Change of images of South Korea among foreign tourists after the 2002 FIFA World Cup

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Tourism Management 26 (2005) 233–247

Change of images of South Korea among foreign tourists after the 2002 FIFA World Cup Samuel Seongseop Kima,*, Alastair M. Morrsionb b

a Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 143 747, South Korea Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue University, 1266 Stone Hall, Room 156, West Lafayette, IN 47907-1266, USA

Received 27 February 2003; accepted 1 November 2003

Abstract This research empirically examined changes in the images of Korea over two points in time among Japanese, Mainland Chinese and US visitors to South Korea. Between October 4 and November 10, 2002, about 3–4 months after the 2002 World Cup ended, 223 tourists from Japan, 143 from Mainland China and 173 from the US completed the survey instrument. According to the results of paired t-tests, the visitors from all three countries had more positive images after than before the World Cup. The findings from the ANCOVA tests indicated that the image changes due to the World Cup were different among the three nationalities. The correspondence analyses results also showed that the image changes after the World Cup varied according to nationality, educational level, age and occupation. Collectively, the study suggests that an internationally significant event can change the image of a tourism destination in a short time period. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: World Cup; Destination image; Event; Image modification

1. Introduction Mega-sports events with international appeal provide impressions of a host country to spectators from foreign countries, television viewers and users of other information media because, along with the sports events themselves, a variety of social and cultural activities supporting the events offer powerful opportunities to promote the host country’s culture and traditions (Allen, O’Toole, McDonnell, & Harris, 2002; Bramwell, 1997; Gamage & Higgs, 1996; Getz, 1997; Hall, 1987; Mihalik & Simonetta, 1999). The 2002 FIFA World Cup was held in both Korea and Japan from May 31 to June 30, 2002. The World Cup was the first mega-event to be held in Asia since the Seoul Olympics as well as the first in the 21st century. This international soccer tournament also drew more attention than before because it was co-hosted by two rival countries, Korea and Japan. *Corresponding author. Tel.: +82-2-3408-3716; fax: +82-2-34083312. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.S. Kim), [email protected] (A.M. Morrsion). 0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2003.11.003

The World Cup had various impacts on Korean society. First, according to a report of the economic impacts of the 2002 World Cup, 230,000 foreign soccer fans visited Korea during the period and spent US$2242 per person (Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002a). The direct effects of the total expenditures produced US$1351 million of output, US$307 million of income, 31,349 full-time equivalent jobs, US$71 million of indirect taxes and US$713 million of value added (Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002a). Additionally, the Samsung Economic Research Institute (2002) reported that South Korea’s landmark victories against strong European teams, including Italy, Spain, Portugal and Poland, would create far-reaching economic effects such as increased competitive power and enhanced brand images for Korean goods. Korea’s sovereign credit rating by Moody’s Investors Service and Fitch Ratings was upgraded as soon as the World Cup was over. Second, the synergies of national unity were one of the social benefits of the event. Street celebrations brought out unity in a time of increasing individualism among Koreans, especially among the younger generation (Samsung Economic Research Institute, 2002). It

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also added significant meaning to Korean society by bringing different age groups together. Those in their 50s from the generation of industrialization came together with the pro-democracy group in their 30s and 40s and the individualists in their teens and 20s. Many people acted as one despite their generational differences. A record number of ‘Red Devils’, fans of the Korean World Cup soccer team, staged outdoor cheering events during matches in front of giant television screens at plazas, parks, baseball stadiums and other public places across the country. According to the Korean National Police Agency, a combined total of about 22 million Koreans gathered on the streets nationwide to support the Korean team during its seven World Cup matches (The Samsung Research Institute, 2002). The cheering fever was called the ‘‘Red Syndrome’’ because the cheering team wore T-shirts bearing the slogan ‘‘Be the Red.’’ The Korean fans displayed national fervour through street cheering for the Korean soccer team. Thus, throughout the World Cup, the passion, energy and enthusiasm of the supporters and soccer players seemed to impress people around the world (Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002c). Third, each host city arranged its own programme of cultural events to entertain the domestic and international fans that came to watch the games (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2002). The Korean World Cup Organization Committee worked closely with the 10 host cities to plan and schedule a series of cultural events around the country. For example, FIFA World Cup Plazas, which provided interesting and informal venues for domestic and foreign visitors, were set up in eight of the 10 host cities during the World Cup. Multi-cultural festivals were held to celebrate the World Cup and, during these festivals, hundreds of programs were arranged to present the essence of the traditional cultures of Korea and the other countries participating in one of the world’s greatest soccer events. Information about these events was passed on to visitors in Korea as well as people abroad by television, newspapers, magazines and the Internet. According to a report by the FIFA Media Advisory, the total viewing figures for the 2002 World Cup reached 28.8 billion with over 41,100 hours of dedicated programming in 213 countries (www.fifa.com). Through television and other mass media channels, information about Korea was widely spread. Considered together, these observations meant that the 2002 World Cup was a significant enough international sports event to potentially change the image of Korea. The goal of this study was to empirically measure the image of Korea before and after the World Cup as perceived by foreign tourists who visited Korea 3–4 months after the World Cup. More specifically, the objectives were to: (1) identify differences in the perceived images of Korea among Japanese, Chinese

and US tourists before and after the 2002 World Cup; (2) to examine the mean differences in image changes of Korea, brand value for Korean products and the level of familiarity with Korea through hosting the 2002 World Cup among the three national groups after holding the effects of the number of visits to Korea, the level of awareness about Korea before the 2002 World Cup and the number of matches respondents watched on TV; and (3) to explore the relationships among respondents’ nationalities, ages, educational levels and occupations and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup. In essence, this study attempted to investigate the dynamics of national image change from the hosting of this international soccer event.

2. Literature review According to Pike’s (2002) study, more than 142 articles about tourism destination image have been published in international tourism journals or proceedings of major conferences since 1973. This wealth of papers confirms there is a consensus on the importance and usefulness of the study of destination image (Pike, 2002). Among the numerous image studies, some have found differences in image perceptions between pre-visitors and post-visitors (Chon, 1991); before and after trips (Andreu, Bigne, & Cooper, 2000; Chaudhary, 2000; Pearce, 1982a,b; Phelps, 1986); before and after advertising campaigns (Perry, Izraeli, & Perry, 1976); between first-time and repeat visitors (Crompton, Fakeye, & Lue, 1992; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Phelps, 1986); between visitors and non-visitors (Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Hu & Ritchie, 1993); before and after internationally significant political events (Gartner & Shen, 1992); and between ideal and actual images (Botha, Crompton, & Kim, 1999; Crompton, 1979; Ross, 1993). Table 1 provides a summary of empirical studies on perceptions of image change of a tourism destination. A summary of major studies on differences in image perceptions follows. Gunn (1972) explained a traveller’s experience process on the basis of seven stages indicating an imagery modification process. This includes the accumulation of mental images about the vacation experience (1st stage), modification of those images by further information (2nd stage), the decision to take a vacation trip (3rd stage), travel to the destination (4th stage), participation at the destination (5th stage), return travel (6th stage) and new accumulation of images based on the experience (7th stage). As a result, Gunn suggested that a tourism destination image could be modified or changed over the seven stages. He suggested that destination images are conceptualised at two levels: organic and induced images. That is, an organic image is

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Table 1 A review of empirical studies on image changes of tourism destinations Authors

Subjects and study region

Analytical methods

Measurement point in time

Major factor of image change

Findings

Perry, Izrael, and Perry (1976)

Israeli residents in Canada; Canada, US the Alps, Switzerland, Italy, England and France

Frequency analysis, correlation analysis, perceptual map by the smallest space analysis

Two mail surveys to same sample (pre- and postpromotional campaign)

Promotional campaign

Crompton (1979)

US tourists; Mexico

Unstructured method

One mail survey to one sample group

Actual tour

Chon(1991)

US tourists; Korea

Factor analysis, t-test

Actual tour

Pearce (1982a,b)

British tourists; Greece and Morocco

Repertory grid analysis

Two mail surveys to different sample groups Two mail surveys to same sample

Phelps (1986)

Tourists; Minorca

Rank order, frequency analysis, discriminant analysis

Two mail surveys to same sample

Actual tour

Gartner (1986)

US residents; 4 US states

t-test

Two mail surveys to same sample

Seasonality and environmental change

Fakeye and Crompton (1991)

US tourists; the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas

Factor analysis, one-way ANOVA

One mail survey each to three different sample groups

Tour experience

Gartner and Shen (1992)

US citizens; China

t-test

Two mail surveys to same sample (Pre- and postTiananmen Square)

Tiananmen Square conflict

Ross (1993)

Backpacker visitors; north Australia

One mail survey to one sample group

Actual tour

Hu and Ritchie (1993)

Canadian residents; Hawaii, Australia, Greece, France, China

Comparison of ranks among attributes of ideal and actual images One-way ANOVA, t-tests

One telephone interview survey to one sample group

Tour experience

Andreu, Bigne, and Cooper (2000)

British tourists; Spain

One mail survey to one sample group

Actual tour

They examined the image changes of Canada at two points in time as the result of a promotional campaign over a 5-month period. Changes for a few items indicating Canada’s image were found after the promotional campaign Ideal images and actual images of Mexico as a holiday destination were significantly different Post-visitors tended to show more positive perceptions of the image of Korea than pre-visitors Tourists’ perceptions of posttravel images of Greece and Morocco were different from those of pre-travel images of the two countries This study compared perceived images of Minorca between firsttime and returning visitors. Results indicated a large gap in image changes for a few attribute items between the two groups This study found temporal influences on respondents’ image changes due to seasonal differences and changes of environment They found differences on five extracted image factors among non-visitors, first-time visitors and repeat visitors in the images of the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas They found that respondents showed higher levels of negative perceptions of the touristic attributes of China after the Tiananmen Square conflict compared to before the event This study reported that there was a gap between the ideal and actual images of north Australia as a backpacker destination Those who had more tour experience to a tourism destination indicated more positive responses on image items than non-visitors They found differences in British tourists’ perceptions on projected and perceived images of Spain

Frequency analysis

Actual tour

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formed by non-tourism market-oriented information, whereas an induced image is formed by efforts of marketers through advertising and promotions (Crompton et al., 1992; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Gunn, 1972). Perry et al. (1976) investigated the image change of Canada as a tourism destination as a result of a promotional campaign conducted over a 5-month period. Respondents indicated that after the promotional campaign their perceptions of Canada changed on items such as ‘Canada is a boring country,’ and ‘the ease of accessibility,’ and ‘cheaper transportation through Canada to the U.S.’ However, even after the promotional campaign, perceptions of Canada did not change on, ‘Canada is a good place to ski,’ ‘it has many business opportunities,’ and ‘it is a huge country.’ In addition, the study found that after the advertising campaign to improve Canada’s image was completed, respondents indicated they had better images of Canada than they had before the promotional campaign. This study concluded that the image of a country could be modified by advertising efforts. In a study of images of Mexico as a potential destination for US tourists, Crompton (1979) reported that the ideal images and actual images of Mexico as a holiday destination were significantly different. For example, negative perceptions were found in a comparison of Mexico’s actual and ideal destination images related to climate and low cost. Crompton suggested that the larger the gap between actual and ideal images, the less was the likelihood that a potential US tourist would make a decision to travel to Mexico. Chon (1991) investigated how American tourists’ perceptions of Korea changed through the 4th stage and 6th stages in the traveller’s experience process, as suggested by Gunn (1972). His study found significant differences in the perceptions of the image of Korea between pre-visitors and post-visitors. Post-visitors showed more positive perceptions of the national image of Korea than pre-visitors. Pearce (1982a,b) investigated whether tourists to Greece and Morocco had different images of these countries after their trips. His study revealed changes in tourists’ perceptions of these countries as a holiday tourism destination. For example, tourists to Greece considered the country’s holiday environment to be more adventurous, better for cheap shopping and freer from other tourists than they did before their travel. Phelps (1986) found differences in the images of Minorca between first-time and returning visitors. For example, first-time visitors had images of Minorca as having Spanish-like holiday features such as large hotels, olive groves, disco and flamenco dancing, whereas returning visitors did not have dominant perceptions of these image items. In a comparison of expected and perceived images of Minorca, respondents believed that the island was less commercialised, quieter,

greener and less populated than expected, while the weather was hotter than anticipated. Thus, Phelps’ study concluded that there was a gap between expected and perceived images in Minorca’s case. Finally, the study suggested that false images of a country could be modified by consistent promotional efforts. Gartner (1986) found that the images of states in the US as perceived by tourists showed minor changes between November 10, 1982 and February 25, 1983. He suggested that advertising or promotions can be effective in modifying image even over a short-term period because images are sensitive to seasonality and changes of environment. Fakeye and Crompton (1991) explored differences among non-visitors, first-time visitors and repeat visitors in images of the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas. Significant differences among the three groups were found on five extracted image factors. For example, repeat visitors perceived the highest level of image on the social opportunities and attractions factor, followed by first-time visitors and non-visitors. In addition, they extended Gunn’s (1972) concept of two levels of destination image (organic and induced images) by adding a complex image, which is achieved after the actual travel to a destination. A study conducted by Gartner and Shen (1992) attempted to investigate whether the Tiananmen Square conflict, which occurred in June 1989, affected China’s tourism destination image by comparing the images before and after the event. They found that US citizens showed more negative perceptions of the attributes of China as a tourism destination after the event compared to before the conflict. They concluded that an international event could have an effect on a country’s image. In a study of ideal and actual images of backpackers to Northern Australia, Ross (1993) reported that high levels of ideal destination images were found on the friendliness of local residents, high quality tourist information and easily available accommodation, whereas high levels of actual destination images were found on the varied physical environment, friendly local residents and the destination’s authenticity. It was concluded that there was a gap between the ideal and actual images of north Australia as a tourism destination. Andreu et al. (2000) explored differences between projected and perceived images of Spain in the British market. They argued that the projected image of a tourism destination is transmitted through the promotion or advertising efforts by tourist destination bodies and tour operators as well as news and information about the destination, while perceived image is generated from previous knowledge and direct experience. They empirically found that differences existed between projected and perceived images of Spain. In summary, these studies have concluded that images measured over one or two points in time can vary

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through the influence of such factors as actual travel experiences with a tourism destination, the amount and kind of information or promotional efforts and changes in the political or social environments. Other factors can directly influence or mediate the perceived image of a tourism destination. The factors include nationality (Kozak, 2002; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000), sociodemographic variables (Jenkins, 1999; Stabler, 1988), the level of awareness about or familiarity with a tourism destination (Andsager & Drzewiecka, 2002; Baloglu, 2001) and the role of promotional media (Gunn, 1972; Jenkins, 1999). Previous empirical studies identifying that the perceived images or attractiveness of tourism destinations differ according nationality are especially limited (Kozak, 2002; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000). Therefore, this study was designed to explore the relationship existing between nationality and perceived image changes. As discussed above, some studies (Jenkins, 1999; Stabler, 1988) have suggested that perceived image changes are likely to be different according to sociodemographic variables. However, there has been a lack of an effort to examine these relationships empirically. This study attempted to find whether or not perceived image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup varied with gender, educational level and occupation. This study was designed to identify the mediating effects of the number of visits to Korea, the level of awareness about Korea before the 2002 World Cup and the number of matches respondents watched on TV in exploring relationship between nationalities and image changes of Korea after the World Cup. This effort of identifying the role of mediating effects of these three factors is an extension of findings of previous studies, which have suggested that images are affected by these factors. Finally, the 2002 World Cup was an international soccer event of such scope as to modify the image of Korea as a host country. The images of Korea among foreign tourists before the World Cup may have been different from those after the event. Unfortunately, there is an absence of empirical studies dealing with effects of a sporting mega-event on the image changes of a host country. This research empirically investigated changes in the images of Korea before and after the 2002 World Cup using three different national tourist groups to South Korea.

3. Methodology 3.1. Measurement Twenty-one items representing the image of Korea were generated based on a literature review on the image of a region or nation as a tourism destination (Ahn, Var,

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& Kim, 1989; Chen & Hsu, 2001; Chon, 1991; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Goodrich, 1978; Kim, 1999; Kim, Crompton, & Botha, 2000; Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002c; Lee, 1997). Additionally, since this study was concerned with the image of Korea before and after the World Cup, items such as ‘‘Korea is one of the major sports powers,’’ ‘‘Korea hosts a wide variety of festivals and events,’’ and ‘‘Korea is a passionate nation’’ were included. A pretest, involving a sample of 50 doctoral and Master’s students majoring in hospitality and tourism, was conducted to refine the list of image items. Items relating to the image of Korea were measured by having respondents indicate their agreement–disagreement with statements describing tourism attributes of Korea that might be differently perceived after the 2002 World Cup. More specifically, respondents were asked: ‘‘We would like to know the image of Korea you perceived before the 2002 World Cup. For each statement below, please circle the number that you agree with best on items of the image of Korea.’’ For example, one image item was ‘‘Korea is a calm country.’’ Then, respondents were presented with a 7-point Likert scale [strongly disagree (l)-neutral (4)-strongly agree (7)]. The same items were used for perceived images of Korea after the World Cup. The impacts of the 2002 World Cup on perceptions of the brand values of Korean products and the level of familiarity of Korea were operationalised by the questions, ‘‘Do you think the brand value of Korean products increased after the 2002 World Cup?’’ and ‘‘Do you think the level of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup increased?’’ The questions were followed by 5-point Likert scales [strongly disagree (1), probably disagree (2), neutral (3), probably agree (4), strongly agree (5)]. The perceived image change of Korea after the 2002 World Cup was operationalized by the question, ‘‘Do you think overall image of Korea was changed after the 2002 World Cup?’’ Responses to the question were recorded on a nominal scale [changed negatively (1), the same (2), changed positively (3)]. The responses on the number of visit to Korea were measured with an open-ended question. A question on level of awareness about Korea before the World Cup was operationalised by the question, ‘‘Were you aware about Korea well before the 2002 World Cup?’’ The question was followed by a 5-point Likert-type scale [strongly disagree (1), probably disagree (2), neutral (3), probably agree (4), strongly agree (5)]. The responses on the number of matches respondents watched on TV were in four categories [0 game (1), 1–4 games (2), 5–8 games (3), 9–12 games, (4), 13 games or above (5)]. Since the respondents were Japanese, Mainland Chinese and US tourists, the Korean questionnaire was translated into Japanese, Chinese and English. During the translation process, various people with

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knowledge of the languages involved were consulted. For the Japanese version, two Korean–Japanese citizens and a professional Japanese translator were consulted. The original Korean questionnaire was translated and then the original meanings were discussed compared to the translated Japanese version. The Chinese version was referred to three Korean–Chinese citizens and one Chinese resident of Korea. Finally, for the English version, two Korean–American citizens and two American professors living in Korea were consulted. The original Korean questionnaire was translated and then the original meanings were discussed compared to the translated English version. Then, in a meeting of the seven overseas Korean residents who participated in the translation process, each of the language versions was translated back to Korean. This was done to compare the accuracy of the translated version with that of the original Korean version. After this meeting, questionnaires in each of the three languages were developed. 3.2. Data collection The data used in this study were collected from tourists to South Korea between October 4 and November 10, 2002, about 3–4 months after the 2002 World Cup ended. The sample for the study was composed of Japanese, Mainland Chinese and US visitors to Korea, because they are the three major national visitor origin groups to Korea, representing approximately 43.2%, 10.3% and 8.8%, respectively, of all visitors (Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002b). The primary data were collected by personal interviews using a standardized instrument with a convenience sampling procedure. This procedure was used because of the number of people available for interviewing, the inability to use a probability sample especially because of the lack of availability of a known sampling frame and the study’s resource limitations (Parasuraman, 1986). Efforts of the interviews involved an on-site, self-administered questionnaire to those sitting and waiting in restaurants before their departure processing at the Incheon International Airport. Also questioned were tourists who asked for tourism information at six major Tourism Centres in Seoul. A total of 617 usable questionnaires were collected, for 230 Japanese, 190 Mainland Chinese and 197 US tourists, respectively. However, the questionnaires of respondents who visited Korea during the World Cup had to be excluded, because the images of Korea formed through direct experiences during the World Cup might influence the images during subsequent visits. Finally, 223 questionnaires from Japanese, 143 from Mainland Chinese and 173 from US tourists were used for the statistical analyses.

3.3. Analysis Each set of 21 images of Korea for the three nationalities was factor analysed to define the underlying dimensions. On the basis of the Kaiser (1974) criterion, only factors with eigenvalues greater than one were retained. In addition, only items with factor loadings and communalities of greater than 0.4 were included in the final factor structure. Cronbach’s alpha values within each dimension were calculated to confirm the factor’s internal consistency. Paired t-tests were used to identify mean differences in the extracted images before and after the 2002 World Cup. ANCOVA tests were used to find mean differences in three dependent variables (perception on image change of Korea after the 2002 World Cup, perception on brand value of Korean products after the 2002 World Cup and perception of the level of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup) among respondents from the three different nationalities, after holding the number of visits to Korea, the level of awareness of Korea before the 2002 World Cup and the number of matches respondents watched on TV as the three covariates. The ANCOVA test is more powerful than a one-way ANOVA because removing predictable variance associated with covariate(s) from the error term (Stevens, 1990) increases the power of an F test for a main effect or interaction. The theoretical reasons for the inclusion of the number of visits to Korea as a covariate can be supported by the results of previous empirical image studies, which have found that images of tourism destinations were affected by the number of visits to the destinations (Andreu et al., 2000; Chon, 1991; Hu & Ritchie, 1993; Pearce, 1982a,b; Phelps, 1986; Ross, 1993). Likewise, the level of awareness of a destination is similar to the number of visits because awareness can be developed through the experience of visits to the destination (Andsager & Drzewiecka, 2002; Baloglu, 2001). Another way that the level of awareness of a destination can be influenced by induced image formation is through promotional information or mass media (Gunn, 1972; Jenkins, 1999). Thus, the number of visits to Korea, the level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup and the number of matches respondents watched on TV were likely to mediate relationship between three treatment groups (different nationalities) and the three dependent variables. Thus the effects of the three covariates on the dependent variables were considered by holding them as covariates through the ANCOVA procedures. As some image studies (Pearce, 1982a,b; Phelps, 1986; Stabler, 1988) have indicated, results from assessments of image change may be influenced by the sociodemographic characteristics of the sample of respondents chosen, such as age, income, educational level and

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gender. In this study, correspondence analysis was used to identify difference in image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup among the three national groups by gender, age and educational level. Correspondence analysis was selected because it is a technique that can handle problems of spatial configuration with categorical data and allows the researcher to portray two sets of data points simultaneously in a joint space (Calantone, Benedetto, Hakam, & Bojanic, 1989). The graphical output from correspondence analysis offers a distinct pattern that facilitates further investigation of the differences among diverse groups with respect to the characteristics of activities and perceptions of an object (Malhotra, 1996).

the age of 39 represented the majority of respondents for the three groups, ranging from 60.5% to 67.7%. Most of the Japanese and US respondents were college graduates (54.2% and 61.8%, respectively), whereas the Mainland Chinese respondents had a higher proportion of senior high school graduates (49.3%). The main purpose of visit to Korea for all three national groups was pleasure and most of the respondents were visiting Korea for the first time. The US tourists had a longer length of stay in Korea than the other two national tourist groups. The Japanese and Mainland Chinese respondents watched a larger number of the matches on television than their US counterparts. Detailed information on the demographic profiles of respondents is presented in Table 2.

4. Results

4.2. Factor analysis of the image scale

4.1. Demographic profile of respondents

As shown in Table 3, the factor analysis of the 21 image items identified five underlying domains. These domains were labelled: (1) various tourism resources; (2) negative image; (3) stability; (4) passionate image;

For all three national visitor origins, the proportion of males was higher than for females. Individuals under Table 2 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Variables

Categories

Gender

Male Female Less than 20 20–29 30–39 40–49 50 or more Junior high school Senior high school University students University graduate Post graduate school Pleasure trip Friends/relatives Convention Business Events/festivals Others 1–2 nights 3–4 nights 5–6 nights 7 nights or more One time Two times Three times Four times or more 0 match 1–4 matches 5–8 matches Nine matches or above Yes No

Age

Education level

Purpose of visit

Number of nights spent in Korea

Total number of visit to Korea

Number of matches watched on TV

Watched games in Korea

Japanese tourists ðn ¼ 223Þ 65.9% 33.2% 30.1% 18.6% 19.0% 15.9% 16.4% 5.8% 30.7% 9.3% 50.2% 4.0% 56.4% 3.6% 3.1% 5.3% 25.8% 5.8% 0% 40.3% 37.5% 22.2% 55.2% 22.7% 10.2% 11.9% 5.3% 12.0% 28.0% 54.7% 0% 100%

Mainland Chinese tourists ðn ¼ 143Þ 67.4% 32.6% 13.9% 18.8% 27.8% 26.4% 13.2% 10.6% 49.3% 9.2% 30.3% 0.7% 60.4% 2.8% 2.8% 10.4% 20.5% 3.1% 3.6% 54.7% 25.3% 16.4% 79.7% 11.2% 7.6% 2.1% 1.1% 29.5% 36.4% 33.0% 0% 100%

US tourists ðn ¼ 173Þ 73.0% 27.0% 26.4% 27.6% 17.8% 18.4% 9.8% 6.4% 27.2% 4.6% 52.6% 9.2% 58.6% 9.8% 9.8% 15.5% 1.7% 4.6% 1.1% 14.9% 44.8% 39.1% 71.3% 19.1% 5.2% 4.0% 6.9% 39.1% 35.6% 18.4% 0% 100%

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Table 3 Principal components factor analysis with Varimax rotation for images of Korea Image domains and items

Factor loadings 1

Various tourism resources Korea has unique cultural resources. Korea is rich in historic and heritage tourism resources. Korea has successfully preserved its traditions. Korea has natural beauty. Korea has a wide variety of tourist attractions. The tourist industry is advanced in Korea.

2

Communalities 3

0.82 0.78 0.81 0.64 0.60 0.54

0.75 0.71 0.72 0.68 0.52 0.45

Stability Korea is exposed to danger of aggression from North Korea.a Korea is run democratically. It is safe to travel within Korea. Korea is politically stable. Korea maintains social stability.

0.69 0.62 0.63 0.71 0.72 0.71

0.79 0.67 0.66 0.41 0.40

Passionate image Korea has an impressive image. Korea is a passionate nation. Korea has been changing very fast. Korea hosts a wide variety of festivals and events. Korea is one of the major sports Powers (countries).

a

5

0.87 0.85 0.82 0.74 0.71 0.51

Negative image Korea is a weak (powerless) nation. Korea is a trivial nation. Disorder is prevalent in Korea. Korea is a small nation. Korea is a calm nation. Korea has become a poor nation due to the Korean financial Crisis of 1997–1998.

Industrial products The telecommunication industry is advanced in Korea. Products made in Korea are of excellent quality. Eigenvalue Variance explained Reliability coefficient

4

0.70 0.66 0.72 0.61 0.75

0.81 0.77 0.71 0.70 0.75

5.69 23.7 0.87

5.40 22.5 0.70

2.13 8.9 0.71

1.87 7.8 0.75

0.67 0.66 0.63 0.55 0.65

0.81 0.78 1.13 4.7 0.80

0.70 0.67

Reverse coded.

and (5) industrial products. All factors had eigenvalues greater than one and explained 67.6% of the total variance. All factors had high reliability coefficients ranging from 0.70 to 0.87. Moreover, with all factor loadings being greater than 0.54, this indicated a reasonably high correlation between the factors and their individual items. The first factor of various tourism resources consisted of six items and has been found in most studies of destination image. The negative image factor contained six items, representing negative perspectives of Korea. The third factor included five items, which all reflected aspects of political stability, safety, or security. The fourth factor was composed of five items, representing national passion and energy. The final factor contained

two items related to attributes of Korean advanced industrial goods. 4.3. Paired t-tests comparing images of Korea before and after the 2002 World Cup Paired t-tests were performed on each national group to identify if there were significant differences in the overall images of Korea before and after the 2002 World Cup. The results of the paired t-tests reported in Table 4 showed that there were significant enhancements in Korea’s image for the four positive factors. Additionally, the mean for the negative image factor significantly decreased. The greatest positive modifications in images of Korea after the World Cup occurred among the

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Table 4 Paired t-test for comparison between images of Korea before and after the 2002 WorldCup National groups

Image factors and items

Mean for images before the 2002 World Cup

Mean for images after the 2002 World Cup

Paired T-value

P-value

Japanese tourists ðn ¼ 224Þ

Various tourism resources Negative image Stability Passionate image Industrial products Various tourism resources

4.47 3.24 4.06 4.38 4.62 4.14

4.86 2.82 4.54 5.22 5.40 4.61

10.41 10.89 13.20 17.78 13.69 10.13

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Negative image Stability Passionate image Industrial products Various tourism resources Negative image Stability Passionate image Industrial products

3.33 4.24 4.22 5.22 4.25 4.26 3.82 4.14 4.06

2.89 4.75 5.24 5.54 4.65 3.85 4.13 4.82 4.52

10.03 10.62 17.28 4.20 7.95 8.74 6.82 11.04 7.97

0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

Mainland Chinese tourists ðn ¼ 143Þ

US tourists ðn ¼ 174Þ

7-point Likert-type scale: strongly disagree (1)—neutral (4)—strongly agree (7)

Table 5 Results of analysis of covariance for image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup Source of variation

Sum of squares

d.f.

Mean square

F-value

P-value

Covariate (number of visits to Korea) Covariate (level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup) Covariate (number of matches watched on TV) Main effect (three nationalities) Explained Jlesidual

0.00 6.15 2.09 1.43 13.07 132.41

1 1 1 2 5 520

0.00 6.15 2.09 0.72 2.62 0.26

0.01 24.17 8.22 3.00 10.27

0.920 0.000 0.004 0.050

Total

145.48

525

Mainland Chinese and Japanese respondents, while the image changes for the five factors among US tourists were significant but not as great. 4.4. Analysis of covariance for the impacts of the World Cup on image changes of Korea, enhancement of brand value of Korean products and enhancement of familiarity with Korea ANCOVA tests were used to investigate image changes of Korea among the three national groups after holding three covariates, number of visit to Korea, the level of awareness about Korea before the World Cup and the number of matches respondents watched on TV. According to the ANCOVA results reported in Table 5, nationality had a differential effect on image changes of Korea after the World Cup because the main effect was significant at the 0.05 level. Thus, the image changes of Korea after the World Cup were different among the three nationalities. The ANCOVA results were similar to those of paired t-tests, which showed

differences in image changes of Korea among the three nationalities. The level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup and number of matches respondents watched on TV as covariates were significant at the 0.001 or the 0.05 level, respectively. This means that those who were more aware of Korea before the World Cup and watched more World Cup soccer matches on TV showed more positive image change of Korea after the event. The results of a Duncan’s multiple range test showed a significant difference in image changes between the Mainland Chinese and US visitors (Table 8). The Mainland Chinese had a significantly larger positive image change of Korea after the World Cup. The results of the ANCOVA test to assess the perceived enhancement of the brand value of Korean products after the World Cup among the three national groups are reported in Table 6. The main effect was significant at the 0.001 level, indicating the three national groups differently perceived the enhancement of brand value of Korean products after the World Cup. All three covariates were significant at 0.001, showing

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Table 6 Results of analysis of covariance for perception of brand value of Korean productsafter the 2002 World Cup Source of variation

Sum of squares

d.f.

Mean square

F-value

P-value

Covariate (number of visits to Korea) Covariate (level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup) Covariate (number of matches watched on TV) Main effect (three nationalities) Explained Residual

4.78 13.19 14.74 5.02 38.72 224.39

1 1 1 2 5 520

4.78 13.19 14.74 2.51 7.75 0.43

11.07 30.58 34.15 5.82 17.95

0.001 0.000 0.000 0.003

Total

263.11

525

Table 7 Results of analysis of covariance for perception of level of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup Source of variation

Sum of squares

d.f.

Mean square

F-value

P-value

Covariate (number of visits to Korea) Covariate (level of awareness of Korea before the World Cup) Covariate (number of matches watched on TV) Main effect (three nationalities) Explained Residual

0.39 15.63 19.48 2.31 68.98 226.74

1 1 1 2 5 520

0.39 15.63 19.48 1.16 13.80 0.44

0.88 35.85 44.67 3.03 31.64

0.348 0.000 0.000 0.050

Total

295.72

525

Table 8 Results of one-way ANOVAs and Duncan’s tests to identify image changes, brandvalues and levels of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup

Do you think overall image of Korea changed after the 2002 World Cup?a Do you think brand value of Korean products increased after the 2002 World Cup?b Do you think level of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup increased?b

Japanese tourists ðn ¼ 224Þ

Mainland chinese tourists ðn ¼ 143Þ

US tourists ðn ¼ 174Þ

F value

P value

2.50ab 3.30a 4.04b

2.60b 3.49b 3.99b

2.43a 3.26a 3.56a

3.94 4.65 23.34

0.020 0.010 0.000

a and b indicate the source of significant mean differences (b>a). a Nominal scale, changed negatively (1)—the same (2)—changed positively (3). b 7-point Likert scale, strongly disagree (1)—neutral (3)—strongly agree (5).

the covariates had an effect on perceptions of the brand value of Korean products after the World Cup among the three different national groups. The Duncan’s multiple range results in Table 8 showed a significant difference between the Mainland Chinese and the Japanese and US visitors. More specifically, the Mainland Chinese respondents had the highest mean score for the enhancement of the brand value of Korean products after the World Cup. The ANCOVA test to identify differences in the level of familiarity with Korea after the World Cup was significant at the 0.05 level (Table 7). This indicates that the three national tourist groups had different levels of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup. The two covariates of level of awareness of Korea before the

World Cup and the number of matches respondents watched on TV were significant at the 0.001 level. The Duncan’s multiple range test (Table 8) indicated there was a significant difference between the Mainland Chinese and Japanese and US respondents. The Mainland Chinese and Japanese had higher levels of familiarity with Korea after the World Cup. 4.5. Relationships among the three national groups and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup The correspondence analysis results in Fig. 1 provide graphical information of the principal coordinates of the three national groups and perceived image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup in a

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Fig. 1. Correspondence analysis between three national groups and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.

Fig. 2. Correspondence analysis between educational levels and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.

two-dimensional solution. The first two principal components together explained 89.5% of the variance, with 62.1% of the variance for the first dimension and 27.4% of the variance for the second dimension. The results of the correspondence analysis can be interpreted in terms of the proximity of the three national groups and perceived image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup in the joint space. As Fig. 1 shows, the Mainland Chinese respondents indicated positive image changes of Korea, while the images of US respondents were more similar before and after the World Cup in Korea. 4.6. Relationship between educational level and perceived image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup Fig. 2 shows the relationship between gender and image changes. The two dimensions accounted for

95.3% of the variance, with 66.1% for the first and 29.2% of the variance for the second dimension. Respondents with university graduate school experience reported positive image changes of Korea. Meanwhile, respondents with high school or less education indicated that they perceived the image of Korea as being the same after as before the 2002 World Cup. 4.7. Relationship between age and perceived image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup The principal coordinates of the three national groups and the five age categories are plotted in Fig. 3. The two dimensions collectively explained 90.1% of the variance, with 69.1% for the first and 21.0% of the variance for the second dimension. The joint display revealed that those in their 50s and 60s or above had similar images of

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Fig. 3. Correspondence analysis between age and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.

Fig. 4. Correspondence analysis between occupation and image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup.

Korea before and after the World Cup. The respondents in their 20s had positive image changes of Korea after the World Cup.

servants and technicians had more positive images of Korea after the World Cup.

5. Implications and conclusions 4.8. Relationship between occupational level and perceived image changes of Korea after the 2002 World Cup Fig. 4 shows the relationship between perceived image changes of image of Korea and occupational levels. The two dimensions collectively accounted for 88.9% of the variance, with 61.2% for the first and 27.7% of the variance for the second dimension. Salespersons, company employees and businessmen had similar images of Korea before and after the World Cup. However, civil

The goal of this study was to empirically examine the image changes of South Korea as perceived by Japanese, Mainland Chinese and US tourists as a result of hosting the 2002 World Cup. The findings and implications of this study will be helpful to the Korean government in establishing tourism policies to effectively attract foreign tourists after the 2002 World Cup. In addition, the research should be of interest to academics that want to understand the impact of an internationally known event on the image change of the host country and the

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factors affecting image change. The major findings and their marketing implications are as follows. First, significant differences were found for the five image factors before and after the World Cup for the three national tourist groups. The visitors from all three countries had more positive images after than before the World Cup. This seems to suggest that the 2002 World Cup contributed to an improvement in the image of South Korea as a tourism destination. Second, due to recent media coverage, prospective foreign visitors might consider travel to South Korea to be threatening or unsafe because of the danger of potential aggression from North Korea. However, this study’s results indicated that all three national tourist groups were less concerned about safety, including the threat of aggression from North Korea, after the World Cup. These results could be helpful in reducing the levels of anxiety and in more effectively promoting the notion that South Korea is a safe tourism destination. Third, the three national groups had higher levels of disagreement with the negative statements about South Korea after than before the World Cup. Stated in another way, the respondents had higher levels of agreement with the negative statements before the World Cup; including being a small nation, a poor country due to the Korean financial crisis of 1997–1998, a trivial nation, a calm nation and a weak (powerless) country. Fourth, the images of the three groups after the World Cup were consistently the most positive for the various tourism resources factor, which reflected the variety and uniqueness of Korea’s tourism resources. While other factors may be involved, it appears that the 2002 World Cup effectively contributed to enhancing the image of Korea as an attractive tourism destination. Fifth, according to results of correspondence analyses, Mainland Chinese tourists, those with university educations or in their 20s, civil servants, technicians and housewives, had more positive images of Korea after the 2002 World Cup. In contrast, American tourists, those with education levels of high school or less or in their 50s or above and sales workers, company employees and businessmen, reported had similar images of Korea before and after the 2002 World Cup was held in Korea. This information should be helpful to the Korean government in establishing marketing strategies to attract foreign tourists after the World Cup. The results of this study are also expected to contribute to the literature on destination image. There were different image changes among three nationalities and this corresponds with the results of previous empirical studies (Kozak, 2002; MacKay & Fesenmaier, 2000). The results confirm that foreign tourists are not homogenous and thus differentiated marketing strategies need to be applied according to nationality, both in terms of promotions and in product development.

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The mediating effects of the level of awareness about Korea before the World Cup and the number of matches respondents watched on TV as covariates were found in investigating the relationship of perceived image changes and nationality. The results indicated that respondents who were more aware about Korea before the World Cup and exposed to more of the matches through TV, had more positive image change and enhanced levels of familiarity of Korea after the World Cup. These findings are consistent with those of previous studies that have discussed the association between perceptions of positive image and levels of awareness (Andsager & Drzewiecka, 2002; Baloglu, 2001) and the amount of promotional media (Gunn, 1972; Jenkins, 1999). Many previous studies have suggested that the number of visits is likely to affect destination images (Andreu et al., 2000; Chon, 1991; Fakeye & Crompton, 1991; Hu & Ritchie, 1993; Pearce, 1982a,b; Phelps, 1986; Ross, 1993). However, the results of this study did not provide further support because the number of visits to Korea was not significant as a covariate in investigating the relationship between nationality and image changes. Additionally, the number of visits to Korea did not play a role as a covariate in affecting the relationship between nationality and levels of familiarity of Korea after the 2002 World Cup. The findings did not indicate a clear relationship between the number of visits to Korea, image changes of Korea and the level of familiarity with Korea after the 2002 World Cup. Future research is needed to further investigate the role of the number of visits in affecting image changes of tourism destinations. The correspondence analyses results indicated that image changes of Korea after the World Cup varied with nationality, educational level, age and occupation. The findings are consistent with previous studies, which have suggested the influence of socio-demographic variables on destination images (Pearce, 1982a,b; Phelps, 1986; Stabler, 1988). Finally, the results support those of previous studies that have suggested the image of a tourism destination can be changed and thus that image formation is a dynamic process (Chon, 1991; Gartner, 1986; Gartner & Shen, 1992; Pearce, 1982a,b; Perry et al. 1976; Schreyer & Beaulieu, 1986). In contrast, this study’s results contradict some previous studies, which have argued that the overall image of a tourism destination does not fluctuate much over time, even though components of image may be changeable (Crompton, 1979; Crompton & Lamb, 1986; Gartner & Hunt, 1987). This study suggests that an internationally significant event can change the image of a tourism destination in a short time period. Moreover, the results indicate the 2002 World Cup may have caused temporal changes in the overall national image of South Korea. However, there is a need to investigate whether or not these image

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modifications are stable or will return to their previous levels over a longer time period. This study suggests that tourism destination images can be enhanced positively through international events and actual visits. Future research is needed to understand whether image changes occur due to negative events such as wars, terrorism and other conflicts, health problems and worsening economic conditions.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Miss Sunyoung Oh for her efforts to collect data.

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