Residents’ perceptions on impacts of the FIFA 2002 World Cup: the case of Seoul as a host city

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Tourism Management 26 (2005) 25–38

Residents’ perceptions on impacts of the FIFA 2002 World Cup: the case of Seoul as a host city Samuel Seongseop Kima,*, James F. Petrickb a

Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Sejong University, 98 Gunja-dong, Gwangjin-gu, Seoul 143-747, South Korea b Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843-2261, USA Received 30 June 2003; accepted 2 September 2003

Abstract This study empirically investigated residents’ perceptions on impacts of the 2002 World Cup that was held in Korea and Japan. Factor analysis of 22 positive impact items produced five dimensions and factor analysis of nine negative impact items produced three dimensions. Results revealed that housewives tended to perceive the impacts of the soccer event more positively than other occupation groups. In a comparison of residents’ opinions and perceptions on impacts over two points in time, respondents showed a decrease of mean values on two residents’ opinion items and one positive impact item, and an increase in one negative impact item. Thus, the results indicated that attitudes towards the event are likely to be modifiable with passage of time. r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: World Cup; Mega-event; Resident; Perception

1. Introduction Despite numerous studies on impacts of tourism development on a region or a country (e.g., Ryan & Montgomery, 1994; Sheldon & Abenoja, 2001; Sirakaya, Teye, & Sonmez, 2001), only limited research relating to non-economic impacts of an event or festival exists. Further, even published studies on the impacts of an event or festival have mainly focused on economic effects gained by hosting the event (Crompton, Lee, & Shuster, 2001; Crompton & McKay, 1994; Delpy & Li, 1998; Gamage & Higgs, 1997). However, beyond economic impacts, events often bring new infrastructure and facilities as well as a variety of social and cultural events that influence pre-existing patterns of activity and lifestyle in the host and its neighbouring communities. Successful sports mega-events can also bring positive outcomes such as image enhancement, unity within the host community, and more opportunities to enjoy sports matches and meeting foreign travellers (Allen, O’Toole, McDonnell, & Harris, 2002; Bramwell, 1997; Gamage & Higgs, 1997; Getz, 1997; Hall, 1987; Mihalik & *Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S.S. Kim), [email protected] (J.F. Petrick). 0261-5177/$ - see front matter r 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2003.09.013

Simonetta, 1999). Thus, hosting a sports mega-event can result in a quantum jump in the amount and the rate of change in a host community. As mentioned above, sports mega-event authorities tend to show a great interest in economic criteria, whereas they tend to ignore investigations into social and culture impacts of their event. There are at least three potential reasons for the neglect regarding these impacts. First, social and cultural impacts of megaevents are seen to be ‘‘external’’ to most forms of economic valuation to organizations of the mega-event because they tend to use the economic impacts politically to promote a substantial outcome of the event to citizens of the host city (Jeong, 1998). Second, these impacts are less tangible than economic impacts, and thus it is more difficult to understand and calculate them (Delamere, Wankel, & Hinch, 2001; Getz, 1997). Third, these impacts also tend to be associated with negative factors such as increases in: security concerns, alcoholism, smuggling, prostitution, heightened tension, loss of authenticity, commodification, additional policing costs, and congestion (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002). For these reasons, many sports mega-event organizations tend to disregard residents’ perceptions of the events social and cultural impacts. However, if residents’ perceptions are not examined, loss of support for

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tourism development, an unwillingness to work in the tourism industry and hostility towards tourists can be produced (Turco, 1998; Waitt, 2003). Thus, measuring and understanding social impacts of a sports mega-event should be regarded as important as economic impacts. In particular, there is a lack of information regarding residents’ perceptions of impacts of sports mega-events on the change of the nature of a community within a host region. Perceptions of social and cultural impacts of a sports mega-event are likely to differ across resident sociodemographic profiles because each segment has its own social exchange relations with other stakeholders in hosting the mega-event (Waitt, 2003). For example, since a vendor may foresee economic gains through the mega-event by finding a chance to sell his or her products, he or she may show positive attitude towards the event. In contrast, a tenant who rents a house may show a negative response towards a sports mega-event because he or she would have to pay a higher rental fee due to the increase of housing rental fees and real estate prices. Hence, information by different socio-demographic groups towards social and cultural impacts provides a more exact understanding of who are the beneficiaries and victims of hosting of a mega-event. Thus this study empirically examined residents’ perceptions of impacts of the 2002 World Cup that was held in Korea and Japan during May 31–June 30, 2002. Three major objectives were integrated into this study. The first objective was to assess significant positive and negative impacts which occurred by hosting the 2002 World Cup, as perceived by the city’s residents. To do so, this study explored the differences in perceptions of residents with different socio-demographic characteristics. The second objective was to investigate the influence of the World Cup on opinions of residents living in Seoul. A third objective was to explore whether or not the residents’ perceptions of impacts of the World Cup were stable over time. It was assumed that if significant differences were found between residents’ perceptions at two different times, their perceptions were unstable, and can change with passage of time.

2. Preparation of the 2002 World Cup and its impacts on Korean society After Korea was selected to host the 2002 World Cup with Japan in 1996, the Seoul metropolitan government and the Korean government invested in infrastructure and superstructure. For example, the Korean government spent US$0.25 billion on building ten brand-new soccer stadiums. The action plan with which the Seoul municipal government prepared for the World Cup consisted of eight categories with a total of 188

construction or preparation projects (Seoul Metropolitan Government, 2002). First, for an eco-friendly World Cup, a main match stadium in Seoul and a large-scale World Cup Park around the stadium were constructed on a reclaimed landfill. The air quality control system around each stadium had been developed and monitored by civil servants and residents. The Seoul municipal government had actively publicized an environmentally aware World Cup through its homepage and through various information channels. Second, to add cultural perspective to the World Cup, 25 projects were implemented including holding traditional or contemporary cultural festivals representing Korea and other countries participating in the soccer event. Third, for city beautification, 16 projects were undertaken including enhancement of restroom quality, repair of shop signs, control of food and sanitation at street stands, and an improvement of night lighting and waste management. Fourth, to provide accommodation or tourism resources to foreign tourists, 36 projects were implemented. They included construction of more hotels (especially low- or medium-priced hotels), enhancement of service quality in hotels and restaurants, and the designation and control of special tourists areas. Fifth, for convenient transportation, 30 projects were undertaken, including the development of a road system for easy access to the Sangam main stadium, and the enhancement of the quality of the subway system. Also implemented was a system where people were allowed to drive only on alternative days based on whether their license plate was odd or even. The maintenance of traffic signs, and the introduction of a mobile phone interpretation system for easier communication between taxi drivers and foreign customers were also introduced. Sixth, 25 projects for safety were established. They included emergency fire, medical services and food service control. Also applied were plans to prevent and control hooliganism and terrorism. Seventh, 18 projects for publicity and marketing of Seoul were implemented. These projects were used to publicize Korea to potential foreign tourists and journalists by producing a variety of publicity materials in several foreign languages. These materials were distributed to Korean consulates and travel agents abroad. These projects offered residents of Seoul a realization of the significance of the World Cup. Eighth, five projects for the World Cup with a high level of citizens’ involvement were undertaken. The projects included a movement to encourage orderly behaviour among all citizens, organizing citizen volunteer groups, and a citizens’ environmental movement in the name of the World Cup. Before, during and after the 2002 World Cup, Koreans experienced different cultures. The global soccer event was held from May 31 to June 30, in ten brand-new World Cup soccer stadiums where 32

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matches were played. More than 230,000 foreign soccer fans visited Korea during the soccer event (Korea National Tourism Organization, 2002) and 28.8 billion people in 213 countries watched the matches with 41,000 h of dedicated programming (www.fifa.com). One result of the matches is that Korea became the first Asian country to reach the semi-finals. This resulted in fervid national energy as Korean fans cheered their soccer team. An estimated, combined total of nearly 22 million people took to the streets nationwide to cheer for the Korean national soccer team during its seven Word Cup matches (Chosun Daily Newspaper, 2002). It was further estimated that 10.48 million enthusiastic Koreans gathered in the streets of Seoul during the seven games. This accounted for 88% of Seoul’s population. Remarkably, the victory celebrations occurred without any significant incident of violence. The fever was nicknamed ‘‘Red Syndrome’’ because the cheering fans wore T-shirts bearing the slogan ‘‘Be the Red.’’ Thus the World Cup period was recognized as the biggest part in Korean history. Besides being a domestic festival, the 2002 World Cup was a festival for numerous foreign soccer fans. The soccer fans who visited Korea to watch the matches enjoyed fervent street cheering, chanting and celebrations in a festival-like atmosphere. Thus, the soccer event period provided an opportunity through which Koreans experienced foreign cultures and aspects of globalization.

3. Literature review Numerous studies on residents’ perceptions of tourism development have been conducted. Contexts applying the issue include tourism destination development of a special region or country (Akis, Peristianis, & Warner, 1996; Lawson, Williams, Young, & Cossens, 1998; Liu & Var, 1986; Perdue, Long, & Allen, 1987; Ryan & Montgomery, 1994; Sheldon & Abenoja, 2001; Sirakaya, Teye, & Sonmez, 2001; Snaith & Haley, 1999), casinos (Carmichael, Peppard, & Boudreau, 1996; Kang, Long, & Perdue, 1996; Kim, Prideaux, & Kim, 2002; Pizam & Pokela, 1985; Stokowski, 1993, 1996), and theory development or conceptualization (Ap, 1992; Ap & Crompton, 1993; Carmichael, 2000; Doxey, 1975; Lankford & Howard, 1994; Um & Crompton, 1987). However, efforts to identify residents’ perceptions towards the impacts of mega-events have been relatively limited. An introduction to the major studies follows. Ritchie and Aitken (1985) identified resident attitudes towards various aspects of the hosting of the 1988 Olympic Winter Games. They examined the changes in residents’ perceptions and attitudes over the 12 month period between March 1983 and March 1984. Results of their study revealed that respondents in March 1984 had

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a higher level of awareness of the 1980, 1984, and 1988 Olympic Games, than the respondents to the March 1983. Concerning resident support for hosting of the 1988 Winter Games, there was little change in the level of support for the 1988 Games between results of the two surveys. About seventy-four percent of the respondents mentioned that they received value for the cost of the Olympic Saddledome and 63 percent of respondents indicated they had visited the facility. In a similar study, Ritchie and Lyons (1987) measured resident attitudes towards the 1988 Olympic Winter Games at two points in time (1 year after the 1984 Winter Games in Sarajevo and 2 years after the Games ended). Like Ritchie et al. (1985), this study attempted to identify the level of resident awareness of previous Game sites. According to their study, the majority of Calgary residents were aware that they would be the host city of the following Olympic Winter Games, and showed a high tendency to forget previous Game sites. In a question of resident support for hosting the 1988 Games, Calgary residents showed high support in all areas of both surveys. Like the results of Ritchie et al. (1985) study, residents living in Calgary showed a high level of interest in and a high level of expectation to attend the 1988 Games. Soutar and McLeod (1993) examined differences in residents’ perceptions on the impact of the America’s Cup prior to, during, and following the completion of the event. They used 14 items to compare residents’ responses towards the event’s impact and identified the dimensions of ‘‘economic impact’’ and ‘‘physical congestion’’. Respondents showed a low level of perception of physical congestion 1 year before the event was opened. One year after the event was opened, they responded with the highest level of perception of both economic impact and physical congestion. Additionally, when perceptions of living conditions in the city where the Cup was held were measured over three time points, residents responded saying that the level of living conditions was enhanced after the event was held. Thus they concluded that the America’s Cup had a positive influence on living conditions in the host city. Jeong (1998) examined the factors that influenced residents’ perceptions towards the impact of an international science EXPO held in the City of Daejeon, South Korea. Factor analysis of 25 items identified seven dimensions of residents’ perceptions towards impacts of the EXPO. The dimensions were ‘‘positive urban developmental impact’’ (5 items), ‘‘positive tourism development impact’’ (4 items), ‘‘negative socio-economic impact’’ (4 items), ‘‘positive public relations impact in macro perspective’’ (3 items), ‘‘positive recreational impact’’ (4 items) and ‘‘negative economic-environmental impact’’ (4 items). According to results of frequency analyses on the 25 items of perceived impacts, respondents believed that the EXPO

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preparation improved urban development and enhancement of the international image of the host city. They also believed that the EXPO brought out an increase in real estate costs and entertainment businesses, overbuilding of apartments and a leakage effect. Significant differences on some demographic variables were found in residents’ perceptions of positive EXPO preparation impacts. For example, in perceiving ‘‘improves local restaurant sanitation’’ and ‘‘improves traffic problems,’’ significant differences among three age groups were found. However, significant differences among respondents according to residential area and length of residency were not found in perceiving positive EXPO preparation impacts. In contrast, significant differences among different age groups in perceiving negative EXPO preparation impacts were found. In a similar study, Mihalik and Simonetta (1998) examined resident perceptions of the 1996 Summer Olympic Games. They examined differences in perceptions by surveying residents of Georgia in the summer of 1992 and again in the summer of 1993, in order to determine overall resident support for hosting the Olympics. Between the two points in time, they found that while perceptions were mostly favourable, the number of residents who both supported and planned to attend the Olympic games decreased. Their results also revealed that even though the six benefits they measured all decreased over time, the mean scores still revealed that Georgia resident support still remained strong. They further found that African–Americans and those with a high school degree or less actually increased their support over time. They suggested that this change was due to these segments being more likely to gain employment from the games. Deccio and Baloglu (2002) explored non-host community residents’ reactions towards the spillover effects of the 2002 Winter Olympics held in Salt Lake City, UT. They used a path model to identify relationships between support for the 2002 Winter Olympics, ecocentric attitude, community attachment, resource utilization, economic gain, opportunities (benefits) and concerns (costs) which were expected to be produced because of the Olympics. Results revealed that support for the 2002 Winter Olympics was positively affected by expected opportunities, economic gain and resource use, while it was negatively affected by eco-centric attitude. This suggests that non-host residents who expected opportunities (benefits), economic gains and more opportunity of resource use through the Olympics tended to support the 2002 Winter Olympics, while those who were sensitive to environmental concerns did not support the Olympics. Expected opportunities were positively influenced by economic gain, whereas expected concerns were positively influenced by economic gain and community attachment. This means that non host residents who expected economic gains also

expected opportunities such as more employment, shopping opportunities, revenue increase and recreational enhancement. The results indicated that those who expected economic gain and were more attached to their community also showed a higher level of expected concerns as a result of the Olympics. They further found that even though most non-host community residents did not support the Olympics, they showed a high level of agreement with the promotion of the community and a willingness to support their rural community activities during the global event. Drawing from social exchange theory, Waitt (2003) investigated the changes in enthusiasm between 1998 March survey and 2000 September survey during Sydney’s Olympics. Positive responses were found during the Olympics compared to the 1998 survey on the items: ‘‘desire to be a volunteer at the Sydney Olympics,’’ ‘‘feelings of a sense of community spirit as a result of Sydney 2000’’, ‘‘feelings of pride in Sydney and Australia’’ and ‘‘feelings of excitement’’. Results of this study indicated that those who had families with dependent children, non-English speaking backgrounds and perceived the event’s economic benefits as outweighing the costs tended to be most enthusiastic during the Olympics. The number of respondents who expected an increase in taxation and living costs in the 1998 March survey declined in the 2000 September survey during the Olympics. However, in the 2000 survey fewer respondents perceived positive economic impacts arising from hosting the Olympics than in the 1998 survey, whereas they showed a little more positive response on creation of permanent jobs. Conclusively, respondents indicated that a high level of expectation about the economic benefits arising from hosting the Olympics declined during the games. Waitt (2000) concluded that the above results would be different among more detailed socio-demographic characteristics because respondents have different positions or relationships in the social exchange process. In sum, these studies examined residents’ perceptions or attitudes on the impacts of mega-events including sports. However, there still exists a lack of research exploring responses of residents with different sociodemographic characteristics in perceiving the impacts of mega-events.

4. Methods 4.1. Measurement A pool of 31 items encompassing residents’ perceptions of the impacts of the 2002 World Cup in Seoul was selected from previous studies on the impacts of events (Delamere et al., 2001; Jeong, 1998; Jeong, Jafari, & Gartner, 1990; Soutar & McLeod, 1993; Turco, 1998).

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The items included economic, social/cultural, urban and tourism infrastructure development, and environmental impacts. The 31 items included 22 positive impact items and 9 negative impact items. Responses to the items were measured on 7-point Likert-type scales where 1¼ strongly disagree, 4¼ neutral and 7¼ strongly agree. Eight items were used to measure residents’ opinions regarding the impacts of the 2002 World Cup on both national and individual levels. For example, one item was ‘‘I became more interested in global mega-events’’. Responses to the items were operationalized with 7point Likert-type scales where 1 ¼ strongly disagree, 4 ¼ neutral; and 7 ¼ strongly agree. Respondents’ socio-demographic information (age, gender, occupation, education level, household income) was also measured. 4.2. Data collection On-site surveys were conducted in four areas: a subway station ðn ¼ 157Þ; a busy commercial street where offices of large-scale corporations are crowded ðn ¼ 170Þ; a traditional Korean market ðn ¼ 151Þ; a large-scale department store ðn ¼ 136Þ and a street near the university campuses ðn ¼ 125Þ: In the subway station, every 2nd person who came from the station was interviewed and asked to fill in the questionnaire. At the commercial street location, an on-site survey was administrated to company workers as they were leaving their office in the evening. At the Korean traditional market, on-site data collection was conducted from merchants and their customers. In the large-scale department store, questionnaires were distributed to people who sat on a bench within the department store. On the street where university campuses are located, an on-site survey was conducted with people who waited for a municipal bus. At the last three sites, a convenience sampling method was applied because it was impossible to control pedestrians’ passage in these open sites. Interviewers included eight undergraduate and four graduate students who understood the purpose of the study and were well-trained. One survey team consisted of two undergraduates and one graduate who conducted surveys between June 28 and July 6, 2002 (during the last week of the World Cup and 1 week after the soccer event ended). Except for urgent personal business, most respondents willingly accepted to answer the questionnaire. After dropping questionnaires that were either incomplete or had multiple missing data, a total of 739 questionnaires from the first survey were used for further data analyses. For the 2nd survey, respondents from two groups, a busy commercial street ðn ¼ 170Þ and a Korean traditional market area ðn ¼ 151Þ; were asked to write their address, phone number, company and department name

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and workplace name. These groups were selected for the 2nd survey because it was possible to track them by visiting their company offices or the shops in a market. On the basis of the two groups’ lists, interviewers visited respondents personally after making a call to them and picked up the questionnaires directly. Data for the 2nd portion of the study were collected over 6 days, approximately 3 months after the World Cup. Those who could not be contacted were excluded from the 2nd survey. As a result, 220 questionnaires were collected from the busy commercial street ðn ¼ 120Þ and the traditional Korean market ðn ¼ 100Þ; resulting in a response rate of 58.8% and 79.4%. 4.3. Analysis The 22 items related to positive impacts and the 9 items related to negative impacts were factor analysed separately in order to delineate the underlying dimensions. The reason for dividing them into positive and negative impacts for the factor analyses was that averaging positive and negative impact items within each domain can result in distorted results caused by direction of sign and inconsistency of meaning among items with the same domain (Delamere et al., 2001; Snaith & Haley, 1999). According to Kaiser’s (1974) criterion, only factors with eigenvalues greater than 1 were retained; and only items with factor loadings and communalities of greater than 0.4, were included in the final factor structure. Reliability alphas within each dimension were computed to confirm the factor’s internal consistency. One-way ANOVA tests or t-tests were undertaken to examine the significant differences between socio-demographic subgroups on the positive and negative impacts factors. When significant differences in one-way ANOVA tests were found, Duncan’s multiple range test was used to examine the source of differences across the respondent subgroups. Likewise, one-way ANOVA tests and t-tests were conducted to identify the significant differences between socio-demographic variables (representing different levels of age, occupation, gender) in residents’ opinions of the international soccer event. Finally, paired t-tests were conducted to identify any differences in the positive and negative impact factors and residents’ opinions over the two and half month period between the collection of the two sets of data.

5. Results 5.1. Demographic profile of respondents Table 1 summarizes the demographic profile of the study respondents. Just over one half (51.0%) were female, 36.3% were aged 20–29, 35% worked as

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Table 1 Description of survey respondents 1st Survey (World Cup) (N=710)

2nd Survey (3 months after the World Cup) (N=200)

Socio-demographic variables

Percent (%)

Socio-demographic variables

Percent (%)

Gender Male Female

49.0 51.0

Gender Male Female

56.1 43.9

Age 20–29 30–39 40–49 50 and above

36.3 21.2 21.5 21.0

Age 20–29 30–39 40–49 50 and above

31.2 41.1 20.2 7.5

Occupation Student Company employee Civil servant Housewife Professional Sales/service worker Others

23.8 32.5 5.5 12.3 13.1 10.3 2.5

Occupation Student Company employee Civil servant Housewife Professional Sales/service worker Others

15.0 56.6 2.0 11.0 8.1 4.6 2.7

Educational level Primary school Junior high school Senior high school Some college or college graduate or above

0.9 2.3 15.0 81.8

Educational level Primary school Junior high school Senior high school Some college or college graduate or above

0.7 2.3 13.1 83.7

Household income Less than 10 million won (less than US$8333) 10 million–1999 million won (US$8334–6666) 20 million–29.99 million won (US$16,667–24,999) 30 million won or more (US$25,000 or more)

17.1 21.6 36.7 24.0

company employees, 81.8% of the respondents were college students or had a college undergraduate degree or higher, and 60.7% of the respondents had household incomes of US$16,667 (20 million won) or more. Just over one-half (56.1%) of the respondents to the followup survey were male, whereas almost one half (41.1%) were aged 30–39. And about 57% were company employees. 5.2. Factor analyses of the positive and negative impact scale To examine the dimensions underlying the positive impact scales, a principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation was undertaken. The 22 items for the positive impacts yielded five factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.0 (Table 2). These factors explained 60.8% of the variance and were labelled: ‘‘tourism resource development and urban revitalization;’’ ‘‘image

Household income Less than 10 million won (less than US$8333) 10 million–1999 million won (US$8334–6666) 20 million–29.99 million won (US$16,667–24,999) 30 million won or more (US$25,000 or more)

10.9 26.2 25.1 37.8

enhancement and consolidation;’’ ‘‘economic benefits;’’ ‘‘interest in foreign countries or their cultures;’’ and ‘‘tourism infrastructure development.’’ All 22 items had factor loadings over 0.43. The reliability alphas, which are designed to check the internal consistency of items within each dimension, were higher than 0.70 indicating that Nunnally’s (1978) criterion was met. The grand mean scores for the five factors were 4.85, 5.80, 4.34, 4.97 and 4.48, respectively. A principal component factor analysis of the nine items for the negative impacts produced three factors which had eigenvalues greater than 1.0 (Table 3). The factors accounted for 61.4% of the variance and were termed: ‘‘negative economic perspective,’’ ‘‘disorder and conflicts,’’ and ‘‘traffic problem and congestion.’’ Factor loadings for the nine items ranged from 0.46 to 0.85. The reliability alphas for the three dimensions were all above or close to 0.70 as recommended by Nunnally (1978). The grand mean scores for the three factors were 4.31,

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Table 2 Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation on residents’ perceptions on positive impact items (N=703) Positive impact items

Factor loadings 1

Tourism resource development and urban revitalization Enhanced city beauty Enhanced the efforts of preserving heritage tourism resources Increased shopping facilities Increased tourist information facilities Increased leisure facilities Increased number of cultural events Enhanced sanitation facilities Grand mean

2

3

4

5 0.67 0.61

5.14 4.79

1.15 1.31

0.67 0.57 0.56 0.46 0.43

0.58 0.57 0.51 0.47 0.51

4.44 5.13 5.05 5.20 4.23 4.85

1.26 1.14 1.25 1.17 1.26

0.80 0.77 0.69 0.58 0.61

6.14 5.92 5.69 5.70 5.54 5.80

1.26 1.26 1.13 1.27 1.35

0.61 0.57 0.50 0.52

3.96 4.53 4.47 4.38

1.33 4.31 1.31 1.38

0.72 0.67 0.59

0.62 0.55 0.63

4.34 4.73 4.92 5.25 4.97

1.25 1.18 1.16

0.66 0.61 0.50

0.68 0.71 0.61

1.20 5.3 0.77

1.03 4.5 0.79

0.86 0.81 0.64 0.61 0.55

Economic benefits Increased job opportunities Improved the economic conditions Accelerated the growth of Seoul Increased investment in Seoul Grand mean

0.77 0.77 0.66 0.63 0.58

countries or their cultures in foreign cultures in foreign languages in international events

Tourism infrastructure development Increased number of hotel rooms Accelerated development of tourism infrastructure Improved conditions of city road system Grand mean Eigenvalue Variance explained Reliability coefficient

Standard deviation

0.71 0.69

Image enhancement and consolidation Increased opportunity to inform Seoul to the world Enhanced recognition of Seoul internationally Improved image of Seoul internationally Enhanced pride of Seoul residents due to being hosts Reinforced community spirit Grand mean

Interest in foreign Increased interest Increased interest Increased interest Grand mean

Communalities Item means

7.70 34.2 0.84

2.17 9.4 0.83

1.70 7.4 0.70

4.38 4.80 4.24 4.48

1.38 1.18 1.30

Note: 7-point Likert-type scales were used with strongly disagree (1), neutral (4), strongly agree (7).

2.74 and 4.19, respectively. In particular, respondents showed a low level of perception on the ‘‘disorder and conflicts’’ factor. 5.3. Comparison of residents’ perceptions on the positive and negative impact factors for different age groups The mean scores in the four age groups on the dependent variables are given in Table 4 along with the outcome of one-way ANOVA tests. Significant differences ðpo0:05Þ were found for the age groups on one positive impact factor (infrastructure development) and

two negative impact factors (negative economic perspective and traffic/congestion). The age 50 and higher group showed the highest mean score on the ‘‘tourism infrastructure development’’ positive factor, while those in age groups 20–29 and 30–39 had the lowest mean scores on this factor. Respondents age 20–29 and 30–39 perceived a more negative economic perspective than the other age groups did. Likewise, the two youngest groups believed that the World Cup brought traffic problems and congestion more than the other age groups did. Thus, younger respondents generally seemed to be more sensitive to negative economic impacts and traffic

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Table 3 Principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation on the residents’ perceptions on negative impacts (N=700) Negative impact items

Factor loadings 1

Negative economic perspective Increased price of real estate Increased speculation of real estate Increased product prices Increased sales of entertainment industries Excessive spending for preparation of the World Cup Grand mean

2

Communalities Item means Standard deviation

3

0.67 0.56 0.46 0.71 0.56

Disorder and conflicts Brought disturbance by hooligans or disorder by foreign tourists Brought conflicts and antagonism between foreign tourists and residents Grand mean

4.02 3.76 4.26 4.71 4.79 4.31

1.36 1.32 1.23 1.45 1.55

0.74 0.75

2.82 2.65 2.74

1.46 1.51

0.71 0.54 0.46 0.57

4.30 4.10 4.19

1.44 1.45

0.85 0.85

Traffic problem and congestion Increased traffic problem Brought congestion in inner city of Seoul Grand mean Eigenvalue Variance explained Reliability coefficient

0.71 0.69 0.52 0.59 0.41

3.04 1.38 1.10 33.7 15.4 12.2 0.69 0.71 0.69

Note: 7-point Likert-type scales were used with strongly disagree (1), neutral (4), strongly agree (7).

Table 4 ANOVA for comparison of residents’ perceptions on the positive and negative impact factors by age group Positive and negative impact factors Positive impacts factors (1) Tourism resource development and urban revitalization (2) Image enhancement and consolidation (3) Economic benefits (4) Interest in foreign countries or their cultures (5) Tourism infrastructure development Negative impacts factors (1) Negative economic perspective (2) Disorder and conflicts (3) Traffic problem and congestion

20–29 (n=258)

30–39 (n=151)

40–49 (n=153)

50+ (n=149)

F-value

P-value

4.81

4.74

4.86

4.98

1.97

0.117

5.87 4.41 4.98

5.79 4.35 4.90

5.61 4.25 4.90

5.89 4.28 5.07

2.05 1.16 1.01

0.103 0.324 0.386

4.38ab

4.26a

4.50b

4.84c

9.17

0.000

4.43b 2.68 4.27b

4.32b 2.84 4.41b

4.18a 2.79 4.04a

4.22a 2.72 4.02a

2.99 0.53 5.68

0.030 0.665 0.001

Note: a, b, and c indicate the source of significant differences (c>b>a).

problems caused by the World Cup than older respondents. 5.4. Comparison of residents’ perceptions on the positive and negative impact factors for different gender groups Significant differences ðpo0:05Þ between males and females were found on four of the five positive impact factors (Table 5). Female respondents rated all five positive impact factors higher than males. However,

there was no significant difference ðp > 0:05Þ between females and males in their perceptions of the negative impact factors. 5.5. Comparison of residents’ perceptions on the positive and negative impact factors for different occupation groups Four of the five positive impact factors were significantly ðpo0:05Þ different across the six occupation

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Table 5 ANOVA for comparison of residents’ perceptions on the positive and negative impact factors by gender group Positive and negative impact factors

Male (n=354)

Female (n=361)

T-value

P-value

Positive impact factors (1) Tourism resource development and urban revitalization (2) Image enhancement and consolidation (3) Economic benefits (4) Interest in foreign countries or their cultures (5) Tourism infrastructure development

4.74 5.63 4.29 4.84 4.33

4.96 5.98 4.39 5.09 4.63

3.42 4.86 1.36 3.33 3.84

0.001 0.000 0.174 0.001 0.000

Negative impact factors (1) Negative economic perspective (2) Disorder and conflicts (3) Traffic problem and congestion

4.23 2.78 4.23

4.32 2.68 4.15

1.81 0.99 1.12

0.070 0.322 0.264

Table 6 ANOVA for comparison of residents’ perceptions on the positive and negative impact factors by occupation group Positive and negative impact factors

Student (n=170)

Company employee (n=230)

Civil servant (n=40)

Housewife (n=81)

Professional Sales/service F-value (n=86) business workers (n=68)

P-value

Positive impact factors (1) Tourism resource development and urban revitalization (2) Image enhancement and consolidation (3) Economic benefits (4) Interest in foreign country or culture (5) Tourism infrastructure development

4.88ab

4.76a

5.13b

5.04b

4.72a

4.97ab

2.38

0.038

5.87ab 4.41 5.13ab 4.34a

5.88ab 4.31 5.01ab 4.32a

5.59a 4.39 4.79a 4.97b

6.10b 4.31 5.27b 4.81b

5.77ab 4.47 4.50ab 4.40a

5.65a 4.31 4.79a 4.64ab

3.13 0.51 3.42 4.84

0.008 0.768 0.005 0.000

Negative impact factors (1) Negative economic perspective (2) Disorder and conflicts (3) Traffic problem and congestion

4.48bc 2.72a 4.29b

4.30ab 2.87a 4.28b

4.65c 3.63b 4.83c

4.10a 2.57a 3.08a

4.38abc 2.60a 4.11a

4.25ab 2.63a 4.05a

2.75 3.13 5.41

0.018 0.008 0.000

Note: a, b, and c indicate the source of significant differences (c>b>a).

groups (Table 6). On the ‘‘tourism resources and urban revitalization’’ factor, civil servants and housewives tended to believe that the World Cup contributed to developing tourism resources and urban revitalization of Seoul more than the other groups. Housewives also showed the highest mean score on the ‘‘image enhancement and consolidation’’ positive impact factor. On the ‘‘interest in foreign country or culture’’ positive factor, housewives and students showed the highest mean scores, suggesting that the World Cup stimulated them to have high interest in foreign countries or culture. Civil servants and housewives also showed a higher level on perception of the ‘‘tourism infrastructure development’’ positive factor than the other occupation groups did. In sum, the civil servant group showed the highest level of perception on the ‘‘tourism resource development and urban revitalization’’ and ‘‘tourism infrastructure development’’ positive impact factors. This suggests that they may have had pride in working for or cooperating with the World Cup. Meanwhile, housewives rated ‘‘image

enhancement and consolidation’’ and ‘‘interest in foreign country or culture’’ impact factors higher than all other groups. Thus, housewives tended to feel that the World Cup both helped Korea’s image and that the cultural impacts were more positive than the other groups. An examination of the negative impact factors across the six occupation groups indicated that housewives gave the lowest mean scores on the three negative impact factors, whereas company employees and professionals showed the highest mean scores for the three negative impact factors. These results indicated that housewives were the least likely to feel that the soccer event impacted Korea negatively. 5.6. Comparison of residents’ opinions for different age groups An inspection of the mean scores indicates that five of the eight items of residents’ opinions were found to be

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Table 7 ANOVA for comparison of residents’ opinions on the impacts of the 2002 World Cup by age group Residents’ opinions on the impacts of the 2002 World Cup

20–29 (n=258)

30–39 (n=150)

40–49 (n=153)

50+ (n=149)

F-value

P-value

I I I I I

5.36bc 4.94ab 4.76a 6.05bc 5.16

5.06a 4.74a 4.68a 5.66a 4.99

5.19ab 4.86ab 5.11b 5.82ab 5.20

5.50c 5.09b 5.32b 6.11c 5.18

3.24 1.98 6.17 4.86 0.97

0.022 0.115 0.000 0.002 0.406

5.18b

4.81a

4.60a

4.83a

5.49

0.001

6.02 5.29b

5.83 4.85a

5.69 4.80a

5.93 4.83a

2.41 4.97

0.066 0.002

became more interested in global mega-events. became more interested in cultures of other countries. realized that we are part of the world. realized patriotism and unity. became more interested in countries participating in the World Cup. I would like to participate in future international tourism events as a volunteer. I think that the World Cup made Koreans harmonious. I would like to travel to the host country of the next World Cup.

Note: a, b, and c indicate the source of significant differences (c>b>a).

Table 8 ANOVA for comparison of residents’ opinions on the 2002 World Cup by gender group Residents’ opinions on the impacts of the 2002 World Cup

Male (n=353)

Female (n=361)

T-value

P-value

I I I I I I

5.07 4.84 4.75 5.76 5.09 4.74

5.52 5.01 5.14 6.10 5.19 5.07

4.60 1.78 3.32 3.78 1.05 2.95

0.000 0.0.76 0.001 0.000 0.406 0.003

5.73 4.88

6.06 5.10

3.68 1.97

0.000 0.049

became more interested in global mega-events. became more interested in cultures of other countries. realized that we are part of the world. realized patriotism and unity. became more interested in countries participating in the World Cup. would like to participate in future international tourism events as a volunteer. I think that the World Cup made Koreans harmonious. I would like to travel to the host country of the next World Cup.

significantly ðpo0:05Þ different (Table 7). Respondents aged 50 or older and aged 20–29 stated that they became more interested in global mega-events and cultures of other countries than the other two groups did. Likewise, compared to the two middle-aged groups, the two age groups reported that the World Cup was an opportunity to realize patriotism and unity and they would like to participate in future global mega-events as a volunteer. Respondents aged 40–49 and 50 or older rated ‘‘realizing that we are part of the world’’ significantly ðpo0:05Þ higher than other two age groups. It was further revealed that respondents aged 20–29 were most likely to travel to the host country of the next World Cup.

5.7. Comparison of residents’ opinions for different gender groups According to results of t-tests, significant differences ðpo0:05Þ were found in six of the eight items indicating residents’ opinions (Table 8). On all items on which significances were observed, female respondents showed higher mean scores than male respondents did. This indicates that females had more positive opinions of the World Cup than males did.

5.8. Comparison of residents’ opinions for different occupation groups According to results of one-way ANOVA tests, significant differences ðpo0:05Þ were found on five of the eight residents’ opinions items (Table 9). For all items on which significances were observed, housewives reported either the highest or second highest mean score. This suggests that housewives’ opinions regarding the World Cup and future global mega-events were more positive than respondents in other occupations. In contrast, company employees and civil servant groups showed the lowest mean scores on the five items. These results were similar to those of residents’ perceptions on the positive and negative impact factors for different occupation groups. 5.9. Comparison of residents’ opinions over two points in time Paired t-tests were performed to identify whether or not respondents perceived the positive and negative impact factors over a 3 month period between data sets 1 and 2 differently. Results of paired t-tests reported in Table 10 revealed that there were significant differences

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35

Table 9 ANOVA for comparison of residents’ opinions on the 2002 World Cup by occupation group F-value

P-value

Residents’ opinions on the impacts of the 2002 World Cup

Student (n=170)

Company employee (n=230)

Civil servant Housewife (n=39) (n=81)

Professional Sales/service (n=86) business worker (n=68)

I became more interested in global mega-events. I became more interested in cultures of other countries. I realized that we are part of the world. I realized patriotism and unity. I became more interested in countries participating in the World Cup. I would like to participate in future international tourism events as a volunteer. I think that the World Cup made Koreans harmonious. I would like to travel to the host country of the next World Cup.

5.44bc

4.87a

5.04ab

5.89c

5.45bc

5.44bc

9.28

0.000

5.13b

4.64a

4.98ab

5.21b

4.99ab

5.04ab

3.45

0.004

4.64a

4.61a

4.87a

5.79c

5.14ab

5.54bc

11.11

0.000

6.05bc 5.14

5.67ab 5.01

5.48a 5.30

6.37c 5.29

5.90ab 5.10

5.94bc 5.26

5.10 0.98

0.000 0.431

5.35b

4.70a

4.55a

4.98ab

4.84ab

4.97ab

4.06

0.001

6.02

5.76

5.57

6.15

5.86

5.81

1.93

0.087

5.25

4.87

4.70

4.83

5.03

5.12

1.63

0.144

Note: a, b, and c indicate the source of significant differences (c>b>a).

Table 10 Paired t-tests for comparison of residents’ perceptions on positive and negative impacts in two points in time World Cup (1st Survey)

Three months after the World Cup ended (2nd Survey)

t-value

P-value

Positive impact factors (1) Tourism resource development and urban revitalization (2) Image enhancement and consolidation (3) Economic benefits (4) Interest in foreign country or culture (5) Tourism infrastructure development

4.72 5.81 4.37 4.75 4.36

4.62 5.66 4.29 4.78 4.35

1.84 2.17 1.02 0.44 0.22

0.068 0.031 0.312 0.662 0.828

Negative impact factors (1) Negative economic perspective (2) Disorder and conflicts (3) Traffic problem and congestion

4.21 2.58 4.18

4.41 2.55 4.13

2.85 0.37 0.59

0.005 0.713 0.557

Positive and negative impacts factors

ðpo0:05Þ on one positive impact factor and one negative impact factor. Respondents indicated a relatively lower mean score on the ‘‘image enhancement and consolidation’’ impact factor 3 months after the World Cup ended than during the World Cup. This means that after the World Cup, the fever of interest had decreased. Respondents reported a higher mean score on the negative economic perspective impact factor after the World Cup than during the World Cup. This finding suggests that as time passes, hosts are more likely to feel that a mega-event has negative impacts on the economy. Paired t-tests also revealed significant differences ðpo0:05Þ in residents’ opinions 3 months after the World Cup in two of the eight opinion items (Table 11). Compared to during the World Cup, respondents indicated that they perceived less ‘‘patriotism and unity’’ and ‘‘intention to participate in future global mega-

events as a volunteer’’ 3 months after the international soccer event.

6. Conclusions and implications For this study, two main objectives were integrated. First, this study empirically analysed residents’ perceptions and opinions of the impacts of the 2002 World Cup and how their perceptions were different across socio-demographic variables (representing different levels of age, occupation, gender). Second, this study identified whether or not residents’ perceptions and opinions on impacts of the World Cup were stable over time. The results of factor analysis of 22 items of the positive impacts produced five dimensions: ‘‘tourism

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Table 11 Paired t-tests for comparison of residents’ opinions over two points in time Residents’ opinions on the impacts of the 2002 World Cup

World Cup (1st Survey)

Three months after the World Cup ended (2nd Survey)

t-value

P-value

I I I I I

5.09 4.68 4.66 5.86 4.91

5.04 4.77 4.68 5.60 4.82

0.46 0.86 0.16 2.70 0.95

0.650 0.390 0.875 0.008 343

4.72

4.53

1.97

5.85 4.83

5.65 4.72

1.95 0.94

became more interested in global mega-events. became more interested in cultures of other countries. realized that we are part of the world. realized patriotism and unity. became more interested in countries participating in the World Cup. I would like to participate in future international tourism events as a volunteer. I think that the World Cup made Koreans harmonious. I would like to travel to the host country of the next World Cup.

resource development and urban revitalization;’’ ‘‘image enhancement and consolidation;’’ ‘‘economic benefits;’’ ‘‘interest in foreign countries or their cultures;’’ and ‘‘tourism infrastructure development.’’ A principal component factor analysis of nine items related to negative impacts produced three dimensions: ‘‘negative economic perspective,’’ ‘‘disorder and conflicts,’’ and ‘‘traffic problem and congestion.’’ Patterns of two factor structures were similar to those of results of previous studies (Delamere et al., 2001; Jeong, 1992, 1998). The grand mean scores for the five positive impacts factors were 4.85, 5.80, 4.34, 4.97, and 4.48, indicating that residents living in Seoul perceived a fairly high level of positive impact from the World Cup. Residents were most likely to consider image enhancement and consolidation to be the most positive impact as a result of the World Cup. For the three negative impacts factors, residents reported that they experienced a high level of the ‘‘negative economic perspective’’ factor and the ‘‘traffic problem and congestion’’ factor, while ‘disorder and conflicts’ was not perceived to be as large a problem. Residents, regardless of age, were found to positively perceive the impacts of the World Cup on four of the positive impact factors, with the exception of the ‘tourism infrastructure development’ factor. Younger respondents tended to show a higher level of perception on the negative impact factors. Female respondents indicated that they more highly perceived both positive and negative impacts of the World Cup than male respondents did. The housewife group tended to respond that they experienced a high positive impact of the soccer event, whereas they experienced a low level of negative impact compared to other occupation groups. Compared to other age groups, those in their 20 s and 50 s showed that they became more interested in international sports events and cultures of other countries, and experienced more patriotism and unity through the World Cup. Likewise, the two age groups

050 0.053 0.351

showed a higher level of intention to participate in future international events as a volunteer and believed that the World Cup made Koreans harmonious. Those in their 20 s showed the highest level of desire to travel to the host country of the next World Cup. Female respondents indicated a higher level of perception on residents’ opinions of the 2002 World Cup, compared to male respondents. For example, through the World Cup, the female group indicated that they became more interested in international sports events and cultures of other countries. Likewise, the female respondents indicated that they realized patriotism and unity and showed a high level of intention to work for future global mega-events as a volunteer. According to a comparison of residents’ opinions towards the impact of the World Cup for different occupation groups, housewives reported higher mean scores compared to other occupation groups. This means that the housewife group could be the highest beneficiary of the World Cup. Analysis with paired t-tests which identified whether or not residents’ perceptions of the impact factors changed over time, found significant differences on two positive impact factors and one negative impact factor. This means that the residents’ enthusiasm in Seoul 3 months after the World Cup was less compared to the fervent feelings during the event. Respondents also showed a higher level of perception of the ‘negative economic perspective’ factor 3 months after the World Cup. This is likely to result from their concerns about public costs for the vast investment of the soccer event or future utilization of the ten new soccer stadiums after the World Cup. Another potential cause could be that fewer foreign soccer fans (230,000) attended the World Cup than the estimated 40 million (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2003). In a comparison of residents’ opinions over two points in time, the respondents showed a lower level on two items, ‘‘I realized patriotism and unity,’’ and ‘‘I would like to participate in future global mega-events’’

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after the World Cup. This means that with the passage of time, the World Cup fever became diluted. The results are unique because most studies of residents’ perceptions towards tourism development have used only crosssectional data. Thus the results of this study lead to the conclusion that residents’ perceptions of the impacts of mega-events may vary with passage of time. This finding is consistent with Waitt’s (2003) notions suggesting that attitudes towards an event are likely to change across time because the formation of an exchange relationship between the individual and the event is not static, but rather constantly negotiated and renegotiated. Thus results of this study can be used by local or central governments and tourism advocates in planning and implementing mega-events in the future. For example, respondents of this study showed a high level of agreement on the negative impacts such as ‘‘increased sales in entertainment industries’’ and ‘‘excessive spending for preparation of the World Cup,’’ whereas they responded with a high level of agreement on the positive impacts relating to image enhancement. On the basis of this information, planners or managers of future international mega-events can establish strategies to effectively minimize the negative social impacts and maximize the positive impacts. Results of this study indicated that residents from different socio-demographic groups evaluated the perceived consequences of the World Cup differently within a dynamic social setting. This means that planners and managers of future sports mega-events should understand that all residents do not fully support mega-events. Rather they should realize that it is a more complex phenomena in the context of socio-demographic characteristics. From an academic viewpoint, this study can fill the void of research on residents’ perceptions on the impacts of a mega-event. Additionally, since there have been few studies conducted which have assessed the impact of a mega-event over time, empirical results of this study can be used as a theoretical base explaining how residents’ opinions and perceptions change over time. While it is difficult to generalize the findings of this study to other mega-events, it is believed that the current study offers insight into the complexities of residents’ opinions regarding mega-events. With this knowledge, event planners and organizers should be better equipped to not only understand these complexities, but to also allocate resources to more effectively increase residents’ perceived positive impacts and decrease their perceived negative impacts.

Acknowledgements We would like to thank Ms. Seungyeon Lee and Mr. Byungsup Kim for their great assistance in collecting data.

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