ovc%r\k hclmitig.
pt-escnted to locd gov~rtimetit
demoralized
OI
rat-cIh pu1lh out hetorc rc\ourc’cs
often
after
the
~\ritten
;iII
vc’;ii.\ ot hcitig
after
best
worker\
h;t\c
ship.
Local leaders tneet this paradox with contradictory mot-c responsibility.
IW\V \c’rvicc\.
support
is only likcl,
when it cannot ithclf esct-ci\e it: MC GIL\ ~111 cumplc
government
or before
them.
dccentt-~tlizatic,n occut-\ at ;I time v, hen IOCYII
governtncnt
this in the ‘direct absorption’ out.
Second.
to t’xp;tn’;iott ot
an unavoidable pat-;do\- ot
rellccts
almost by detinition. hccausc
limitations
services.
probably
does not have the t-c’rourccs to properly
paradox
dry
thc\c t! ICY
~uccessi’~~ll~~.
ambiguous regarding the features of an cnablin, 0 iiuthorit\,._ Israeli
local authorities the
authorit\,
I1 ).
instincts:
;m urge to expand and add more service\ an instinctive
caution
with
regnrd
to anvthing
litbt. ;I hunger 101. to rhc
invcntorb.
that central
has touched in the past. To this is added the wcighr of the
accumulating evidence that expansion of \ervicca
is not
economicallv
suqtainahlc.
Municipal
Strategic Planning
287
To respond to this paradox Israeli local authorities will have to reposition themselves. The inclination to supply services directly will have to be curbed. Instead,
the local authorities
must become
the core in a network
of diverse
services providers. The MPUs already belong in the new paradigm, with their emphasis on collaboration with existing bodies and their role as empowerers of others. In the United States, against a backdrop of gridlock in Washington D.C. and widespread dissatisfaction with government, Osborne and Gabler (1992) set out to look for examples of quality in government. They came up with the phrase ‘reinventing government’, and defined quality in two features of government. Quality outputs - better school examination results, better use of taxpayers money. And then, organizational quality - government which is more responsive and better able to recruit and retain high-quality staff. The pair point out that while most eyes turn to Washington, much of the real business of governance is carried out by a multitude of smaller - sub-national and local - governments. Writing in the land where consumerism is most developed, they focus on the need to identify government’s real customers: not the boss, the mayor or the head of the national bureaucracy, but the citizens. The citizens, for their part, are increasingly conditioned by their buying experiences - through retail in particular - to demand high levels of service from government: “The greatest irritant most people experience in their dealing with government is the arrogance of the bureaucracy. People today expect to be valued as customers - even by government. In the 1950s. nearly two-thirds of Americans who had jobs did unskilled labour, while one-third worked with their minds. Today that ratio is reversed. The result is a generation of citizens who have very different expectations from those held by their industrial-era mothers and fathers.” (Osborne and Gaebler. 1992, pp. 167-168).
The subtitle of Osborne and Gaebler’s book is, “How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is Transforming the Public Sector”. Not surprisingly, then, they are at their strongest where government functions can be made analogous to those of private enterprise. and citizens can be cast as consumers. This approach works best in looking at individual services and their interaction with their ‘customers’ - the users-citizens. They also have the case-studies to show how service-provision units - from police departments to public schools - can become more closely involved with their customers, producing financial savings and greater satisfaction on the part of both user and provider. However convincing the would-be re-inventors of government are at the level of improving individual services, they provide few clues as to how to resolve conflicts over priorities which come part-and-parcel with local government’s multi-purpose mandate. Yet this political role is a vital component of local government. In the space they devote to representative democracy, Osborne and Gabler stress that more elections or elected officials are not a viable solution: people do not want to vote more often. How, then, to solve complex allocation problems? By default,
288
Progress
in Planning
we have only the existing
invalidate customer
political structures to look to. Ot course. this does not the stress which Osborne and Gaebler place on the centrality of the to a service-provider’s focus. Rut there is a second. wider circle which
does complicate matters. In this circle, leaders have to crcatc the agreed-upon priorities which then form the operational parameters for the line department. For such partnership-seeking departments. the political procchh Lvill dctcrmine the resources which they can bring to the negotiating-table. The ‘roads versus day-care for the elderly’ decisions will remain in the political domain and at the headquarters-staff level - precisely the level at which MPUs operate. The MPU is pivotal to the hcadquartcrs’ staff obligation to provide parameters for operation which include the financial and the demographic. but also go beyond them. It is the role of this staff to assess the overall positioning of the city or rural area with regard to wider social and economic trends. Thih task is becoming increasingly complex in a world where the foundations of economic and political behavior have shifted radically. Peters quotes Czech president and playwright Vaclav Havcl. who in a speech in March IYYZ to world business leaders. said: Cotnmuniw~ is\ an cd not jwt to the nineteenth ;tnd tucntwth centuries. hut to the modern age ah a whole the proud twlicl that man. ;I\ the pinnacle of cwrything that L‘xi’rt\. was capable ot objcctivelq clescrihin~. cupbininp ,~nd controlling everything that exists” (quoted in Peter\. 1W2, I’. 131)
“[The collapse of
Have1 alludes once more to a post-modern paradigm. still lacking ;t II;I~IU in its own right, defined by what it has supcrcedcd and not yet I~\ its own essence For the local authority, though, one thing is clear - it is :I time of unprecedented blurring of boundaries. The boundaries blurred are those of authority and sovcrcignties, of ideologies and of powers. The internationaliz~~tion of media. capital and communications, the emergence of super-national trading block\ at one end and the fragmentation of some states at the other, create uncertainties from which national governments can no longer shield their citizens. As LJniversitc of Massachusetts economic development cxpcrt John Mullin has put it. “all development is local: all competition is international” (Iccturc at Wcsto\,er. Mash.. July I, lYY3). A recent United Nations report quantities the phenomenon of global capital (“World Investment Report” reviewed in the Wdl Srrwt Jolrrrltrl. July 21. lYY.3). It counts 37,000 transnational corporations - up from 7000 twcntv _ .vcars ago. The annual revenues of the transnationals arc around $5.5 trillion - more than the value of trade across borders worldwide ($4 trillion). Accordingly, the role of local governments in today‘s world is different; their core competences in service delivery must be supplemented by competencea which are either entirely new or which were the prescrvc of clitcs in national government. academia and business. Capital is transnationally mobile: investors can compare operating environments across national and continental boundaries. The relative economic advantages of a locality are compared with others in ;I
Municipal
Strategic Planning
289
global corporate search for competitive advantage. A pattern now exists whereby international capital interacts directly with localities. Central governments are cast in a more reactive mould, while the foundations of their economies - their manufacturing base and their currencies - come under international competitive pressure. For localities, this means a new interpretation of their responsibility for welfare which must now also address economic development and employment. In Israel, this represents another aspect of decentralization to have emerged in the past eight years or so, once more re-defining the operational environment of local government. Interestingly, European local authorities are encountering a more formalized procedure for ‘jumping over the heads’ of their national government, through direct contact with the European Economic Council. Here, local authorities are categorized according to multinational regional development criteria: hill-farming communities, for example, are more likely to have their level of subsidy determined by their altitude than by their national governments. Looking at the relationship between the European Community, local authorities and the British government, a British expert has noted the following: “In
[Britain] at least, the partnership on the ground between the [European] Gmmission. central government and local government is still working unevenly. owing in part to the over-dominance of central government and in part to the failure of local government to provide a coherent representative input across each area concerned . In the future, as the Community further develops towards a European union, it seems inevitable that this must be at the expense of some of the present powers of national governments [which] will become increasingly less appropriate as the level for delivering, implementing and enforcing policies drawn up at the European level .” (Bongers, 1990, pp. 85-87).
Bongers’s message is quite clear. The ultimate direction is one which formalizes the diminished role of the national government in macro-economic management. For the present, local government’s ability to assert itself is underdeveloped in comparison with that of central government - but this is a transitional stage. The EEC is a formalized recognition that national boundaries have been comprehensively - and perhaps irrevocably - blurred by movements of capital. Bongers points to the need for local authorities to take the 1992 implementation date for the European single market, with its free movement of goods and people, as a watershed date in their assessment of their role. He notes that many local authorities have already responded: “Working in a productive relationship with local employers and chambers of commerce, many authorities have sought to forecast how local employment patterns may be affected by the opening of the single market and have set out to review and sharpen up their planning, transportation, environmental and training policies with an eye to maximising the potential of their area” (ibid, p. 73). I, for one, agree with Bongers’ observations and would point to them as further evidence of the working of a post-modern order where the economic power of
290
Progress
nation-states saying
in Planning
has been cclip>cd.
Bangers
that the task of re-posifioning
calls for collaboration traditional might
between
local rivalries.
have provided
experience
allocation
at your
located
collaboration
apply
rclatc
on which
5.2.3.
(in
together
The
more
more
of the MPLJs
implicitly
have elements hy other
impact
countrie\.
arc adapting
decentralized Some
conimunitics.
rather
of reference.
concept
of normholding
helps frame
IocaI accountability
to
5erics
of contemporary
and of’ ‘exercising
on management
its predicament.
Other
Lvorld and its implications.
concrete
fact.
postmodern
horizons
faced by Israeli
challenges
they
increasingly.
rcalitics
;~nd policy
are aIrcad! local authorities
con\‘crge
counterparts
It i4 ;I formidable
with
elsewhere.
while
trying
those Israeli
facd
local
to cushion
their
made more difficult
challenge.
for Israel’s
development
being
emerging
authority Expressing
environment.
has defined its norms
others
types
has come tools with which to assert provider
may be forced
and Stewart
offer4
;I flexible
some of its norms
al-c revicwcd Mcanwhilc these
types
its influence
for
I find Vickcr\’
1065. pp. 34-35).
with
of rclalionships
through
framework
the local :iuthorit>
on relationships.
(Vickcrs,
authority.
while
operational
local
focu\
useful
local
fixed
;I clearer
by goals and outputs.
on this
particularly
--
create
The idea of defining
than simply Building
of the enabling authority.
do. hol\ecer,
the flcsiblc
of the local authority’s
Clarke
provide
L_ike their
analysis
concepts
concept
service
hul.
in local c’ ‘Tovcrnnicnt.
by its relationships
authority
a5 too great
governance.
change
framework
i5 still perceived
and help explain
to r~rpitll~-ch~lngiii~
of explicit
management
directing
terms
ho\v ~me The
arc unique
on their
was
paradigm
4ioM.s
which
by the paucity
which
of ;I postmodern
then
or explicitly.
inclustrializccl
authorities
to collaborate.
Many of these theories
world.
to characteristics
we can speculate
study
authorities
an interrelated
local government
MPUs and the ‘postmodern’
touched,
my
any devclopmenl
the ~~nsc both of ‘coping’
in ;I postmodern
to contemporary
notions
market
15 one you have lost out on. The cost of regional
anti political
I have brought
on managing
management’)
of
the single
In 1hrael. however.
ncighbouring gain:
in
by IOC;II politician\.
section
observations
observation.
and an abandonment
in Europe.
ah ;I are-sum
town
forccfuI
to meet a new challenge
date for implementing
in gcttinp
in both economic
be paid voluntarily In this
difficulty is htill ~cn
neighhour’s
another
local author-itia.
The tnrsct
;I spur f’or \uch activity
is of great
Resource
makes
a local economy
periodically Urooke’s available
This -~ such as in light exploration
to the
of relationships,
the local
even as its role as direct
to decline.
( I%-%) cxplcjrc
the characteristics
of management
which
Municipal
is appropriate
for the tasks of an enabling
articulation of some principles MPUs seek to create strategic
authority.
Strategic Planning
They provide
The focus was on the maintenance incremental growth .” (Clarke
Strategic management advocate, be one which:
a useful
for ‘third generation’ type management. While planning, Clarke and Stewart refer to ‘strategic
management’. They summarize the defunct paradigm thus: .. The traditional working of local government was built on continuity of existing activities and their adjustment and Stewart, 1988. p. 13).
appropriate
to contemporary
challenge
291
the
of activity. through
will, they
*‘- looks outward * * * * *
to problems and needs; it focuses on key issues and not on present activities is selective: direction is not found in detail but in priorities and the identification of key changes exposes choice: existing activities conceal the choice that is made and re-made in continuity is guided by political purpose: it gives direction to the authority recognises uncertainty: it is concerned more with possibilities than with precise predictions is realistic in terms of achievement.” (ibid.)
Several of these foci are incorporated in the MPUs, reinforcing their claim to function as agents of strategic change. Clarke and Stewart add another vital dimension to their analysis, at the point where Osborne and Gaebler rather fizzle out. Future management, in Clarke and Stewart’s opinion, must reinforce the government function of local authorities, which plays second-fiddle at present - so they argue - to their administrative functions. As more services are contracted out, the local authority’s role as service producer will diminish. Instead, it will be in a position, willingly or unwillingly, to make choices about which services are to be provided. This government responsibility will require greater contact with community members - a dialogue about choices facing local government. Thus. at the end of this chapter, we return to familiar local building blocks, recast: community, communication, government. It is a local triangle, for which relations with central government are no longer primary. Its achievement requires political awareness and leadership, information, and managers capable of operating an ongoing partnership through negotiation and dialogue with diverse constituents of leaders, contractors, service-users and workers. Such management is neither like traditional public sector management nor like private sector management, although it can learn from both and metaphorise in relation to them. In Israel, these three building-blocks - leadership, community involvement and professional management - are not yet sufficiently nor equally developed to be declared a new local partnership. In the longer-term, however, the existing situation is untenable. The mayors will have to emerge from behind their
292
Progress
in Planning
smokescreens and work with the public on an ongoing basis. old ways lose credibility if the local authorities fail to deliver
Quite simply, the reasonable service.
The fall of the Front for Peace and Equality in Urn ElFahem. despite the town’s unique features, was an indicative case in point. Over time, the MPUs efforts can contribute to making the need for a re-alignment of local government more obvious. The MPUs holistic planning already produces guidance regrading the new domain of local government. It can identify the underpinnings of management in terms of norm-holding and maintenance of relationships over time. MPUs can help identify the boundaries of a new paradigm, and suggest ways of adjusting to it; in that they fill their didactic role as well as their mission to be agents of change.
CHAPTER
6
Conclusion: the Future
Making
Sense of Change
and Befriending
Israeli local government is facing a radically altered operational paradigm, reflecting wider social changes. Decentralization is taking hold and with it, substantial new responsibilities are imposed on local government. In the past, the development of Israeli local authorities was largely shaped by centralistic central government. In the last 15 years, however, the issues facing local government have rapidly come into line with those facing government and public sector service provision elsewhere in the industrialized world. The internationalization of capital has accelerated this convergence by placing local authorities in different countries on a common playing field as they vie for investment. Meanwhile, expectations of public sector services are shaped by the experience of their users as consumers. With business becoming increasingly both global and consumer-driven, international reference-points are evolving which local authorities cannot ignore. The authority of national governments is seeping both upwards and downwards, to localities and to transnational entities. The theoretical backing and the management awareness necessary to redraw lines of government responsibility, meanwhile, lag behind. Israeli local authorities have been attempting to adapt to the new paradigm by altering the scope and the mechanics of their operation. The MPU programme which I have discussed in detail, has been a specific and unique tool in the adaptation process. The uniqueness of the programme stems from several factors. First, the MPUs have a rare capacity for moving between levels of abstraction. MPUs have demonstrated a capacity to remain informed about changing macro-environments, an ability explicitly supported by the programme co-sponsors and professional backers at the JDC. MPUs now act as ‘feelers’ for local authorities, sensing trends and policy currents before they are necessarily evident or impact upon the operational level. That said, the MPUs local credibility is rarely rooted explicitly in this achievement, which represents its more aloof side. Rather, MPUs are often most valued for their ability to function at the opposite level of abstraction, by entering the fray of everyday local government administration. MPU-type strategic planning 293
294
Progress
means
in Planning
applving
defined
strategic
in purely
the municipal
imniediatc,
machine.
cross-section principals. A second
strength
that most
programme’s
of these
prestige. I for
of MPU
Evolving
on staff
a
new school
multi-service
hodies,
need tu syntheaizc Their
stable
Quite will
the next
extreme
through
though.
the local authority
environment.
the notion
It also
in Israel
coalition
;I Ioosc
retention
is now
(see
a critical
is. for
mass
Israel.
;I
must to
do
departmental to attain task.
lines
go;l[h.
has ;I political
deliver!,
then
from
traditional
articulated
in
;I
in the
the corporation.
it\ behavior
upon
less.
and tnorc
and new’ ways
Unlike
mandate> to impact
nothing
and rcshapcd
;I model
than optimist
they
5ectors.
tltxible
;IW;IV
disbancicd
organization.
to do more
demands
bc blurred.
wch
as
departments.
more
is to mo\‘e Gil
structures
and of \,arious
become
WC ha\x wcn
of the ‘virtual’ needs
so
their
of functional
of human-service
W;IV
to the scale of change
develop
of man\ disciplines
the
he dcviscd
for
optimal
The
hy the involvement
of what
is appropriate
local authoritia
Traditional
and coalitions
planning
than
possibly.
there
the caliditv
local authorities
rather
synthais.
structures.
manner
of local Ax
to
it i5
in local government.
provided
Arguably.
to attract
planning.
as the crucihlc
this
manouverahle.
rccruitmcnt).
strategic
strategic
the programmc.
involved
ot
;I broad
consiilt;inth.
\tatf and in their
to demonstrate
the experiencc5
positioning
achieve
Without
indepcntlcnce
parts
to promote
has hccn in its ability
high calihrtz.
in recruiting
municipal
integral
orthodox
by outsidc
wo~~ld have bccomc
sufficient
local government.
facing
ii
have heen
\vhich involve
the more
generated
and the rctativc
of holistic
\‘ct. hv hcing
opportunities. tor
progr;lmmc of
has helped
more
planners.
new school
To
of the hlI-‘l!
partners.
Appendix
i\ u5ualll
profcxsionals
which
‘4 c‘onccI-n\ and worker4.
i4 not ;Iv;iilal>lc
which
to Gtuationx
term\.
can use thcsc
opportunit!
local government
of external
operational
MPlls
intervention.
unlikely
and princi+
of the local authorit! This
planning
thinking
in ;I given
the environment
and
change il. Schiin. institutions
in his
book
” 111~ .\‘ttrhlc>,Srtrr~“.
plav in forming
cxplnined
5uch paradigmic
the role
dctinitions
for
Lvhich social communitie\:
‘l’hc pcn&ct 01 \oci;ll \LIIC’III\ OLC’I ~nd~\~du;~l\ I~c‘c~II~c~ ~~~~d~r~ra~~~lal~l~,I th~nh if v+e \cc‘ that w~~I:II \!stemx ptn~\idc tor thclr ~ncml~cr~ nc>t onI\ ~OIIICC’~ ot livelihood, protection asyln\t out\idc threat and the lm~mi~ of ccor;tmic wcurit!. but J fratneuork of theorio. value\ ;~ncI rclatccl tcchnol~~g) \\hich cn;ihte\ Individu;lt\ to mahc \cn\c of tticit li\c\. Threat5 10 the \oclikt \)\tcnl threaten ttib fl-amcuo~h. A \,ocd \y\temdo~‘bt>ot IIIO\Cmoothl~ II-OITI one \t
onlv
Schiin
is as lucid
a5 he is right:
are even more
complicated.
the acceptance
and formalization
yet now.
obcr twenty
WC arc not seeking of instability.
year5
another
down
‘stable
and the creation
the line. state‘
matters
but rather,
of social
structures
Municipal
which can handle
instability.
In municipal
terms,
Strategic
the instability
in a variety of forms: coalitions and interest groups partnerships for delivery of services which challenge local authority time and time again, with every new Contradictory forces, centrifugal and centripetal,
Planning
295
is expressed
forming and disbanding; and recast the role of the service agreement. are impacting on the
components of local government. On the one hand. the need to operate dynamically requires more freedom for each division and unit to negotiate its means of responding to its client population. Education must bc free to create an appropriate ‘menu’ of services, and to do so must negotiate on a horizontal plain with teachers, parents and suppliers of educational services outside the public sector. On the other hand, because of the overall fiscal tightrope walked by most local authorities, there is also a strong impetus to respond to this fragmentation of traditional ‘public sector’ domain by exerting centralistic control. Technologically, the existing ‘fixes’ still cater more to the centralistic tendency, than facilitate decentralized management and the corresponding free flows of information. Professionals in local government are pulled both ways: there are enough signs pointing to the need for change, and still enough reasons to postpone it. Within Israeli local authorities, the MPU programme has attempted to alter the operational habits as well as the scope and depth of perception applied to the operational environment. As the importance of the axis formed by local authorities operating opposite ministerial counterparts wanes, the MPU programme has created models for establishing an alternative. local nucleus. The model of such a local nucleus to which the MPU points is presently somewhat ahead of most local political and managerial practice. The MPU model suggests a decentralized management, empowering line-managers and service providers. To these. the MPU - as part of a reshaped headquarters level management - offers both overall policy guidance and an in-house consultancy service. Politically, the policy-based discourse which the MPU promotes, can contribute to closer community involvement in local affairs. Such an enhancement of community involvement in local government affairs in Israel would be timely. The experience of absorption has demonstrated the potential gains from such involvement for widening access to services and as a means of gaining public acceptance for pivotal decisions. The dynamics which prevailed in Natanya are certain to be repeated eventually because decentralization will continue to place burdens at the doorstep of cash-strapped local government. Public involvement is necessary to share the burden of service delivery and - as Urn ElFahem demonstrated - the decision-making responsibility. The record of MPUs in facilitating public involvement is weak. although the Lad survey of new immigrants demonstrates one possible inroad into this area. However, the question of involvement is primarily one of political will and motivation. Given those, the MPU can help support a discourse with the public which can be based
296
Progress
in Planning
on facts and suggested policy alternatives. Technical means available to MPUs, such as GIS systems. can assist in clarifying policy and impacts to a general public (for a wider discussion of MPUs and local democracy. set Appendix 3). Ultimately, the change in which Israeli local authorities arc gripped is fathomable, provided it is seen in a broad context. Paradoxically. the broad. international perspective is seldom available to embattled local authorities. The MPUs are a means of solving this paradox. an unusually erudite ‘luxury-turned-necessity’ in the realm of the public sector and of local government in particular. Metaphorically. a paradigm can be likened to a rubber-band. stretched over an array of pegs to form a boundary. These pegs represent temporary outer points, and indicators to the direction of paradigm shift. The area encircled by the rubber band represents the capability of local government. Looking at the changes in Israel in the past fifteen years, some such ‘pegs’ become apparent: decentralization; immigration; political changes in Arab local government - all were pointers to a new paradigm. Yet the rubber band of the paradigm has not yet shifted enough to embrace these and other pointers which I have identified in this paper. The mission is thus. to pull the rubber band over the outermost pegs - to encompass the sometimes anecdotal. yet cumulative evidence of historic change. Befriending the future means keeping the boundaries on the move. finding people in local government - not least of all. planners - capable of acting on the available evidence of paradigm shift. Occasionally. this will mean deliberately going ahead of the established boundaries, betting on a peg staked outside the existing paradigm. while at the same time pushing the rubber-band from within until it can be ‘hooked’ on the new peg. with the resultant re-shaping of the local authority. The MPU programmc has cndcavourcd to do just this. on two lcvcls. First. in bringing about a broad recognition of the processes of ciccentralizatiori. and in indicating the direction which local govcrnmcnt needs to take in order to embrace the new paradigm successfully. Second. the individual MPll’x have helped rc-shape local authorities through seizing opportunities to plant ‘pegs’ - ;I survey in Lod. new technology attempted in Yavnc, new approaches to planning in CJm ElFahem and Rehovot - and then make the local authority adopt a ncm’ shape almost inadvertently as it incorporated the new policy or the new practice. In all. the MPU cxperiencc strikes a cautiously optimistic note in the complicated and overstrcssed arena of Israeli local government. It has supported change and opened the door for new talents to cxprcss thcmselvcs in local authorities. Since changing times require new skills. the challenge for the sponsors of the MPU programme will be to renew and update the vision and skills which they have succeeded in applying to local government. The riced for this renewal promises to be the one constant feature of the rapidly-changing world of cities, towns and regions.
Appendix
7-
Choosing MPU Directors
The case-studies demonstrated the central role of the MPU director in shaping the style, content and success of the MPU. Recognizing the crucial role of the directors, the professional team at JDC took pains to ensure that all initial staff screening and proposed placements would be done by JDC. To create an appropriate selection procedure, a profile of the qualifications and skills required of MPU directors was created. Lack of space will not permit me to elaborate on how the model was derived and the subsequent selection procedure devised to identify suitable candidates. Figure 1 does, however, sum up the profile and highlights some of the complexities involved in finding candidates to fit the bill. The figure represents two broad areas of skills - strategic-generic and applied-urban. An ideal candidate would be placed at position 1. However, the ideal career path leading to 1, marked by asterisks, simply did not exist in Israel prior to the spread of MPUs. Planners were almost always involved in a single discipline, traditionally land-use. Moving up (to position 3) meant creating plans for larger areas, larger budgets - but rarely, a move to more holistic thinking. What the MPU programme found was that planners with the necessary experience - 5 years at least of senior work in a large organization - were usually already strongly committed to their chosen discipline and unlikely to ‘unlearn’ the approach which underscored their professional success. On the other hand, candidates well-endowed with the ‘strategic’ skills (at position 2), even if they were not especially familiar with urban planning were, virtually by definition, capable of a steep learning curve when placed in a new setting. Rapid adaptation was their speciality. Therefore, a staffing formula evolved comprising of three variables: (1) (2) (3)
careful selection of candidates, candid and full evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses; ensuring that the candidate’s strengths are appropriate to the local authority in which she or he might work; and, providing adequate support, amounting to on-the-job training in the first months after a candidate is placed in an MPU. 297
298
Progress
in Planning
“Strategic” skills: (- more “generic” - integration _ analytical ~ quick learning .- interdisciplinary ~ self-confidence ~ presentation
* * * *
3 *
Y
(t)
“Urbanological” skills: (- more “concrete”/applied ) ~ planning ability ._ familiarity with legal frame local government experience ~ operating information systems - human geography FI(;.
I. Skills
mii
diagram for ‘LIPCI directory
The starting-point for ;m appointment is thus ;I holistic :ippraisal of the candidate. the target local authority and the ability of JDC to provide support which would ameliorate, in the short-term. any skill-gaps. This WLISvital so as to ensure that the MPU makes its mark quickly and effectively and become\ :I respected part of senior management. In addition. initiatives have been taken to create the direct career path leading to position 3. Junior planning positions which open up in establish4 MPUs arc staffed, where possible. with planners with potential for becoming MPU director\. This sometimes runs against the instincts of the MPU directors who prcfclassistants who are less likely to hc promoted after .just 21few years ;tnd then cithcr threaten their own position or leave 4togethcr. To further integrate newly-qualified planners with the MPIJ. the programme awards placement scholarships and writing prizes to planning students to tither work in the MPU programme or write thescc on related topics. Finally, a centre for regional strategic plannin, 0 for Arab Ioc:rI authoritics has been set up in the north of Israel. Apart from providing planning support to its constituent local authorities and a regional planning agenda. the centre aims to employ two to three trainee-fellows cnch year. This will give novice Arab planners a much-needed opportunity to gain practical experience before entering the job market.
Appendix 2 - Notes on the evolution of the director-general role in Israeli local authorities DIRECTOR-GENERALS
AND
‘DIRECTOR-GENERALSHIPS’
While the MPU programme evolved and addressed the needs of planning in the new paradigm of local government, there were also developments in the executive management of local authorities. A growing number of local authorities now have a discernable ‘director-generalship’. By this I mean an arrangement for some consolidation and co-ordination of executive action, sometimes - but not director-general. universally - personified by an appointed Early appointees to the role of director-general (in the first half of the 1980s) frequently found their authority trimmed by the established power of veteran treasurers. The treasurers not only held the purse, they also had the department heads beholden to them. Mayors were faced with a dilemma: side with the director-general and risk a slowing-down of activities, or side with the treasurer and get things moving, if still in the old style. Almost always, mayors came out on the side of their treasurers. Some mayors found an obvious way to sidestep the dilemma, by appointing their existing treasurers to be director-generals. This happened in a number of small and medium size towns including Or Yehuda. Ashkelon, Elat and Ashdod. In the latter three, MPUs were in position at the time of the appointment and were already working with the appointees since even as treasurers, they represented the strongest pivot of the executive structure. The history of the director-generalship in the town of Ashkelon is interesting, because it shows how the director-general job emerged from a three-person ‘director-generalship’. The pattern, and its timing, represents a move from a first to a second/third generation management as typified elsewhere in this paper. The treasurer, eventually appointed director-general, was one of the troika, whose other two members were the mayor and his deputy. The mayor looked after contact with the public, overall policy and the representation of the town to outside bodies. The deputy mayor performed the role of political fixer and troubleshooter, the eyes-and-ears in both the political arena and in ensuring JPP 41:3-G
299
300
Progress in Planning
that the will of the ‘director-generalship’
would prevail
over the city’s civic and
bureaucratic apparatuses. The treasurer ensured that resources were available for carrying out the programme. Being a gifted public-sector manager. he also did much to ensure the gradual uprating of the quality of municipal management. The Ashkelon troika had all the major municipal functions within the grasp of its ‘director-generalship’. The inclusion of the political side only enhanced its effectiveness. Through the director-generalship, Ashkelon became one of the better-managed towns of its size. more able than most to bridge the non-synchrony between its administrative ability and the growing demands posed by decentralization. The troika eventually disbanded when the mayor resigned after being elected to the Knesset. Israel’s parliament. The treasurer was appointed director-general and proceeded to attempt to insulate the municipal structure from political intervention by establishing annual workplans for each department.
RECRUITING
DIRECTOR-GENERALS
Most director-generals have come from either the ranks of local government. or are recently demobilized senior career officers. Few, if any, are career managers choosing to ‘do a stint’ in local government. As a group. the officers have been the most noticeable, in towns such as Tel-Aviv. Jerusalem, Herzelia, Natanya. Yavne and Ramat-Gan. In some cases, the appointees take office under a mayor who is himself a retired army officer - in Ramat-Gan and Tel-Aviv. for cxamplc. The record of the retired officers has been. at best, patchy: appointees in Natanya. Yavne and Ramat-Gan all left after short tenures - no more than two years and as brief as three months. On the positive side. army officers are often good at organizing staff work and creating a normative climate which legitimizes better consultation and communication. But the implementation of decisions through a command-chain, to which senior officers are accustomed, is inappropriate in local government. The expectations of ex-officers for management authority and accountability cannot be squared with the politically-charged reality of municipalities. The management process in local authority is more akin to a perpetual series of simultaneous negotiations than to military practice based on command and obedience. The director-general’s authority. although conferred formally. has to be re-established as new issues create new allegiances of politicians and staffs. Creativity, flexibility and persuasion are needed to ensure that middle and lower management are ‘brought along’. The proliferation of director-generals indicates a recognition of the need to uprate local authority management (see Agmon and Haberfeld. 1992). Meanwhile. the typical self-perception of the director-generals is that they arc ‘modernizers’.
Municipal
Strategic
Planning
301
Modernity in most cases seems to mean to them, a convergence between management practices within local government and those in other, more respected sectors
-
and so we are back to attempting
to emulate
business
and the military.
Just as MPU’s are evolving planning practices to match the new local government paradigm, new general management principles are waiting to be formed and the executives’ tool boxes wait to be restocked with more appropriate skills and tools (for a lucid, positive and convincing approach to the challenge of defining the role of director-general in a British context, see Clarke and Stewart. 1901).
Appendix 3 -
The MPUs and local democracy
Decentralization could be expected to bring about a shift in the focus of local government’s accountability. Historically, accountability to central institutions government and party - took precedence over local accountability. The move to direct election of mayors in the late 1970s and the eventual shift of authority toward local government. both emphasize the accountability owed by iocal authorities to their citizens and constituent communities. While this has been a definite trend, the public’s interest and involvement in the everyday workings of local authorities has increased slowly. Indeed, despite the dramatic changes in the functioning of local government and its greatly enhanced influence on daily life, advances in the development of local democracy have been largely ambiguous. To date, for example, there have been few open public debates on urban development policies. Even the Rehovot MPU, in its redrawing of development priorities did not seek public involvement nor consultation after its proposals had been developed. Within the paradigm-shift which accompanies decentralization, establishing a new compact between citizens and local government is a difficult task, especiaily since neither side is sure anymore what a local authority should realistically be expected to deliver. The role of the MPUs in strengthening local democratic accountability has been correspondingly subdued. The potential is, however, there: the more MPUs clarify policy, the more they establish a language of discourse which can be used in public discussion, in a way that the erratic and arbitrary decision-making of the past, could not. Yet most MPU work involving the public today has been through surveys, which are more a means of data collection - however welcome - than a means of creating public involvement in decision-making. The impetus to realize the MPUs potential for enhancing the public’s roie will have to come from the political level. The MPUs are probably too concerned with protecting their position in the local authority to risk being seen as fermentors of ‘trouble’ by involving the public. That said, getting politicians to agree to surveys is no mean feat in itself, since surveys create expectation for addressal 303
304
Progress
of issues
tn Planning
raised.
determine
In .lcru4alcm.
the needs
explain
the city.4
usually
insular
introduced not just
policy
group
the Natanya However.
cast’. this
accountabilitv the strength authorities
with
Local
authorities
base of support for -
This ‘presidential’ becomes
o\~~r\tating
Ilic
public
wah tratlitionallq
held
foi- nc\\ polic1c4. \cith
involwd
a the!
ma~‘ors.
thcmscl\,ec
style.
out to ability
in that residents
at the policy
to
of this are
level
and
~111 demonstrate
;i\~arc’nc~~ of municipal involvemcnt the point
the
policy.
in policymaking. to claim
~1~1 (hc* local authoritv I?!, the accountability
that the has reached
axis
linking
local
~o\cr’nm~nt.
neither
could
dctachnicnt
Ix.
who C;III ottcn from
then
ill terms ot creating
central Hii\
gwcrnnient
return\
;I personal own
50 long a4 Ihc hail IO haunt
the mavor
;I solid
nor local
may he convenient
rcniotcncss
c\tablish
the m~~chinc of their
however . aork4
in ;I NYI\’ which
seen iis
public
arc thu< \omcM hat rutlderlcs~
distancing
prcjgress.
I (~1 antI .lcruaalem
also lctl to actual public
central
as actively
mismanaged
l
hc conaidcr-abl\
the directly-clcctcd while
L’m
asi\ connecting which
the MPU’s
the cooperation
10 the munlclpality
have for crcatin F ~ rrcatcr
it would
to obtaining
‘l‘hl\ ircprcscnb
01 relating
was carried
communit!.
Ic\ cI ot \cr\ ice’ 1’1-t)~i\io~i.
of N;;t;lti!;I.
MPLIs
.Ic\vish
WI\ ;I kc!
and it3 leaders.
to the possihilit\
efforts
potential
public
rlilemmax
at the evcrvcia\
The
whcrc~ a11 unpl~c‘ccdentccl 4urvcv
of the ultr:l-orthodox
following
local authority.
authority whose
is not aloofness
In
Bibliography AGMON, 0. and HABERFELD, D. (1992) The Development of Managers in an Era of Change in Local Government, Ministry of the Interior and the Centre for Development of Local Government Administration, Jerusalem, Hebrew. AL-HAJ, M. and ROSENFELD, H. (1990) Arab Local Government in Israel, Westview Press, Boulder. AVRUCH. K. (1981) American Immigrants in Israel: Social Identities and Change, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago. BAUER, Y. (1974) My Brother’s Keeper: A History of the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 19291939, The Jewish Publication Society of America, Philadelphia. BAUER, Y. (1981) American Jewery and the Holocaust: The American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, I939-1945, The Institute of Contemporary Jewry, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem; Wayne State University Press, Detroit. BEN-ELIYA, N. (1988) The Local Authority Towards the 1990’s: Outline of an Alternative Conceptual Framework, NB - Evaluation, Planning, Policy Analysis, Rehovot, Hebrew. BENITA, E., NOAM, G. and LEVY, R. (1993) The Absorption of Ethiopian Immigrants: A Census in Kiryat Cat paper presented at the Between Africa and Zion Congress, Venice, February l-3, 1993. BEN-RAFAEL, E. and SHAROT, S. (1991) Ethnicity, Religion and Class in Israeli Society, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge and New York. BONGERS, P. N. (1990) Local Government and 1992, Longman Group, Harlow. BROOKE, R. (1989) Managing the Enabling Aufhorify, Longman Group in association with the Local Government Training Board, Harlow. CLARKE, M. and STEWART, J. (1988) Managing Tomorrow, The Local Government Training Board, Luton. CLARKE, M. and STEWART, J. (1991) The Role of the Chief Executive, The Local Government Management Board in association with the Society of Local Authority Chief Executives, Luton. DUNCAN, S. and GOODWIN, M. (1988) The Local Stare and Uneven Development: Behind the Local Government Crisis, Polity Press in association with Blackwell, Cambridge. FRIEND, J. and HICKLING, A. (1988) Planning under Pressure - The Strategic Choice Approach, Pergamon, Oxford. GROSSMAN, D. (1992) Sleeping on a Wire. Hakibbutz HaMeuchad-Siman Kria’a Publishers, Tel-Aviv, Hebrew. HARVEY. D. (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change, Blackwell, Oxford. HELLERMAN, J. B. and HANKIN, 1. (1988) JDC-lsraelAssessment Report: Municipal Policy and Planning Clnits Project, Draft Report to JDC-Israel, unpublished, Prepared under the auspices of TIL - Institute for the Guidance of Personnel management Ltd., Tel-Aviv. HORROWITZ, D. and LISSAK, M. (1989) Trouble in Utopia: the Overburdened Polity of Israel, State University of New York Press, Albany. JDC-BROOKDALE (1992) The Road to Successful Absorption: Immigrants tell their Story, JDC-Israel and JDC-Brookdale Institute; Lod, the Municipality of Lod Municipal Strategic Planning and Information Unit, Jerusalem. KIMMERLING, B. (Ed.) (1989) The Israeli State and Society: Boundaries and Frontiers, State University of New York Press, Albany. 305