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Chapter 2 Socio-Economic Factors
26 CHAPTER 2
SOC 10-ECONOM I C FACTORS I NTRODUCT ION
Since
the
international been
develoment
it
assistance a n d
adequately
have
1980s
early
and
resulted
that
major such
become
increasingly
l e n d i n g agencies t h a t
addressed
from
has
in
project
unforeseen
social
in
programs
social
planning and
less
for
evident
to
the
issues
have
water
resources
environmental
developed
not
problems
countries.
The
problems have been p r i m a r i l y r e l a t e d to:
1.
Resettlement of people l i v i n g i n the p r o j e c t a r e a due to c o n s t r u c t i o n .
2.
Acceptance of the p r o j e c t a n d i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s b y local people.
3.
Inadequate s a n i t a t i o n measures.
4.
Wa ter-re1 a ted diseases.
5.
Food p r o d u c t i o n and s u p p l y .
6.
Ecological change.
The
nature
developing
and
importance
areas a r e d i f f e r e n t
of
from
social
and
in
those
environmental
the
U n i t e d States
i n d u s t r i a l countries,
a n d the social a n d environmental
closely
as
inter-related
to
be
In
inseparable.
impacts
effects
some
cases
and
other
a r e often such
in
so
impacts
h a v e been so acute that projected b e n e f i t s h a v e not been r e a l i z e d . The
emphasis
developing effects,
of
impact
studies
areas has been on economic
but
social
effects
have
related and,
rarely
been
social
impacts h a v e been studied,
whole,
without g i v i n g a t t e n t i o n to the special
the focus
water
to
more
resources
recently,
thoroughly
in
environmental
addressed.
When
h a s been on p o p u l a t i o n s as a r o l e of
women a s users a n d
conveyors of water.
In recent y e a r s i n c r e a s i n g emphasis has been g i v e n to
the c r u c i a l
women
because
it
r o l e of has
self-sufficiency
become
cannot
be
in
planning
evident met
unless
p r o d u c t i o n a n d food processing, account.
However,
the
role
of
agricultural
that
national
the
role
preservation, women
development has been l a r g e l y ignored.
with
of
development objectives women
in
and marketing relation
to
programs for
food
agricultural i s taken
water
into
resource
27 WATER, HEALTH AND ECONOM I CS Water i s the key h e a l t h f a c t o r Organization
estimated
1980
in
i n developing areas. that
32
about
percent
p o p u l a t i o n a n d 73 percent of the u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n h a d access
safe
water.
About
two-thirds
of
of
the
without
safe
small
drinking percent
of
and
waste
disposal.
the
rural
people
the
Kenya; 3 percent i n Gambia, Water
In
total
several
have
safe
p o p u l a t i o n of
resource development
programs
have
2
only
percent
probably
the
greatest
disease
hinders
cause
of
individual
disease
in
potential
of
people
developing
productivity
a in
to
in
directly
developing
Lack of a r e l i a b l e a n d adequate s u p p l y of safe drinking water
areas.
4
were
f o r example.
the
we1 I-being
areas)
countries
water:
and 5 percent i n Z a i r e ,
improve the h e a l t h and socio-economic
rural
i n developing c o u n t r i e s
(600 m i l l i o n i n u r b a n areas a n d two b i l l i o n i n r u r a l
billion very
to
The World Health
and,
countries,
therefore,
is
and
economic
development. Traditionally
in
many
rural
areas
hours each day f e t c h i n g the household often from g r e a t distances.
of
the
often
women
and
girls
spend
several
water s u p p l y from n a t u r a l sources,
Access to water
i n r u r a l areas i n many p a r t s
world
is difficult;
supplies
a r e frequently
limited
(sometimes
seasonally,
sometimes
polluted;
for
supplies
extended
are
periods
of
d r o u g h t ) ; a n d n a t u r a l sources a r e o f t e n a considerable distance away. Typically
most
developing
growth accompanied b y as people seek to centres w i l l and
limited.
Also,
in
an
area
increased demand f o r
high
rates
of
population
i n c r e a s i n g m i g r a t i o n from the c o u n t r y s i d e to c i t i e s lives.
The g r o w i n g
increased s u p p l i e s of safe water
semi-arid
as
have
improve the q u a l i t y of t h e i r
require greatly
future,
countries
areas
potential
develops
water,
and
a n d the
supplies
are
in
the
often
waste
near
severely
becomes i n d u s t r i a l i z e d ,
associated
urban
there
discharge
is
usually
leads to increased p o l l u t i o n of water s u p p l y sources. Economic growth a n d development all
the
services, housing. the
people, better
educational
better
imply
improved I i v i n g s t a n d a r d s f o r
nutrition,
opportunities,
better higher
health
and
health
income,
and
better
Few development a l t e r n a t i v e s h a v e g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r
health and
However,
including
social
well
i t i s often d i f f i c u l t
b e i n g of
people t h a n
water
supply
improving projects.
to show p r o j e c t economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n on the
b a s i s of improved health. The
1980s were
designated
as
the
International
Drinking
Water
and
S a n i t a t i o n Decade w i t h the o b j e c t i v e of p r o v i d i n g safe water a n d adequate s a n i t a t i o n to a l l people b y the year 2000,
but
t h i s goal was not
met.
In
less developed
countries,
two-thirds
of
the people
reasonable access to adequate s u p p l i e s o f safe water,
still
do
not
have
a n d the World Health
O r g a n i z a t i o n estimates t h a t 80 percent of a l l diseases I n d e v e l o p i n g areas i s r e l a t e d to unsafe water s u p p l i e s a n d inadequate s a n i t a t i o n measures. such areas water-related life
expectancy,
and
diseases c o n t r i b u t e to h i g h a
poor
quality
of
life.
m a l n u t r i t i o n c l e a r l y reduce the resistance of
In
infant mortality,
low
Undernutrition
and
children
to disease
and
the
p r o d u c t i v i t y of a d u l t s . One of
the problems
in p r o v i d i n g
safe
users f r e q u e n t l y do not h a v e the c a p a b i l i t y facilities.
The
technology
adopted often
rural
water
to operate
i s not
supplies and
appropriate
is
maintain for
the
that the local
culture.
ASSESSING SOCIAL IMPACTS The f o l l o w i n g types o f impacts r e l a t e d to h e a l t h a n d social
well-being
should be considered when e x a m i n i n g p o t e n t i a l impacts of a l t e r n a t i v e water resource programs a n d recommending programs i n d e v e l o p i n g areas:
1.
Impacts on those l i v i n g in a p r o j e c t area.
-
Changes i n communicable disease p a t t e r n s .
- Local s a n i t a l i o n problems. - D e t e r i o r a t i o n of water q u a l i t y ( s u r f a c e and g r o u n d w a t e r ) . - Adverse impacts on f i s h a n d w i l d l i f e p o p u l a t i o n s . - Lowered n u t r i t i o n l e v e l s due to decrease i n p e r c a p i t a food s u p p l i e s d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n period.
- Increased employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i t h l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e p r o j e c t . 2.
Impacts on immigrant p r o j e c t workers.
-
I m p a i r e d h e a l t h due to chemicals,
l o c a l l y endemic diseases,
exposure
to
toxic
a n d p h y s i c a l hazards.
- Lowered n u t r i t i o n l e v e l s because local food s g p p l i e s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r i n f l u x o f workers.
3.
Impacts on those relocated from p r o j e c t a r e a .
- Problems of e t h n i c i t y . - Safe water a n d s a n i t a r y measures i n r e l o c a t i o n areas.
29
-
Compensation f o r
larrd "in k i n d . "
(Land prepared for farming
when
farmers a r e r e s e t t l e d . )
-
Soil c o n d i t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r same crops a s p r o j e c t area. Adequate
food
supplies d u r i n g
resettlement
period
and
until
first
harvest.
-
Access to other towns a n d h e a l t h centres. F a i r compensation f o r lands.
- Timely relocation.
4.
Impacts on h e a l t h services.
- Greatly increased need f o r local h e a l t h services.
-
Increased need may be too c o s t l y f o r local resources.
5.
I ncome r e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
5.
Impacts on l i v i n g standards. .- Housing
- A v a i l a b i l i t y of safe water. - Sanitary facilities. - Electricity.
-
A v a i l a b i l i t y of fuel
(wood).
ACQUIRING BASIC S O C I A L DATA Water resource p l a n n e r s must be aware o f with
data
the advantages
i n v o l v i n g sociologists a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s to o b t a i n needed
economists, skills
required
technical
include customs.
to
in
project
specially obtain
specialists are
difficulty different
evaluate
to
unless
adequate usually
communicating
ethnic women, Their
groups. and
and
rural
team
informants
are
social
planners,
and
background
and
information.
especially teams
understand
usually
the
associated
b a s i c social
(or expatriates)
people, expert
members
have
valid
u r b a n males
with
Engineers,
rarely
International
few
local
impacts.
trained,
the
have
women,
and
generally or
do
appreciate
government
officials
themselves, often do not understand r u r a l people a n d t h e i r c u l t u r e . people f r e q u e n t l y a r e v e r y
cautious
i n discussions
the lack of common language and
dialect
often
problems.
aware
that
Planners
also
must
be
with
Such
who
not local who,
Rural
"outsiders,"
and
accentuates communication considerable
time
may
be
30 r e q u i r e d to o b t a i n the needed d a t a ( e s p e c i a l l y i f the p r o g r a m i s l a r g e a n d complex), a n d the d a t a a r e often needed e a r l y i n the p l a n n i n g process. Economic,
social,
and
and r u r a l people v a r y given country.
cultura!
widely
characteristics
from c o u n t r y
rural
to c o u n t r y
their
views
than
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from those c f
the
rural
off;
rural
people,
a
those
they a r e often more open i n
poor,
the m a j o r i t y
communities
a n d even w i t h i n
Because of !he h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
i n power a r e u s u a l l y those who a r e be!ter expressing
of
but
their
(especially
views
those of
may
the
differ
landless,
women, a n d other groups who a r e r e l u c t a n t to oppose the e l i t e s . ) PERT INENT SOC I AL EFFECTS Social
factors
developing
frequently
areas
socia-economic factors,
can
factors,
(4)
and
affected
be
by
generally
(2) q u a l i t y
services.
water
resources
grouped of
Potential
life
in
four
indicators,
impacts
on
these
programs
(3)
in (1)
categories:
aqricultural
indicators
during
construction and o p e r a t i o n of water development programs must be c a r e f u l l y assessed a n d considered
i n planning,
The extent !o w h i c h these p o t e n t i a l
design,
construction,
a n d operation.
impacts a r e p o s i t i v e a n d the extent
to
which n e g a t i v e impacts c a n be m i t i g a t e d may well determine whether o r not outputs a n d benefits projected f o r a development p r o g r a m a r e achieved. U s u a l l y i t i s much cheaper water than
supply, it
is
to
a
healthy
add
such
to i n c o r p o r a t e measures to p r o v i d e a safe
environment, measures
etc.
to
a
as
a
part
project
after
of
project
design
construction
has
started. The evaluation
following
tabulation
lists
indicators
most
i n assessing impacts o f a water p r c j e c t
likely
Conditions v a r y from c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y a n d from p r o j e c t
thus,
the t a b u l a t i o n is not complete (see also Biswas,
1.
O u a l i t y of l i f e i n d i c a t o r s .
-
Food supplies,
fcod preferences, consumption.
N u t r i t i o n a l status. Health, h e a l t h services.
- Fertility.
-
I n f a n t and c h i l d m o r t a l i t y . L i f e expectancy.
require
in a developing
ares.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
to
1980).
rural
to p r o j e c t ;
31
- Housing. - Distance to safe d r i n k i n g water. - Source a n d distance to water f o r l a u n d r y a n d b a t h i n g .
-
Sanitation facilities. Type of f u e l ,
distance to source of s u p p l y .
Electricity.
- Education, l i t e r a c y , school enrollment. - Means of t r a n s p o r t . 2.
Socio-economic
factors.
- Household composit ion a n d demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . - M i g r a t i o n (nomadic, r u r a l to u r b a n ) . - Ethnicity. - Hierarchical v i l l a g e structure. - Kinship patterns. -. Role of women
- Farm size a n d type. - Main economic a c t i v i t i e s . - S e n s i t i v i t y to change.
-
S e n s i t i v i t y to r i s k .
- Adult employment p a t t e r n s (male a n d female). - C h i l d labour. - M o d i f i c a t i o n of c u l t u r a l values a n d l i f e s t y l e s . 3.
A g r i c u l t u r a l factors.
- Land f e r t i l i t y .
-
Suhsistence acreage. Cash crop acreage.
- Age of tree crops. - Animals. - Fishing. - Farming tools a n d equipment. - Preservation a n d processing of crops a n d a n i m a l products. - Role of women and c h i l d r e n . - Government extension services.
-
L a n d i n h e r i t a n c e Datterns.
32
4.
Services
-
-
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n networks. Health services. A g r i c u l t u r a l extension services. Marketing facilities.
ENERGY For small social
aspects
While
lighting
isolated
centres
are
primary
is
the
the p r i r n e r y
in
developing
need,
i n d u s t r i e s a r e a l s c important.
small
industries
all
have
the
food
potential
for
the
rural
human
and
electrification.
agriculturally-related
F o r example,
m i l l s and wood processing f a c i l i t i e s , small
countries,
considerations
cottage
tea processing f a c i l i t i e s , processing
to
improve
plants,
and
economic
saw
similar
and
social
conditions i n r u r a l areas. The
World
average of countries,
Bank
45
about but only
(1980) percent
10-20
In low-income countries, Much
of
the
and
accounts
is
that
total
households
energy
account
consumption
t h e i r commercial
in
for
an
developing
energy
consumption.
these values a r e 5 a n d 10 percent,
respectively.
used
for
of
percent of
noncommercial
marketability typically
estimated
energy mainly
only
used for
about
5
by
households
cooking.
percent
of
has
limited
Agricultural
production
a
commercial
country’s
energy consumpt ion, Traditional
fuels
(firewood,
charcoal,
crop
residues,
and
animal
d u n g ) account f o r almost a l l the energy used in r u r a l areas a n d f o r 25 percent of t o t a l energy percent of
consumption
the p o p u l a t i o n of
t r a d i t i o n a l f u e l s f o r cooking. b u t from 0.5
i n d e v e l o p i n g countries.
(2 billion
developing countries
about
About
people)
75 use
Most of these people h a v e access to firewood,
to 1 b i l l i o n use a g r i c u l t u r a l
a n d animal
wastes
for
cooking
fuel. Developing c o u n t r i e s h a v e been consuming wood s u p p l i e s more r a p i d l y than
they
are
renewed.
Specific
measures
to
meet
r u r a l people a r e needed a s p a r t o f a n y p r g r a m to
the
energy
needs
improve q u a l i t y of
of
life,
i n c l u d i n g r e a f f o r e s t a t i o n a n d the D l a n t i n g of trees as well a s hydropower.
Fuel wood The energy
sources rnos!
c o u n t r i e s a r e wood,
charcoal,
widely crop
used
residue,
in
rural
areas
a n d animal
in
developing
dung.
I n poorer
33 countries i n A f r i c a these sources s u p p l y from 70 to 30 percent of the t c t a l energy
used.
Such sources
are especially
important
rural
in
areas
among the u r b a n poor even i n middle income c o u n t r i e s (World Bank, Wood has become scarce i n many p a r t s of the developing
and
1980).
world,
and i t
i s estimated t h a t 3ver a b i l l i o n people h a v e problems in s e c u r i n g adequate fuel supplies.
Many v i l l a g e r s who f o r m e r l y c o u l d f i n d fuelwood
homes now must search f o r i t a h a l f d a y ' s walk away. spend
a
large
part
of
their
countries face a secondary sector of t h e i r economy.
income
on
fuel.
energy c r i s e s that
near their
a n d the u r b a n poor
Thus
many
primarily
developing
affects
the
rural
i s immense,
The magnitude of t h i s fuelwood c r i s i s
a n d forests of developing c o u n t r i e s a r e b e i n g consumed a t a r a t e of 10 to 15 m i l l i o n hectares a year
1980).
(World Bank,
The impact of wood s c a r c i t y on r u r a l women severe.
Rural
women a n d
children
spend
a
considerable
(often 4 to 8 hours p e r d a y ) c o l l e c t i n g wood. they must walk resources
farther
planners
advantages
of
and
should
farther
to
including
each
need
reafforestation
amount
time
of
As s u p p l i e s become depleted,
gather
recognize the
i n developing c o u n t r i e s i s
for
and
day's
fuel
supply.
supplies
wood
lots
as
Water
and
the
planning
objectives. Deforestation i s most serious in semi-arid it
can cause
serious problems of
erosion,
Although the fuelwood c r i s i s i s a l r e a d y economically that
in
sound
means
the o r d e r of
for
a n d mountainous a r e a s where siltation,
critical,
reafforestation.
50 m i l l i o n hectares
of
and
The
World
fuelwood
cooking a n d heating.
The gap between present
levels i s p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e i n A f r i c a where i t
Bank
would
p l a n t e d i n developing areas b y the y e a r 2000 to meet for
desertification.
there a r e t e c h n i c a l l y
and
estimates
need
to
be
the p r o j e c t e d need
and
required
planting
I s estimated p l a n t i n g would
h a v e to be increased as much as 15 times to meet needs. Electricity
A
very
countries
small is
percent
served
generating capacity
by
cf
all
village
electricity.
The
and
rural
World
i n developing c o u n t r i e s in
people
Bank
in
developing
estimated
1980 a t
ifistalled
241 g i g a w a t t s ,
or
12 percent of the w o r l d t o t a l . Between 1973 a n d 1978, consumption in those countries grew a t an average r a t e of 8 percent a y e a r , percent a y e a r
i n the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries.
However,
compared w i t h 3.5 their
per
capita
consumption in 19?8 was estimated to be o n l y 331 kWh, compared w i t h 6,509 kWh i n the developed countries. Roughly
h a l f of the w o r l d ' s hydropower p o t e n t i a l
i s in the
developing
34 c o u n t r i e s (about 1,200 gW), b u t o n l y 10 percent has been developed. hydro
sites
that
were
previously
f e a s i b l e in recent years, projects.
uneconomical
b u t there
Potential mini-hydro
is a
long
projects that
have
lead
become
time
have a
for
shorter
estimated to comprise 5 to 10 percent of the w o r l d ' s t o t a l however,
their
relatively
p r o j e c t s uneconomical
for
high
investment
village
systems
can be connected to a power g r i d ,
with
low
large hydro
lead
time a r e
h y d r o resources;
may
costs
Many
generally
make
load
mini-hydro
factors.
they
If
they can be used more e f f e c t i v e l y .
With the present r a t e of expansion o f r u r a l e i e c t r i f i c a t i o n of about one percent
per
electricity
year,
by
the
only
about
year
2000.
25 percent of Often
p r o v i d e f o r s u p p l y i n g power to households, cottage i n d u s t r i e s .
When power
rural of
but only
i s supplied
o n l y 2 o r 3 hours i n the evening.
all
electrification
people
a
to pumps,
households
to
will
village
Construction of small
have
does wells,
not and
i s often for
it
hydropower p l a n t s
i n r u r a l areas i s an important means of i m p r o v i n g q u a l i t y of l i f e .
HUMAN DISEASES Diseases Access to p o t a b l e water a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water a f f e c t p u b l i c and
basic
sanitation
areas as well
furnished
as other
rural
developing c o u n t r i e s a r e some
stage
breeding
or
in
the
life
transport
to
construction
people.
listed i n cycle
medium,
Principal
the
of
following
many
as
workers table
disease
summarized
and
water-related
by
resettlement diseases
(Biswas,
vectors,
in
1980). At
water
Petersen,
health
is
the
(1984),
as
follows:
1.
S t i l l water a n d marsh h a b i t a t
( i n lakes,
disposal areas f o r dredged m a t e r i a l ,
reservoirs,
a n d so o n )
f o r mosquitoes t h a t a r e hosts f o r m a l a r i a , filariasis,
2.
yellow fever,
dengue fever,
and encephalitis.
Slow-moving
water ( i n i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s a n d r i v e r s a n d a l o n g r e s e r v o i r
shorelines)
i s the b r e e d i n g a r e a f o r several
hosts
parasites
for
(bilharzia).
carrying
the
Africa
are
by
infected.
There
is
forms
of
shistosomiasis
100 a n d 200 m i l l i o n people in
shistomiasis
hycanthone, b u t i t i s v e r y costly.
species of s n a i l s t h a t a r e
various
I t i s eslimated t h a t between
71 c o u n t r i e s a r e atfected people of
i r r i g a t i o n canals,
i s the b r e e d i n g a r e a
and an
that
80 percent of
effective
drug
the
treatment,
The disease i s r a r e l y d i r e c t l y
fatal,
35
b u t i t damages the i n t e s t i n a l
tract,
lungs,
liver,
etc.
a n d depresses
v i t a l i t y , c o n t r i b u t i n g to e a r l y death.
3.
Rapidly
flowing
spillways,
water
stilling
area f o r back
flies
( r i v e r blindness).
(at
basins,
natural and
(Sirnulium), The
rapids,
powerplant that
are
steep
mountain
tailraces)
is
a
streams, breeding
the hosts f o r onchocerciasis
f l i e s a r e f o u n d up to
15 kilometres
from
the
I t i s estimated that onchocerciasis affects about 50 m i l l i o n
watercourse.
people. The major affected a r e a i s A f r i c a ,
but t h e disease was b r o u g h t
to South America (Columbia a n d Venezuela)
b y infected slaves as e a r l y
as 1590 a n d to Mexico the 1860s.
There
b y Sudanese troops b r o u g h t i n b y t h e French i n
a r e few
effective drugs,
and
they
have severe
side
effects. The p a r a s i t e can l i v e f o r 15 to 20 y e a r s i n humans.
4.
p o l l u t e d water ( i n weedy d r a i n a g e ditches a n d
D i r t y , stagnant, ditches)
is
a
(elephantiasis) Table 2.1
.
breeding
area
for
mosquitoes
that
carry
latrine
filariasis
P a r a s i t i c Diseases
Parasites Nematoda Onchocerca v o l v u l us Wuchercira bancrofti Protozoa Plasmodium spp. Trypanosoma gambiense Trematoda Schistosoma haematobi um Schistosoma mansoni Schistosoma aponicum Viruses Over 30 mosquitoborne v i r u s e s a r e associated w i t h human i n f e c t i o n s
Uiseases t r a n s m i t t e d
Intermediate host
Infection route
River blindness (onchocerciasis Elephantiasis ( f i1a r i a s i s 1
Black f l y ( S imu 1ium Several mosquitoes
Malaria A f r i c a n sleeping sickness
Anopheles mosquito Tsetse f l y (Glossina p.
Bite Bite
U r i n a r y schistosom iasis ( b i 1h a r z i a s i s ) I n t e s t i n a l schistosom iasis
Aquatic s n a i l (Bul i n u s )
Percutaneous Percutaneous
V i s c e r a l schistosom iasis
Aquatic s n a i l s ( 8 iomp h 1o a r ia ; Australorbi s Amphibious s n a i l (Oncornel a n i a )
E n c e p h a l i t i s ; dengue
Several mosquitos
Bite Bite
Percutaneous Bite
5.
in h u m i d a r e a s of t r o p i c a l
Vegetation n e a r water
area f o r the tsetse f l y , trypanosomiasis
w h i c h i s the host f o r
(African
sleeping
sickness)
types o f trypanosomiasis a r e f a t a l , animals.
In a n i m a l s
(goats,
the p a r a s i t e s cause n a g a n a ,
tsetse
malnutrition i s severe. tracts
of
fly
that
Although
pigs,
and
is
the disease.
Africa,
it
most
horses)
that
sufficient
the human
protein
The problems
diet
(meat,
in
regions
milk),
and
a c h i l d h o o d disease from p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n c y )
Since the disease p r e v e n t s the keeping of a n i m a l s restricts
p r e v e n t s human use of
transmit
infected as o f t e n as
mules,
to s u f f e r from
lacks
(kwashiorkor,
camels,
i s a breeding
a w a s t i n g disease t h a t k i l l s the a n i m a l s ;
created b y th? disease in a n i m a l s the
people.
to
people a r e not
sheep,
game a n i m a l s do not appear with
Africa
parasites
the
development
l a r g e t r a c t s of
land,
of
mixed
!arge
in
farming
thus c o n t r i b u t i n g
and
to
the
problem of a c h i e v i n g food s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . P r e v e n t a t i v e measures P r e v e n t a t i v e measures tha disease vectors 1984).
c a n be teken to reduce the incidence of the
a n d disease discussed
above
are
listed
below
I f such measures a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n water development
the time of f o r m u l a t i o n a n d design,
control of
disease can
(Petersen,
programs a t be much
less
design
and
costly t h a n b y l a t e r a d d i t i o n of remedial measures.
1.
Mosquito
population
management
measures
can to
be
minimized
a v o i d creation
of
by
careful
mosquito b r e e d i n g
habitat,
including: Reservoirs
-
-
Clear r e s e r v o i r a r e a of a l l d e b r i s p r i o r to f i l l i n g . Construct d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s a n d g r a d e s h o r e l i n e ( a b o u t 1V to 3H) so t h a t a l l areas d r a i n a n d no pools a r e l e f t a l o n g the shoreline.
-
-
E i t h e r deepen o r f i l l a l l shallow a r e a s of the r e s e r v o i r . F l u c t u a t e the r e s e r v o i r
water
the
season
mosquito
breeding
s u r f a c e about 0.3m to
strand
larvae
each above
week the
during water
surface. G r a d u a l l y d r a w the r e s e r v o i r level down d u r i n g the b r e e d i c g p e r i o d .
37 I r r i g a t i o n Canals
-
Avoid the c r e a t i o n of roadside d i t c h e s a n d o t h e r p o n d i n g areas. Improve i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e to minimize use o f water a n d p o n d i n g of excess water.
Many of
the above measures f o r
control
of
mosquito b r e e d i n g
habitat
first
develop
a r e detrimental to w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t in general. The
Tennessee
Valley
Authority
was
the
agency
recession
operation
reservoir
level
is
shown
schematically
i s progressively pool
level
drawn
period,
and
weekly
larvae.
Also,
small p r e d a t o r y f i s h and,
in
the
next
down during the
fluctuations
to
The TVA c y c l i c pool
r e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i n g procedures f o r m a l a r i a prevention.
destroy
figure.
low-flow
mosquito
more r e c e n t l y ,
The
summer
eggs
Tilapia fish,
and have
been introduced to eat mosquito larvae.
F i g u r e 2.1.
2.
Snail
Reservoir c y c l i n g to e l i m i n a t e M a l a r i a (Northern hemisphere).
populations
mot luskacides, on
fish,
can
microflora,
levels
and
control
them.
be
attacked
with
such as copper sulphate,
rapid
and
microfauna.
drainage
of
However,
shore1 ines
With r a p i d drawdown,
large-scale
applications
of
b u t there a r e adverse effects are
fluctuating effective
50 percent o f
reservoir
measures
the s n a i l s
to
stranded
38
will
d i e in a
period
week o r
i s much
two;
A
longer.
for
slow
d r y i n g due
l a r g e South
American
to e v a p o r a t i c n , snail
smaller b i l h a r z i a s n a i l also h a s been used to c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e way people
away
to c o n t r o l o r from
the
minimize
shoreline b y
snail-related
that them.
disease
p r o v i d i n g clean
the
The most is
piped
the
eats
to
keep
water
e f f i c i e n t s a n i t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s to destroy the human-snail-human
and
c h a i n of
infection.
3.
The black f l y
(Simulium) in n a t u r a l
" d r o w n i n g out"
r i v e r r a p i d s can be e l i m i n a t e d b y
( s u b m e r g i n g ) the r a p i d s o r b y use of chemicals.
White N i l e 1 / 4 0 ppm DDT kept 70 m i l e s of during
construction
forces.
Similar
of Owen Dam
r a p i d s free of
Uganda
in
to
On the
the b l a c k
protect
construction
treatment was used i n c o n s t r u c t i o n of Akosombo Dam on
the Volta R i v e r i n Ghana where onchocerciasis was a n e s p e c i a l l y problem, a n d on the N i g e r R i v e r a t K a i n g i Dam i n N i g e r i a . the reservoir
i n u n d a t e d 200 m i l e s of r i v e r
the problem continues continuously.
fly
i n the v i c i n i t y of
severe
At Akosombo
infested b y b l a c k f l i e s ,
but
the s p i l l w a y w h i c h d i s c h a r g e s
Proper design a n d o p e r a t i o n o f s p i l l w a y s a n d
intermittant
o p e r a t i o n can b e e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g b l a c k f l i e s i n such areas.
6. The tsetse f l y (Glossina) breeds In trees n e a r water, in
wooded
or
brush-covered
s a r v i v e i n open g r a s s l a n d ,
savanna
in
tropical
control.
Some c o u n t r i e s h a v e h a d
long-range
insecticide
brush
spraying
such programs
and
vary
widely,
p r o p e r l y monitored a n d c o n t r o l led. i n c l u d e genetic c o n t r o l ,
It
and
cannot
a n d c l e a r i n g b r u s h i s a n e f f e c t i v e means of
ground
effects of
i n the forest, Africa.
p r o g r a m s of
clearing. and
Current
The
aerial
arld
environmental
i n s e c t i c i d e use should
research on new
be
techniques
traps, and baits.
Aquatic Weeds Probably reservcirs,
the
major
watercourses,
b r e e d i n g of many
socio-economic and
canals
disease vectors,
impact is
that
of they
i n c l u d i n g mosquitos,
aquatic
weeds
contribute snails,
and
to
in the
flies.
L i t t l e (1969) c i t e s the f o l l o w i n g problems w i t h a q u a t i c weeds i n r e s e r v o i r s : 1.
B l o c k i n g n a v i g a t i o n c h a n n e l s a n d m a k i n g movement of boats d i f f i c u l t .
2.
Forming l a r g e mats t h a t d r i f t a n d b l o c k power i n t a k e s a n d h a r b o u r s .
3.
Choking t r i b u t a r y streams a n d i r r i g a t i o n outlets.
39
4. Forming
a
dense
cover,
making
fishing
difficult
or
inducing
deoxygenation and f i s h m o r t a l i t y .
5.
Reducing the e f f e c t i v e c a p a c i t y of the r e s e r v o i r .
6.
! n c r e a s i n g water losses through e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
7.
Reducing r e c r e a t i o n a l u t i l i t y of the lake.
8.
P r o v i d i n g a b r e e d i n g h a b i t a t f o r disease vectors.
9.
Reducing the b i o l o g i c p r o d u c t i v i t y o f the r e s e r v o i r due to reduced l i g h t a t surface and subsurface layers.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN I n water social,
resource p l a n n i n g ,
cultural,
economic,
evaluations
have
a n d environmental
to be made of
impacts,
various
and tradeoffs have
to be made between those impacts that can be e v a l u a t e d in monetary a n d those that
are
have a n unders!anding
of
terrns
To assess impacts r e q u i r e s t h a t p l a n n e r s
intangible.
real-world
conditions.
Probably
least understood b y water resources p l a n n e r s i s the r e a l
the one f a c t o r
r o l e of
women
in
the use c f water a n d i n a g r i c u l t u r e in r u r a l societies. Most water resources development a g r i c u l t u r e to a greater o r
programs in developing a r e a s i n v o l v e
lesser extent,
most often
irrigated agriculture
w i t h the source of s u p p l y e i t h e r stored a n d managed surface water, water,
o r c o n j u n c t i v e use o f both sources.
Many developing c o u n t r i e s h a v e
a common n a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e of o b t a i n i n g role
of
wcmen
in
food
production,
census d a t a ,
be
obtained.
food
particularly
Women
I f the r e a l
food self-sufficiency. processing
p r e p a r a t i o n a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n i s not c l e a r l y o b j e c t i v e cannot
ground
and
treatment,
understood b y
workers
are
i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l sector
often
labour force.
the a g r i c u l t u r a l
labour force i n some c o u n t r i e s . )
this
undercounted
where they
(Women make up a s much as 80
the predominant
food
planners,
However,
in
a r e often percent
of
their
views a r e
women a r e r u r a l women.
Typically
r a r e l y sought i n water resources p l a n n i n g . I n developing areas the m a j o r i t y of they a r e poor,
and
food production, labour.
In
restraints,
some and
they
for
are
fetching
countries there
are
responsible water
they
and
are
subject
long-standing
p a r t i c u l a r l y where the hoe i s used.
for fuel
subsistence a g r i c u l t u r e supplies, to
patterns
and
cultural of
as
head
of
a
subsistence a g r i c u l t u r e .
high
percent
in
and
domestic
traditions
women
and
farming,
In some areas m i g r a t i o n o f men !o the
c i t i e s o r i n search of p a i d employment on p l a n t a t i o n s o r women
for
of
farm
households
i n mines has l e f t responsible
for
40 The World Bank r e p o r t s , of
the
farming
two-thirds
of
f o r example,
households
those
are
full
working
that
headed time
by
75 percent
i n Lesotho o v e r
women
i n food
and
in
farming
Malawi
a r e women.
may however not be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e as many of the males t r a v e l South A f r i c a to work.
Households headed b y women
( e x c l u d i n g C h i n a ) now form,
These
to mines in
in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s
between 20 a n d 25 percent of
on the average,
a l I households except i n s t r o n g l y
over
1986).
I s l a m i c societies ( J i g g i n s ,
Recent studies i n d i c a t e t h a t women a r e m a j o r food producers in terms of volume of
food p r o d u c t s a n d
supposedly
participate only
most of the domestic nutritional
food
h o u r s worked
i n countries
in f a r m i n g .
marginally
supplies,
even
they
Since
have an
where
women
important
levels of the e n t i r e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d ,
they
produce
i n f l u e n c e on
therefore,
on h e a l t h
a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y as well. Modernization of a g r i c u l t u r e increased farming
commercialization of to
cash
crops,
i n d e v e l o p i n g areas has o f t e n r e s u l t e d agriculture,
intensification
with
of
a
shift
production,
from and
in
subsistence technological
change. As p r o d u c t i o n of
cash
crops
increases
and
m a i n l y to p r o d u c t i o n of cash crops b y men,
mechanization
the
family
food in
technologies a r e usually
take
supply
as
subsistence
men
introduced
over
the
become
farming. for
new
less
When
jobs jobs
willing
or or
less other
performed
realize
to
to produce more of
machines
normally and
applied
the demands on women grow
s u p p l y more l a b o u r f o r p r o d u c t i o n of cash c r o p s a n d participate
is
by
whatever
able
women,
men
benefits
associated w i t h the new technologies w h i l e t h e j o b s women
to
improved
lose may
are mean
t h e i r livelihood.
In e s t i m a t i n g
project
benefits,
monetary v a l u e f o r cash crops, production
by
women
it
is
relatively
easy
to
determine
a
b u t to estimate monetary b e n e f i t s f o r food
practicing
subsistence
agriculture
is
a
far
more
d i f f i c u l t problem f o r the engineer o r economist. In
many
societies,
accumulate s u r p l u s
both
inheritance
income a r e
a r e u s u a l l y more r e s t r i c t e d f o r women h a v e no r i g h t to be nominal,
difficult women
than
inherit property.
w i t h control
of
their
contribute
to
r e q u i r i n g legal l a n d t i t l e ,
In
developing
agricultural
areas
extension
deterioration
property women. for
and
the
R i g h t s of
men,
Where they
property
( o r to b r o t h e r s i n m a t r i l i n e a l societies.) sometimes
of for
and have,
transferred
to
in
right
to
inheritance some a r e a s
the r i g h t may their
husbands
A g r i c u l t u r a l development programs of
women's
land
rights
through
t i t l e s often h e l d o n l y b y men. women
service
have
programs
been
largely
because
the
ignored extension
in
most
staff
is
41
typically
male a n d
tends
to
work
with
larger
farms
and
male
farmers.
Services a n d new technologies thus r e a c h women s l o w l y a n d i n d i r e c t l y , a t a l l . Women often have l i t t l e access to v a r i o u s o f f i c i a l support i n c l u d i n g not o n l y extension services, b u t also c r e d i t , technologies
that
would
enable
them
to
increase
examples of increased general p r o s p e r i t y ,
services,
fertilizers,
production.
if
a n d new
There
are
b u t increased m a l n u t r i t i o n among
women a n d c h i l d r e n when the focus has s h i f t e d from subsistence f a r m i n g to cash crops. N a t i o n a l Policy Even when n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s d i c t a t e a q u a l i t y of l i f e , of
numerous
factors,
s t r o n g commitment
to
improving
implementation of such p o l i c i e s i s o f t e n incomplete.
water
including
resource the
development
special
r o l e of
projects
women,
indicates
have
not
Review
that
been
social
adequately
addressed i n p l a n n i n g studies,
a n d a s a consequence some programs h a v e
h a d unexpected adverse social
impacts.
successfully
implemented because
the intended users
to p a r t i c i p a t e ,
in
that
are
development
some programs c o u l d not
were no acceptable
P l a n n e r s must
profiles and p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n such
Also,
there
programs
incentives
be for
use b o t h socio-economic
the p l a n n i n g o f designed
to
programs
meet
the
to ensure needs
and
c a p a b i l i t i e s of the users. It
is
important
that
decision-makers,
as
well
a s planners,
recognize
t h a t many development programs i n the p a s t h a v e f a i l e d to deal e q u i t a b l y with
women;
common
practice
p o p u l a t i o n i n general. agencies
have
come
utilizing
womens'
has
I t i s only
to
been recently
understand
resources.
to
the
Their
address
that
high
p a r t i c i p a t e i n harvesting, often
control
activities
productivity. not
use
they
affect
cost
are
of
agricultural
a n d storage o f family
health
crops.
and,
the
resources
that
women
fully
represent,
and
They
they and
Also,
thus,
the
lending
not
labour;
There i s a v e r y h i g h economic cost to a n y c o u n t r y
effectively
for
significant.
h e l p produce cash crops;
marketing,
that
needs
international
economic
contributions
p r o v i d e i n the o r d e r of 50 to 80 percent of most of the subsistence f a r m i n g ;
the
the
do
they
women
indirectly t h a t does national
p o l i c i e s must recognize t h i s fact. National p o l i c y should b e to consider the i n t r o d u c t i o n of new technology only
following
national
and
background.
an local
Even
integrated into
evaluation needs
of and
well-designed
the e v e r y d a y
the
technology,
existing
local
technologies
will
l i f e of
the
society
taking social
fail in
if
which
into
account
and
cultural
they
are
they
will
not be
42
used.
I f women p a r t i c i p a t e i n the management a n d use of water systems,
i s more l i k e l y t h a t not. for
National
the
systems
will
be more successful
p o l i c i e s should promote p a r t i c i p a t i o n
development,
i n assessing
special b e n e f i t s to women,
alternatives.
If
some
t h i s s h o u l d be taken
there i s a women's component
i n a project,
by
than
if
women
they
it do
in planning
alternatives
i n t o account;
provide
however,
if
i t should be a n i n t e g r a l p a r t
of the o v e r a l l p r o j e c t , not a separate i s o l a t e d program. WORLD POPULATION Concern has been expressed as to the c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of Populations
continue
grow
to
and
estimated to be 5 000 m i l l i o n .
(1
000 m i l l i o n ) a n d
India
the
world
population
The b i g g e s t concentrations
(700 m i l l i o n )
followed
by
the
the e a r t h . 1980
in
are
was
i n China
USSR
and
USA.
However p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s i n d i c a t e there i s l i t t l e d a n g e r of c r o w d i n g o u t i n our
lifetime.
That
of
China
(100 p e r
sq
km)
may
be
compared
with
Bangladesh (600 p e r sq k m ) , w h i c h i s the h i g h e s t e x c l u d i n g Singapore a n d Hong Kong, c i t y countries. a n d developing
There i s n o c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between developed
c o u n t r i e s since H o l l a n d w i t h
a
population
density
of
350
people p e r sq km i s f a i r l y self s u f f i c i e n t a n d a h i g h l y developed c o u n t r y . The a v a i l a b i l i t y of resources f o r if
the
countries
are
to
develop
to
l a r g e r populations the
consumption
the USA (220 m i l l i o n ) ,
world.
The p o p u l a t i o n s of
Japan
(120 m i l l i o n ) t o t a l o n l y 25% of
expect
usage of metals,
the w o r l d
timber a n d o i l
i s o n l y a problem levels
of
the
first
Europe (400 m i l l i o n ) a n d population,
so one c o u l d
to increase m a n y f o l d i f the e n t i r e
w o r l d reached the advanced l e v e l s of these c o u n t r i e s . The n a t u r a l transfer.
check
in r a t e of
development
Even without p o l i t i c a l b a r r i e r s there
required,
plus
adaptation
of
ways
of
life.
is
the
rate
of
technology
i s a generation of The
cost
of
teaching
such
rapid
development however c o u l d not b y b o r n e b y the developed c o u n t r i e s , a n d i t w i l l h a v e to come l a r g e l y from w i t h i n , possible
than
reluctance,
we
would
hope.
so
There
t h a t much slower development is
also
no
ambition,
is
indeed
of many to ' w e s t e r n i s e ' .
POVERTY The extent of p o v e r t y i n t h e w o r l d i s u n d e r - a p p r e c i a t e d developed communities.
O f the w o r l d ' s 5 000 m i l l i o n ,
c l a s s i f i e d as h a v i n g a n y wealth. North America.
by
people of
less t h a n 25% can be
These a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
in
Europe a n d
An i n d e x of w e a l t h can be taken from consumer e x p e n d i t u r e
43 and savings patterns.
Possession of a
family
automobile
to some form of pension can be r e g a r d e d as signs of h a n d to be r i c h implies h i g h e x p e n d i t u r e on
and contribution
wealth.
On the o t h e r
l u x u r i e s e.g.
boats,
flying,
To the western world,
Chinese
h o l i d a y s , e a t i n g out etc. Poverty i s even more d i f f i c u l t to define. a n d Soviet c i t i z e n s appear poor because of u s i n g common r a t e s of exchange. m i x t u r e of wealthy
and
poor people
Asia where colonization
low
their
incomes i f t r a n s l a t e d
South America on the other and
the same a p p l i e s
injected pockets of wealth.
h a n d has
to A f r i c a
a
and
W i t h i n these a r e a s a r e
extremely poor (impoverished) people. Such can be c l a s s i f i e d as h a v i n g no hope of e a r n i n g any money, to
mouth,
quarter
health
of
the
is
o r even b u y i n g a n y t h i n g .
poor
world's
and
clothes,
population
live
if
any,
like
They
are
l i v e from h a n d
rags.
this,
largely
illegal
activity
Probably
in
Africa
a
and
Asia w i t h some groups i n South America. Poverty
leads
to
theft,
production o r poaching.
banditry
and
such
Those responsible f o r s u p p l y i n g arms
as
to
these countries a r e to blame f o r severing progress f o r many decades. destroy
what
was
unmanageable.
created p r e v i o u s l y
T h i s coupled
with
and
inept
the c o u n t r i e s g r a d u a l l y
and
corrupt
f i r s t place i s l e a d i n g to decline of many countries. ever c a t c h i n g u p to developed countries, power
leads to a v a r i c i o u s governments
or
drug
of
many
They
become
governments
the
in
Perhaps the d e s p a i r of
the taste of wealth b y few
which
eliminate
democracy
to
in
hold
on to t h e i r d e c l i n i n g kingdoms. Such scenes p o i n t to the lack of t r a i n i n g p r o v i d e d b y p r e v i o u s empires and
present
values
is
developers.
needed
Training
in parallel.
in
methodology,
Schooling and
working
needed for generations before self s t i m u l a t i o n want these
i s evident. reasons.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y much It
is
often
paid
gain
and
hand
in
sense
of
hand
are
the way developed c o u n t r i e s
development
to
morals
aid
access
i s not to
provided
resources
for
of
the
deve I op in g countries. With modern communications reactions
and
poverty
in
it
i s becoming more d i f f i c u l t
these
countries
consequences w i l l s p i l l over i n t o a l l countries, developed defence
countries.
with
the
resources needed,
Fortunately
mending
of
reduced
East-West
the
to
b r u s h the
carpet.
a f f e c t i n g q u a l i t y of
international
conflicts,
may
The life in
expenditure provide
the
on vast
to set the poorer n a t i o n s on the p a t h of development.
learning curve w i l l
be needed to create such guidance.
agencies have experience i n t r a i n i n g a l r e a d y w i t h i n selected investment projects, speed developmen t.
under
A
Many development
a n d t h e i r knowledge together
p a r t i c u l a r l y in the resource f i e l d ,
may
44 It
has
been
found
that
developing
communities
can
learn
technical
tasks q u i t e e a s i l y a n d t a k e p r i d e in t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n a n d i t i s hoped more training will
be s p e c i f i e d
i n f u t u r e project
w i l l have to cover a wide f i e l d of people, simple people to technical work.
t r a i n i n g of
A t t i t u d e to w o r k i n g d a y s ,
h a v e to
be demonstrated,
and
specifications.
may
training
r a n g i n g from moral g u i d a n c e of
those a b l e to
learn and
responsibilities and h a r d it
Such
mean
sacrifice
willing
will
work
by
the
be
based
to
also
wealthy
in
accepting these people i n t o t h e i r f i e l d o f concern.
A
way
of
assessing
expectancy which
level
of
civilization
i s a f u n c t i o n of medical
could
facilities.
2.3
Fig.
on
life
shows
life
expectancies a r o u n d the world.
Human A t t i t u d e s The
willingness
success of a project.
and
ability
of
the
people
Factors w h i c h h a v e to
are
necessary
b e checked
ensure
to
parallel
in
with
f e a s i b i I i t y studies i n c l u d e : Government
-
policy,
Administrative structure
-
systems
integrity,
stability
efficiency,
holders,
ability
of
office
i n t e g r i t y , experience
Infrastructure -
extent, efficiency
National -
pay
levels,
standards
of
living,
commun i c a t ion Workers -
a v a i l a b i I it y
,
s k i I Is, a t t i tude,
requ ired,
laziness, p r i d e , Backup
-
t r a i n in g
spares,
customs,
superstitions
maintenance,
operational
produce,
equipment,
training Ouside influence -
theft
of
geurilla
action,
(can
introduce
i r r e s p o n s i b i I it y )
,
propaganda, sense
but
others
of
require
decades,
I f civilization
increasing
e.g.
attitudes,
or
even
numbers,
a t t i t u d e s i s the f i r s t t h i n g to tackle. i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2.2.
then
it
appears
e.g.
training,
generations,
i s to b e imposed on people which
population
of
threats.
Some deficiencies can be t a c k l e d w i t h i n p r o j e c t time frames, customs.
aid
i t will
training
e.g.
in view in
The effect of non-engineering
basic factors
45
c i t e d technoloav transfer Llmited training Proiect exDenditure
I F i g . 2.2
\
Benefit-Cost
relationship with external factors
REFERENCES Biswas, A.K. 1980. "Environment a n d Water Development in T h i r d World," ASCE Journal of the Water Resources P l a n n i n g a n d Management D i v i s i o n . J i g g i n s , Janice, 1986. "Gender-related Impacts a n d t h e Work of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Centre, CIGAR Study Paper No. 17, World Bank. L i t t l e , E.C.S., 1969. "Weeds in Man-Made Lakes," in Man-Made Lakes, Ghana U n i v e r s i t y Press. Petersen, M.S., 1984. Water Resources P l a n n i n g a n d Development, Prentice-Hal I. World Bank, 1980. Energy i n Developing Countries.
F-
m
30 years
yeors
years
years
years
.
:lY',Lars
SOC 10-ECONOM I C FACTORS I NTRODUCT ION
Since
the
international been
develoment
it
assistance a n d
adequately
have
1980s
early
and
resulted
that
major such
become
increasingly
l e n d i n g agencies t h a t
addressed
from
has
in
project
unforeseen
social
in
programs
social
planning and
less
for
evident
to
the
issues
have
water
resources
environmental
developed
not
problems
countries.
The
problems have been p r i m a r i l y r e l a t e d to:
1.
Resettlement of people l i v i n g i n the p r o j e c t a r e a due to c o n s t r u c t i o n .
2.
Acceptance of the p r o j e c t a n d i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s b y local people.
3.
Inadequate s a n i t a t i o n measures.
4.
Wa ter-re1 a ted diseases.
5.
Food p r o d u c t i o n and s u p p l y .
6.
Ecological change.
The
nature
developing
and
importance
areas a r e d i f f e r e n t
of
from
social
and
in
those
environmental
the
U n i t e d States
i n d u s t r i a l countries,
a n d the social a n d environmental
closely
as
inter-related
to
be
In
inseparable.
impacts
effects
some
cases
and
other
a r e often such
in
so
impacts
h a v e been so acute that projected b e n e f i t s h a v e not been r e a l i z e d . The
emphasis
developing effects,
of
impact
studies
areas has been on economic
but
social
effects
have
related and,
rarely
been
social
impacts h a v e been studied,
whole,
without g i v i n g a t t e n t i o n to the special
the focus
water
to
more
resources
recently,
thoroughly
in
environmental
addressed.
When
h a s been on p o p u l a t i o n s as a r o l e of
women a s users a n d
conveyors of water.
In recent y e a r s i n c r e a s i n g emphasis has been g i v e n to
the c r u c i a l
women
because
it
r o l e of has
self-sufficiency
become
cannot
be
in
planning
evident met
unless
p r o d u c t i o n a n d food processing, account.
However,
the
role
of
agricultural
that
national
the
role
preservation, women
development has been l a r g e l y ignored.
with
of
development objectives women
in
and marketing relation
to
programs for
food
agricultural i s taken
water
into
resource
27 WATER, HEALTH AND ECONOM I CS Water i s the key h e a l t h f a c t o r Organization
estimated
1980
in
i n developing areas. that
32
about
percent
p o p u l a t i o n a n d 73 percent of the u r b a n p o p u l a t i o n h a d access
safe
water.
About
two-thirds
of
of
the
without
safe
small
drinking percent
of
and
waste
disposal.
the
rural
people
the
Kenya; 3 percent i n Gambia, Water
In
total
several
have
safe
p o p u l a t i o n of
resource development
programs
have
2
only
percent
probably
the
greatest
disease
hinders
cause
of
individual
disease
in
potential
of
people
developing
productivity
a in
to
in
directly
developing
Lack of a r e l i a b l e a n d adequate s u p p l y of safe drinking water
areas.
4
were
f o r example.
the
we1 I-being
areas)
countries
water:
and 5 percent i n Z a i r e ,
improve the h e a l t h and socio-economic
rural
i n developing c o u n t r i e s
(600 m i l l i o n i n u r b a n areas a n d two b i l l i o n i n r u r a l
billion very
to
The World Health
and,
countries,
therefore,
is
and
economic
development. Traditionally
in
many
rural
areas
hours each day f e t c h i n g the household often from g r e a t distances.
of
the
often
women
and
girls
spend
several
water s u p p l y from n a t u r a l sources,
Access to water
i n r u r a l areas i n many p a r t s
world
is difficult;
supplies
a r e frequently
limited
(sometimes
seasonally,
sometimes
polluted;
for
supplies
extended
are
periods
of
d r o u g h t ) ; a n d n a t u r a l sources a r e o f t e n a considerable distance away. Typically
most
developing
growth accompanied b y as people seek to centres w i l l and
limited.
Also,
in
an
area
increased demand f o r
high
rates
of
population
i n c r e a s i n g m i g r a t i o n from the c o u n t r y s i d e to c i t i e s lives.
The g r o w i n g
increased s u p p l i e s of safe water
semi-arid
as
have
improve the q u a l i t y of t h e i r
require greatly
future,
countries
areas
potential
develops
water,
and
a n d the
supplies
are
in
the
often
waste
near
severely
becomes i n d u s t r i a l i z e d ,
associated
urban
there
discharge
is
usually
leads to increased p o l l u t i o n of water s u p p l y sources. Economic growth a n d development all
the
services, housing. the
people, better
educational
better
imply
improved I i v i n g s t a n d a r d s f o r
nutrition,
opportunities,
better higher
health
and
health
income,
and
better
Few development a l t e r n a t i v e s h a v e g r e a t e r p o t e n t i a l f o r
health and
However,
including
social
well
i t i s often d i f f i c u l t
b e i n g of
people t h a n
water
supply
improving projects.
to show p r o j e c t economic j u s t i f i c a t i o n on the
b a s i s of improved health. The
1980s were
designated
as
the
International
Drinking
Water
and
S a n i t a t i o n Decade w i t h the o b j e c t i v e of p r o v i d i n g safe water a n d adequate s a n i t a t i o n to a l l people b y the year 2000,
but
t h i s goal was not
met.
In
less developed
countries,
two-thirds
of
the people
reasonable access to adequate s u p p l i e s o f safe water,
still
do
not
have
a n d the World Health
O r g a n i z a t i o n estimates t h a t 80 percent of a l l diseases I n d e v e l o p i n g areas i s r e l a t e d to unsafe water s u p p l i e s a n d inadequate s a n i t a t i o n measures. such areas water-related life
expectancy,
and
diseases c o n t r i b u t e to h i g h a
poor
quality
of
life.
m a l n u t r i t i o n c l e a r l y reduce the resistance of
In
infant mortality,
low
Undernutrition
and
children
to disease
and
the
p r o d u c t i v i t y of a d u l t s . One of
the problems
in p r o v i d i n g
safe
users f r e q u e n t l y do not h a v e the c a p a b i l i t y facilities.
The
technology
adopted often
rural
water
to operate
i s not
supplies and
appropriate
is
maintain for
the
that the local
culture.
ASSESSING SOCIAL IMPACTS The f o l l o w i n g types o f impacts r e l a t e d to h e a l t h a n d social
well-being
should be considered when e x a m i n i n g p o t e n t i a l impacts of a l t e r n a t i v e water resource programs a n d recommending programs i n d e v e l o p i n g areas:
1.
Impacts on those l i v i n g in a p r o j e c t area.
-
Changes i n communicable disease p a t t e r n s .
- Local s a n i t a l i o n problems. - D e t e r i o r a t i o n of water q u a l i t y ( s u r f a c e and g r o u n d w a t e r ) . - Adverse impacts on f i s h a n d w i l d l i f e p o p u l a t i o n s . - Lowered n u t r i t i o n l e v e l s due to decrease i n p e r c a p i t a food s u p p l i e s d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n period.
- Increased employment o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i t h l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e p r o j e c t . 2.
Impacts on immigrant p r o j e c t workers.
-
I m p a i r e d h e a l t h due to chemicals,
l o c a l l y endemic diseases,
exposure
to
toxic
a n d p h y s i c a l hazards.
- Lowered n u t r i t i o n l e v e l s because local food s g p p l i e s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t f o r i n f l u x o f workers.
3.
Impacts on those relocated from p r o j e c t a r e a .
- Problems of e t h n i c i t y . - Safe water a n d s a n i t a r y measures i n r e l o c a t i o n areas.
29
-
Compensation f o r
larrd "in k i n d . "
(Land prepared for farming
when
farmers a r e r e s e t t l e d . )
-
Soil c o n d i t i o n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r same crops a s p r o j e c t area. Adequate
food
supplies d u r i n g
resettlement
period
and
until
first
harvest.
-
Access to other towns a n d h e a l t h centres. F a i r compensation f o r lands.
- Timely relocation.
4.
Impacts on h e a l t h services.
- Greatly increased need f o r local h e a l t h services.
-
Increased need may be too c o s t l y f o r local resources.
5.
I ncome r e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
5.
Impacts on l i v i n g standards. .- Housing
- A v a i l a b i l i t y of safe water. - Sanitary facilities. - Electricity.
-
A v a i l a b i l i t y of fuel
(wood).
ACQUIRING BASIC S O C I A L DATA Water resource p l a n n e r s must be aware o f with
data
the advantages
i n v o l v i n g sociologists a n d a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s to o b t a i n needed
economists, skills
required
technical
include customs.
to
in
project
specially obtain
specialists are
difficulty different
evaluate
to
unless
adequate usually
communicating
ethnic women, Their
groups. and
and
rural
team
informants
are
social
planners,
and
background
and
information.
especially teams
understand
usually
the
associated
b a s i c social
(or expatriates)
people, expert
members
have
valid
u r b a n males
with
Engineers,
rarely
International
few
local
impacts.
trained,
the
have
women,
and
generally or
do
appreciate
government
officials
themselves, often do not understand r u r a l people a n d t h e i r c u l t u r e . people f r e q u e n t l y a r e v e r y
cautious
i n discussions
the lack of common language and
dialect
often
problems.
aware
that
Planners
also
must
be
with
Such
who
not local who,
Rural
"outsiders,"
and
accentuates communication considerable
time
may
be
30 r e q u i r e d to o b t a i n the needed d a t a ( e s p e c i a l l y i f the p r o g r a m i s l a r g e a n d complex), a n d the d a t a a r e often needed e a r l y i n the p l a n n i n g process. Economic,
social,
and
and r u r a l people v a r y given country.
cultura!
widely
characteristics
from c o u n t r y
rural
to c o u n t r y
their
views
than
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from those c f
the
rural
off;
rural
people,
a
those
they a r e often more open i n
poor,
the m a j o r i t y
communities
a n d even w i t h i n
Because of !he h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
i n power a r e u s u a l l y those who a r e be!ter expressing
of
but
their
(especially
views
those of
may
the
differ
landless,
women, a n d other groups who a r e r e l u c t a n t to oppose the e l i t e s . ) PERT INENT SOC I AL EFFECTS Social
factors
developing
frequently
areas
socia-economic factors,
can
factors,
(4)
and
affected
be
by
generally
(2) q u a l i t y
services.
water
resources
grouped of
Potential
life
in
four
indicators,
impacts
on
these
programs
(3)
in (1)
categories:
aqricultural
indicators
during
construction and o p e r a t i o n of water development programs must be c a r e f u l l y assessed a n d considered
i n planning,
The extent !o w h i c h these p o t e n t i a l
design,
construction,
a n d operation.
impacts a r e p o s i t i v e a n d the extent
to
which n e g a t i v e impacts c a n be m i t i g a t e d may well determine whether o r not outputs a n d benefits projected f o r a development p r o g r a m a r e achieved. U s u a l l y i t i s much cheaper water than
supply, it
is
to
a
healthy
add
such
to i n c o r p o r a t e measures to p r o v i d e a safe
environment, measures
etc.
to
a
as
a
part
project
after
of
project
design
construction
has
started. The evaluation
following
tabulation
lists
indicators
most
i n assessing impacts o f a water p r c j e c t
likely
Conditions v a r y from c o u n t r y to c o u n t r y a n d from p r o j e c t
thus,
the t a b u l a t i o n is not complete (see also Biswas,
1.
O u a l i t y of l i f e i n d i c a t o r s .
-
Food supplies,
fcod preferences, consumption.
N u t r i t i o n a l status. Health, h e a l t h services.
- Fertility.
-
I n f a n t and c h i l d m o r t a l i t y . L i f e expectancy.
require
in a developing
ares.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
to
1980).
rural
to p r o j e c t ;
31
- Housing. - Distance to safe d r i n k i n g water. - Source a n d distance to water f o r l a u n d r y a n d b a t h i n g .
-
Sanitation facilities. Type of f u e l ,
distance to source of s u p p l y .
Electricity.
- Education, l i t e r a c y , school enrollment. - Means of t r a n s p o r t . 2.
Socio-economic
factors.
- Household composit ion a n d demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . - M i g r a t i o n (nomadic, r u r a l to u r b a n ) . - Ethnicity. - Hierarchical v i l l a g e structure. - Kinship patterns. -. Role of women
- Farm size a n d type. - Main economic a c t i v i t i e s . - S e n s i t i v i t y to change.
-
S e n s i t i v i t y to r i s k .
- Adult employment p a t t e r n s (male a n d female). - C h i l d labour. - M o d i f i c a t i o n of c u l t u r a l values a n d l i f e s t y l e s . 3.
A g r i c u l t u r a l factors.
- Land f e r t i l i t y .
-
Suhsistence acreage. Cash crop acreage.
- Age of tree crops. - Animals. - Fishing. - Farming tools a n d equipment. - Preservation a n d processing of crops a n d a n i m a l products. - Role of women and c h i l d r e n . - Government extension services.
-
L a n d i n h e r i t a n c e Datterns.
32
4.
Services
-
-
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n networks. Health services. A g r i c u l t u r a l extension services. Marketing facilities.
ENERGY For small social
aspects
While
lighting
isolated
centres
are
primary
is
the
the p r i r n e r y
in
developing
need,
i n d u s t r i e s a r e a l s c important.
small
industries
all
have
the
food
potential
for
the
rural
human
and
electrification.
agriculturally-related
F o r example,
m i l l s and wood processing f a c i l i t i e s , small
countries,
considerations
cottage
tea processing f a c i l i t i e s , processing
to
improve
plants,
and
economic
saw
similar
and
social
conditions i n r u r a l areas. The
World
average of countries,
Bank
45
about but only
(1980) percent
10-20
In low-income countries, Much
of
the
and
accounts
is
that
total
households
energy
account
consumption
t h e i r commercial
in
for
an
developing
energy
consumption.
these values a r e 5 a n d 10 percent,
respectively.
used
for
of
percent of
noncommercial
marketability typically
estimated
energy mainly
only
used for
about
5
by
households
cooking.
percent
of
has
limited
Agricultural
production
a
commercial
country’s
energy consumpt ion, Traditional
fuels
(firewood,
charcoal,
crop
residues,
and
animal
d u n g ) account f o r almost a l l the energy used in r u r a l areas a n d f o r 25 percent of t o t a l energy percent of
consumption
the p o p u l a t i o n of
t r a d i t i o n a l f u e l s f o r cooking. b u t from 0.5
i n d e v e l o p i n g countries.
(2 billion
developing countries
about
About
people)
75 use
Most of these people h a v e access to firewood,
to 1 b i l l i o n use a g r i c u l t u r a l
a n d animal
wastes
for
cooking
fuel. Developing c o u n t r i e s h a v e been consuming wood s u p p l i e s more r a p i d l y than
they
are
renewed.
Specific
measures
to
meet
r u r a l people a r e needed a s p a r t o f a n y p r g r a m to
the
energy
needs
improve q u a l i t y of
of
life,
i n c l u d i n g r e a f f o r e s t a t i o n a n d the D l a n t i n g of trees as well a s hydropower.
Fuel wood The energy
sources rnos!
c o u n t r i e s a r e wood,
charcoal,
widely crop
used
residue,
in
rural
areas
a n d animal
in
developing
dung.
I n poorer
33 countries i n A f r i c a these sources s u p p l y from 70 to 30 percent of the t c t a l energy
used.
Such sources
are especially
important
rural
in
areas
among the u r b a n poor even i n middle income c o u n t r i e s (World Bank, Wood has become scarce i n many p a r t s of the developing
and
1980).
world,
and i t
i s estimated t h a t 3ver a b i l l i o n people h a v e problems in s e c u r i n g adequate fuel supplies.
Many v i l l a g e r s who f o r m e r l y c o u l d f i n d fuelwood
homes now must search f o r i t a h a l f d a y ' s walk away. spend
a
large
part
of
their
countries face a secondary sector of t h e i r economy.
income
on
fuel.
energy c r i s e s that
near their
a n d the u r b a n poor
Thus
many
primarily
developing
affects
the
rural
i s immense,
The magnitude of t h i s fuelwood c r i s i s
a n d forests of developing c o u n t r i e s a r e b e i n g consumed a t a r a t e of 10 to 15 m i l l i o n hectares a year
1980).
(World Bank,
The impact of wood s c a r c i t y on r u r a l women severe.
Rural
women a n d
children
spend
a
considerable
(often 4 to 8 hours p e r d a y ) c o l l e c t i n g wood. they must walk resources
farther
planners
advantages
of
and
should
farther
to
including
each
need
reafforestation
amount
time
of
As s u p p l i e s become depleted,
gather
recognize the
i n developing c o u n t r i e s i s
for
and
day's
fuel
supply.
supplies
wood
lots
as
Water
and
the
planning
objectives. Deforestation i s most serious in semi-arid it
can cause
serious problems of
erosion,
Although the fuelwood c r i s i s i s a l r e a d y economically that
in
sound
means
the o r d e r of
for
a n d mountainous a r e a s where siltation,
critical,
reafforestation.
50 m i l l i o n hectares
of
and
The
World
fuelwood
cooking a n d heating.
The gap between present
levels i s p a r t i c u l a r l y l a r g e i n A f r i c a where i t
Bank
would
p l a n t e d i n developing areas b y the y e a r 2000 to meet for
desertification.
there a r e t e c h n i c a l l y
and
estimates
need
to
be
the p r o j e c t e d need
and
required
planting
I s estimated p l a n t i n g would
h a v e to be increased as much as 15 times to meet needs. Electricity
A
very
countries
small is
percent
served
generating capacity
by
cf
all
village
electricity.
The
and
rural
World
i n developing c o u n t r i e s in
people
Bank
in
developing
estimated
1980 a t
ifistalled
241 g i g a w a t t s ,
or
12 percent of the w o r l d t o t a l . Between 1973 a n d 1978, consumption in those countries grew a t an average r a t e of 8 percent a y e a r , percent a y e a r
i n the i n d u s t r i a l i z e d countries.
However,
compared w i t h 3.5 their
per
capita
consumption in 19?8 was estimated to be o n l y 331 kWh, compared w i t h 6,509 kWh i n the developed countries. Roughly
h a l f of the w o r l d ' s hydropower p o t e n t i a l
i s in the
developing
34 c o u n t r i e s (about 1,200 gW), b u t o n l y 10 percent has been developed. hydro
sites
that
were
previously
f e a s i b l e in recent years, projects.
uneconomical
b u t there
Potential mini-hydro
is a
long
projects that
have
lead
become
time
have a
for
shorter
estimated to comprise 5 to 10 percent of the w o r l d ' s t o t a l however,
their
relatively
p r o j e c t s uneconomical
for
high
investment
village
systems
can be connected to a power g r i d ,
with
low
large hydro
lead
time a r e
h y d r o resources;
may
costs
Many
generally
make
load
mini-hydro
factors.
they
If
they can be used more e f f e c t i v e l y .
With the present r a t e of expansion o f r u r a l e i e c t r i f i c a t i o n of about one percent
per
electricity
year,
by
the
only
about
year
2000.
25 percent of Often
p r o v i d e f o r s u p p l y i n g power to households, cottage i n d u s t r i e s .
When power
rural of
but only
i s supplied
o n l y 2 o r 3 hours i n the evening.
all
electrification
people
a
to pumps,
households
to
will
village
Construction of small
have
does wells,
not and
i s often for
it
hydropower p l a n t s
i n r u r a l areas i s an important means of i m p r o v i n g q u a l i t y of l i f e .
HUMAN DISEASES Diseases Access to p o t a b l e water a n d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f water a f f e c t p u b l i c and
basic
sanitation
areas as well
furnished
as other
rural
developing c o u n t r i e s a r e some
stage
breeding
or
in
the
life
transport
to
construction
people.
listed i n cycle
medium,
Principal
the
of
following
many
as
workers table
disease
summarized
and
water-related
by
resettlement diseases
(Biswas,
vectors,
in
1980). At
water
Petersen,
health
is
the
(1984),
as
follows:
1.
S t i l l water a n d marsh h a b i t a t
( i n lakes,
disposal areas f o r dredged m a t e r i a l ,
reservoirs,
a n d so o n )
f o r mosquitoes t h a t a r e hosts f o r m a l a r i a , filariasis,
2.
yellow fever,
dengue fever,
and encephalitis.
Slow-moving
water ( i n i r r i g a t i o n c a n a l s a n d r i v e r s a n d a l o n g r e s e r v o i r
shorelines)
i s the b r e e d i n g a r e a f o r several
hosts
parasites
for
(bilharzia).
carrying
the
Africa
are
by
infected.
There
is
forms
of
shistosomiasis
100 a n d 200 m i l l i o n people in
shistomiasis
hycanthone, b u t i t i s v e r y costly.
species of s n a i l s t h a t a r e
various
I t i s eslimated t h a t between
71 c o u n t r i e s a r e atfected people of
i r r i g a t i o n canals,
i s the b r e e d i n g a r e a
and an
that
80 percent of
effective
drug
the
treatment,
The disease i s r a r e l y d i r e c t l y
fatal,
35
b u t i t damages the i n t e s t i n a l
tract,
lungs,
liver,
etc.
a n d depresses
v i t a l i t y , c o n t r i b u t i n g to e a r l y death.
3.
Rapidly
flowing
spillways,
water
stilling
area f o r back
flies
( r i v e r blindness).
(at
basins,
natural and
(Sirnulium), The
rapids,
powerplant that
are
steep
mountain
tailraces)
is
a
streams, breeding
the hosts f o r onchocerciasis
f l i e s a r e f o u n d up to
15 kilometres
from
the
I t i s estimated that onchocerciasis affects about 50 m i l l i o n
watercourse.
people. The major affected a r e a i s A f r i c a ,
but t h e disease was b r o u g h t
to South America (Columbia a n d Venezuela)
b y infected slaves as e a r l y
as 1590 a n d to Mexico the 1860s.
There
b y Sudanese troops b r o u g h t i n b y t h e French i n
a r e few
effective drugs,
and
they
have severe
side
effects. The p a r a s i t e can l i v e f o r 15 to 20 y e a r s i n humans.
4.
p o l l u t e d water ( i n weedy d r a i n a g e ditches a n d
D i r t y , stagnant, ditches)
is
a
(elephantiasis) Table 2.1
.
breeding
area
for
mosquitoes
that
carry
latrine
filariasis
P a r a s i t i c Diseases
Parasites Nematoda Onchocerca v o l v u l us Wuchercira bancrofti Protozoa Plasmodium spp. Trypanosoma gambiense Trematoda Schistosoma haematobi um Schistosoma mansoni Schistosoma aponicum Viruses Over 30 mosquitoborne v i r u s e s a r e associated w i t h human i n f e c t i o n s
Uiseases t r a n s m i t t e d
Intermediate host
Infection route
River blindness (onchocerciasis Elephantiasis ( f i1a r i a s i s 1
Black f l y ( S imu 1ium Several mosquitoes
Malaria A f r i c a n sleeping sickness
Anopheles mosquito Tsetse f l y (Glossina p.
Bite Bite
U r i n a r y schistosom iasis ( b i 1h a r z i a s i s ) I n t e s t i n a l schistosom iasis
Aquatic s n a i l (Bul i n u s )
Percutaneous Percutaneous
V i s c e r a l schistosom iasis
Aquatic s n a i l s ( 8 iomp h 1o a r ia ; Australorbi s Amphibious s n a i l (Oncornel a n i a )
E n c e p h a l i t i s ; dengue
Several mosquitos
Bite Bite
Percutaneous Bite
5.
in h u m i d a r e a s of t r o p i c a l
Vegetation n e a r water
area f o r the tsetse f l y , trypanosomiasis
w h i c h i s the host f o r
(African
sleeping
sickness)
types o f trypanosomiasis a r e f a t a l , animals.
In a n i m a l s
(goats,
the p a r a s i t e s cause n a g a n a ,
tsetse
malnutrition i s severe. tracts
of
fly
that
Although
pigs,
and
is
the disease.
Africa,
it
most
horses)
that
sufficient
the human
protein
The problems
diet
(meat,
in
regions
milk),
and
a c h i l d h o o d disease from p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n c y )
Since the disease p r e v e n t s the keeping of a n i m a l s restricts
p r e v e n t s human use of
transmit
infected as o f t e n as
mules,
to s u f f e r from
lacks
(kwashiorkor,
camels,
i s a breeding
a w a s t i n g disease t h a t k i l l s the a n i m a l s ;
created b y th? disease in a n i m a l s the
people.
to
people a r e not
sheep,
game a n i m a l s do not appear with
Africa
parasites
the
development
l a r g e t r a c t s of
land,
of
mixed
!arge
in
farming
thus c o n t r i b u t i n g
and
to
the
problem of a c h i e v i n g food s e l f - s u f f i c i e n c y . P r e v e n t a t i v e measures P r e v e n t a t i v e measures tha disease vectors 1984).
c a n be teken to reduce the incidence of the
a n d disease discussed
above
are
listed
below
I f such measures a r e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n water development
the time of f o r m u l a t i o n a n d design,
control of
disease can
(Petersen,
programs a t be much
less
design
and
costly t h a n b y l a t e r a d d i t i o n of remedial measures.
1.
Mosquito
population
management
measures
can to
be
minimized
a v o i d creation
of
by
careful
mosquito b r e e d i n g
habitat,
including: Reservoirs
-
-
Clear r e s e r v o i r a r e a of a l l d e b r i s p r i o r to f i l l i n g . Construct d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s a n d g r a d e s h o r e l i n e ( a b o u t 1V to 3H) so t h a t a l l areas d r a i n a n d no pools a r e l e f t a l o n g the shoreline.
-
-
E i t h e r deepen o r f i l l a l l shallow a r e a s of the r e s e r v o i r . F l u c t u a t e the r e s e r v o i r
water
the
season
mosquito
breeding
s u r f a c e about 0.3m to
strand
larvae
each above
week the
during water
surface. G r a d u a l l y d r a w the r e s e r v o i r level down d u r i n g the b r e e d i c g p e r i o d .
37 I r r i g a t i o n Canals
-
Avoid the c r e a t i o n of roadside d i t c h e s a n d o t h e r p o n d i n g areas. Improve i r r i g a t i o n p r a c t i c e to minimize use o f water a n d p o n d i n g of excess water.
Many of
the above measures f o r
control
of
mosquito b r e e d i n g
habitat
first
develop
a r e detrimental to w i l d l i f e h a b i t a t in general. The
Tennessee
Valley
Authority
was
the
agency
recession
operation
reservoir
level
is
shown
schematically
i s progressively pool
level
drawn
period,
and
weekly
larvae.
Also,
small p r e d a t o r y f i s h and,
in
the
next
down during the
fluctuations
to
The TVA c y c l i c pool
r e s e r v o i r o p e r a t i n g procedures f o r m a l a r i a prevention.
destroy
figure.
low-flow
mosquito
more r e c e n t l y ,
The
summer
eggs
Tilapia fish,
and have
been introduced to eat mosquito larvae.
F i g u r e 2.1.
2.
Snail
Reservoir c y c l i n g to e l i m i n a t e M a l a r i a (Northern hemisphere).
populations
mot luskacides, on
fish,
can
microflora,
levels
and
control
them.
be
attacked
with
such as copper sulphate,
rapid
and
microfauna.
drainage
of
However,
shore1 ines
With r a p i d drawdown,
large-scale
applications
of
b u t there a r e adverse effects are
fluctuating effective
50 percent o f
reservoir
measures
the s n a i l s
to
stranded
38
will
d i e in a
period
week o r
i s much
two;
A
longer.
for
slow
d r y i n g due
l a r g e South
American
to e v a p o r a t i c n , snail
smaller b i l h a r z i a s n a i l also h a s been used to c o n t r o l e f f e c t i v e way people
away
to c o n t r o l o r from
the
minimize
shoreline b y
snail-related
that them.
disease
p r o v i d i n g clean
the
The most is
piped
the
eats
to
keep
water
e f f i c i e n t s a n i t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s to destroy the human-snail-human
and
c h a i n of
infection.
3.
The black f l y
(Simulium) in n a t u r a l
" d r o w n i n g out"
r i v e r r a p i d s can be e l i m i n a t e d b y
( s u b m e r g i n g ) the r a p i d s o r b y use of chemicals.
White N i l e 1 / 4 0 ppm DDT kept 70 m i l e s of during
construction
forces.
Similar
of Owen Dam
r a p i d s free of
Uganda
in
to
On the
the b l a c k
protect
construction
treatment was used i n c o n s t r u c t i o n of Akosombo Dam on
the Volta R i v e r i n Ghana where onchocerciasis was a n e s p e c i a l l y problem, a n d on the N i g e r R i v e r a t K a i n g i Dam i n N i g e r i a . the reservoir
i n u n d a t e d 200 m i l e s of r i v e r
the problem continues continuously.
fly
i n the v i c i n i t y of
severe
At Akosombo
infested b y b l a c k f l i e s ,
but
the s p i l l w a y w h i c h d i s c h a r g e s
Proper design a n d o p e r a t i o n o f s p i l l w a y s a n d
intermittant
o p e r a t i o n can b e e f f e c t i v e i n c o n t r o l l i n g b l a c k f l i e s i n such areas.
6. The tsetse f l y (Glossina) breeds In trees n e a r water, in
wooded
or
brush-covered
s a r v i v e i n open g r a s s l a n d ,
savanna
in
tropical
control.
Some c o u n t r i e s h a v e h a d
long-range
insecticide
brush
spraying
such programs
and
vary
widely,
p r o p e r l y monitored a n d c o n t r o l led. i n c l u d e genetic c o n t r o l ,
It
and
cannot
a n d c l e a r i n g b r u s h i s a n e f f e c t i v e means of
ground
effects of
i n the forest, Africa.
p r o g r a m s of
clearing. and
Current
The
aerial
arld
environmental
i n s e c t i c i d e use should
research on new
be
techniques
traps, and baits.
Aquatic Weeds Probably reservcirs,
the
major
watercourses,
b r e e d i n g of many
socio-economic and
canals
disease vectors,
impact is
that
of they
i n c l u d i n g mosquitos,
aquatic
weeds
contribute snails,
and
to
in the
flies.
L i t t l e (1969) c i t e s the f o l l o w i n g problems w i t h a q u a t i c weeds i n r e s e r v o i r s : 1.
B l o c k i n g n a v i g a t i o n c h a n n e l s a n d m a k i n g movement of boats d i f f i c u l t .
2.
Forming l a r g e mats t h a t d r i f t a n d b l o c k power i n t a k e s a n d h a r b o u r s .
3.
Choking t r i b u t a r y streams a n d i r r i g a t i o n outlets.
39
4. Forming
a
dense
cover,
making
fishing
difficult
or
inducing
deoxygenation and f i s h m o r t a l i t y .
5.
Reducing the e f f e c t i v e c a p a c i t y of the r e s e r v o i r .
6.
! n c r e a s i n g water losses through e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
7.
Reducing r e c r e a t i o n a l u t i l i t y of the lake.
8.
P r o v i d i n g a b r e e d i n g h a b i t a t f o r disease vectors.
9.
Reducing the b i o l o g i c p r o d u c t i v i t y o f the r e s e r v o i r due to reduced l i g h t a t surface and subsurface layers.
THE ROLE OF WOMEN I n water social,
resource p l a n n i n g ,
cultural,
economic,
evaluations
have
a n d environmental
to be made of
impacts,
various
and tradeoffs have
to be made between those impacts that can be e v a l u a t e d in monetary a n d those that
are
have a n unders!anding
of
terrns
To assess impacts r e q u i r e s t h a t p l a n n e r s
intangible.
real-world
conditions.
Probably
least understood b y water resources p l a n n e r s i s the r e a l
the one f a c t o r
r o l e of
women
in
the use c f water a n d i n a g r i c u l t u r e in r u r a l societies. Most water resources development a g r i c u l t u r e to a greater o r
programs in developing a r e a s i n v o l v e
lesser extent,
most often
irrigated agriculture
w i t h the source of s u p p l y e i t h e r stored a n d managed surface water, water,
o r c o n j u n c t i v e use o f both sources.
Many developing c o u n t r i e s h a v e
a common n a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e of o b t a i n i n g role
of
wcmen
in
food
production,
census d a t a ,
be
obtained.
food
particularly
Women
I f the r e a l
food self-sufficiency. processing
p r e p a r a t i o n a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n i s not c l e a r l y o b j e c t i v e cannot
ground
and
treatment,
understood b y
workers
are
i n the a g r i c u l t u r a l sector
often
labour force.
the a g r i c u l t u r a l
labour force i n some c o u n t r i e s . )
this
undercounted
where they
(Women make up a s much as 80
the predominant
food
planners,
However,
in
a r e often percent
of
their
views a r e
women a r e r u r a l women.
Typically
r a r e l y sought i n water resources p l a n n i n g . I n developing areas the m a j o r i t y of they a r e poor,
and
food production, labour.
In
restraints,
some and
they
for
are
fetching
countries there
are
responsible water
they
and
are
subject
long-standing
p a r t i c u l a r l y where the hoe i s used.
for fuel
subsistence a g r i c u l t u r e supplies, to
patterns
and
cultural of
as
head
of
a
subsistence a g r i c u l t u r e .
high
percent
in
and
domestic
traditions
women
and
farming,
In some areas m i g r a t i o n o f men !o the
c i t i e s o r i n search of p a i d employment on p l a n t a t i o n s o r women
for
of
farm
households
i n mines has l e f t responsible
for
40 The World Bank r e p o r t s , of
the
farming
two-thirds
of
f o r example,
households
those
are
full
working
that
headed time
by
75 percent
i n Lesotho o v e r
women
i n food
and
in
farming
Malawi
a r e women.
may however not be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e as many of the males t r a v e l South A f r i c a to work.
Households headed b y women
( e x c l u d i n g C h i n a ) now form,
These
to mines in
in d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s
between 20 a n d 25 percent of
on the average,
a l I households except i n s t r o n g l y
over
1986).
I s l a m i c societies ( J i g g i n s ,
Recent studies i n d i c a t e t h a t women a r e m a j o r food producers in terms of volume of
food p r o d u c t s a n d
supposedly
participate only
most of the domestic nutritional
food
h o u r s worked
i n countries
in f a r m i n g .
marginally
supplies,
even
they
Since
have an
where
women
important
levels of the e n t i r e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d ,
they
produce
i n f l u e n c e on
therefore,
on h e a l t h
a n d p r o d u c t i v i t y as well. Modernization of a g r i c u l t u r e increased farming
commercialization of to
cash
crops,
i n d e v e l o p i n g areas has o f t e n r e s u l t e d agriculture,
intensification
with
of
a
shift
production,
from and
in
subsistence technological
change. As p r o d u c t i o n of
cash
crops
increases
and
m a i n l y to p r o d u c t i o n of cash crops b y men,
mechanization
the
family
food in
technologies a r e usually
take
supply
as
subsistence
men
introduced
over
the
become
farming. for
new
less
When
jobs jobs
willing
or or
less other
performed
realize
to
to produce more of
machines
normally and
applied
the demands on women grow
s u p p l y more l a b o u r f o r p r o d u c t i o n of cash c r o p s a n d participate
is
by
whatever
able
women,
men
benefits
associated w i t h the new technologies w h i l e t h e j o b s women
to
improved
lose may
are mean
t h e i r livelihood.
In e s t i m a t i n g
project
benefits,
monetary v a l u e f o r cash crops, production
by
women
it
is
relatively
easy
to
determine
a
b u t to estimate monetary b e n e f i t s f o r food
practicing
subsistence
agriculture
is
a
far
more
d i f f i c u l t problem f o r the engineer o r economist. In
many
societies,
accumulate s u r p l u s
both
inheritance
income a r e
a r e u s u a l l y more r e s t r i c t e d f o r women h a v e no r i g h t to be nominal,
difficult women
than
inherit property.
w i t h control
of
their
contribute
to
r e q u i r i n g legal l a n d t i t l e ,
In
developing
agricultural
areas
extension
deterioration
property women. for
and
the
R i g h t s of
men,
Where they
property
( o r to b r o t h e r s i n m a t r i l i n e a l societies.) sometimes
of for
and have,
transferred
to
in
right
to
inheritance some a r e a s
the r i g h t may their
husbands
A g r i c u l t u r a l development programs of
women's
land
rights
through
t i t l e s often h e l d o n l y b y men. women
service
have
programs
been
largely
because
the
ignored extension
in
most
staff
is
41
typically
male a n d
tends
to
work
with
larger
farms
and
male
farmers.
Services a n d new technologies thus r e a c h women s l o w l y a n d i n d i r e c t l y , a t a l l . Women often have l i t t l e access to v a r i o u s o f f i c i a l support i n c l u d i n g not o n l y extension services, b u t also c r e d i t , technologies
that
would
enable
them
to
increase
examples of increased general p r o s p e r i t y ,
services,
fertilizers,
production.
if
a n d new
There
are
b u t increased m a l n u t r i t i o n among
women a n d c h i l d r e n when the focus has s h i f t e d from subsistence f a r m i n g to cash crops. N a t i o n a l Policy Even when n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s d i c t a t e a q u a l i t y of l i f e , of
numerous
factors,
s t r o n g commitment
to
improving
implementation of such p o l i c i e s i s o f t e n incomplete.
water
including
resource the
development
special
r o l e of
projects
women,
indicates
have
not
Review
that
been
social
adequately
addressed i n p l a n n i n g studies,
a n d a s a consequence some programs h a v e
h a d unexpected adverse social
impacts.
successfully
implemented because
the intended users
to p a r t i c i p a t e ,
in
that
are
development
some programs c o u l d not
were no acceptable
P l a n n e r s must
profiles and p u b l i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n such
Also,
there
programs
incentives
be for
use b o t h socio-economic
the p l a n n i n g o f designed
to
programs
meet
the
to ensure needs
and
c a p a b i l i t i e s of the users. It
is
important
that
decision-makers,
as
well
a s planners,
recognize
t h a t many development programs i n the p a s t h a v e f a i l e d to deal e q u i t a b l y with
women;
common
practice
p o p u l a t i o n i n general. agencies
have
come
utilizing
womens'
has
I t i s only
to
been recently
understand
resources.
to
the
Their
address
that
high
p a r t i c i p a t e i n harvesting, often
control
activities
productivity. not
use
they
affect
cost
are
of
agricultural
a n d storage o f family
health
crops.
and,
the
resources
that
women
fully
represent,
and
They
they and
Also,
thus,
the
lending
not
labour;
There i s a v e r y h i g h economic cost to a n y c o u n t r y
effectively
for
significant.
h e l p produce cash crops;
marketing,
that
needs
international
economic
contributions
p r o v i d e i n the o r d e r of 50 to 80 percent of most of the subsistence f a r m i n g ;
the
the
do
they
women
indirectly t h a t does national
p o l i c i e s must recognize t h i s fact. National p o l i c y should b e to consider the i n t r o d u c t i o n of new technology only
following
national
and
background.
an local
Even
integrated into
evaluation needs
of and
well-designed
the e v e r y d a y
the
technology,
existing
local
technologies
will
l i f e of
the
society
taking social
fail in
if
which
into
account
and
cultural
they
are
they
will
not be
42
used.
I f women p a r t i c i p a t e i n the management a n d use of water systems,
i s more l i k e l y t h a t not. for
National
the
systems
will
be more successful
p o l i c i e s should promote p a r t i c i p a t i o n
development,
i n assessing
special b e n e f i t s to women,
alternatives.
If
some
t h i s s h o u l d be taken
there i s a women's component
i n a project,
by
than
if
women
they
it do
in planning
alternatives
i n t o account;
provide
however,
if
i t should be a n i n t e g r a l p a r t
of the o v e r a l l p r o j e c t , not a separate i s o l a t e d program. WORLD POPULATION Concern has been expressed as to the c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y of Populations
continue
grow
to
and
estimated to be 5 000 m i l l i o n .
(1
000 m i l l i o n ) a n d
India
the
world
population
The b i g g e s t concentrations
(700 m i l l i o n )
followed
by
the
the e a r t h . 1980
in
are
was
i n China
USSR
and
USA.
However p o p u l a t i o n d e n s i t i e s i n d i c a t e there i s l i t t l e d a n g e r of c r o w d i n g o u t i n our
lifetime.
That
of
China
(100 p e r
sq
km)
may
be
compared
with
Bangladesh (600 p e r sq k m ) , w h i c h i s the h i g h e s t e x c l u d i n g Singapore a n d Hong Kong, c i t y countries. a n d developing
There i s n o c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between developed
c o u n t r i e s since H o l l a n d w i t h
a
population
density
of
350
people p e r sq km i s f a i r l y self s u f f i c i e n t a n d a h i g h l y developed c o u n t r y . The a v a i l a b i l i t y of resources f o r if
the
countries
are
to
develop
to
l a r g e r populations the
consumption
the USA (220 m i l l i o n ) ,
world.
The p o p u l a t i o n s of
Japan
(120 m i l l i o n ) t o t a l o n l y 25% of
expect
usage of metals,
the w o r l d
timber a n d o i l
i s o n l y a problem levels
of
the
first
Europe (400 m i l l i o n ) a n d population,
so one c o u l d
to increase m a n y f o l d i f the e n t i r e
w o r l d reached the advanced l e v e l s of these c o u n t r i e s . The n a t u r a l transfer.
check
in r a t e of
development
Even without p o l i t i c a l b a r r i e r s there
required,
plus
adaptation
of
ways
of
life.
is
the
rate
of
technology
i s a generation of The
cost
of
teaching
such
rapid
development however c o u l d not b y b o r n e b y the developed c o u n t r i e s , a n d i t w i l l h a v e to come l a r g e l y from w i t h i n , possible
than
reluctance,
we
would
hope.
so
There
t h a t much slower development is
also
no
ambition,
is
indeed
of many to ' w e s t e r n i s e ' .
POVERTY The extent of p o v e r t y i n t h e w o r l d i s u n d e r - a p p r e c i a t e d developed communities.
O f the w o r l d ' s 5 000 m i l l i o n ,
c l a s s i f i e d as h a v i n g a n y wealth. North America.
by
people of
less t h a n 25% can be
These a r e p r e d o m i n a n t l y
in
Europe a n d
An i n d e x of w e a l t h can be taken from consumer e x p e n d i t u r e
43 and savings patterns.
Possession of a
family
automobile
to some form of pension can be r e g a r d e d as signs of h a n d to be r i c h implies h i g h e x p e n d i t u r e on
and contribution
wealth.
On the o t h e r
l u x u r i e s e.g.
boats,
flying,
To the western world,
Chinese
h o l i d a y s , e a t i n g out etc. Poverty i s even more d i f f i c u l t to define. a n d Soviet c i t i z e n s appear poor because of u s i n g common r a t e s of exchange. m i x t u r e of wealthy
and
poor people
Asia where colonization
low
their
incomes i f t r a n s l a t e d
South America on the other and
the same a p p l i e s
injected pockets of wealth.
h a n d has
to A f r i c a
a
and
W i t h i n these a r e a s a r e
extremely poor (impoverished) people. Such can be c l a s s i f i e d as h a v i n g no hope of e a r n i n g any money, to
mouth,
quarter
health
of
the
is
o r even b u y i n g a n y t h i n g .
poor
world's
and
clothes,
population
live
if
any,
like
They
are
l i v e from h a n d
rags.
this,
largely
illegal
activity
Probably
in
Africa
a
and
Asia w i t h some groups i n South America. Poverty
leads
to
theft,
production o r poaching.
banditry
and
such
Those responsible f o r s u p p l y i n g arms
as
to
these countries a r e to blame f o r severing progress f o r many decades. destroy
what
was
unmanageable.
created p r e v i o u s l y
T h i s coupled
with
and
inept
the c o u n t r i e s g r a d u a l l y
and
corrupt
f i r s t place i s l e a d i n g to decline of many countries. ever c a t c h i n g u p to developed countries, power
leads to a v a r i c i o u s governments
or
drug
of
many
They
become
governments
the
in
Perhaps the d e s p a i r of
the taste of wealth b y few
which
eliminate
democracy
to
in
hold
on to t h e i r d e c l i n i n g kingdoms. Such scenes p o i n t to the lack of t r a i n i n g p r o v i d e d b y p r e v i o u s empires and
present
values
is
developers.
needed
Training
in parallel.
in
methodology,
Schooling and
working
needed for generations before self s t i m u l a t i o n want these
i s evident. reasons.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y much It
is
often
paid
gain
and
hand
in
sense
of
hand
are
the way developed c o u n t r i e s
development
to
morals
aid
access
i s not to
provided
resources
for
of
the
deve I op in g countries. With modern communications reactions
and
poverty
in
it
i s becoming more d i f f i c u l t
these
countries
consequences w i l l s p i l l over i n t o a l l countries, developed defence
countries.
with
the
resources needed,
Fortunately
mending
of
reduced
East-West
the
to
b r u s h the
carpet.
a f f e c t i n g q u a l i t y of
international
conflicts,
may
The life in
expenditure provide
the
on vast
to set the poorer n a t i o n s on the p a t h of development.
learning curve w i l l
be needed to create such guidance.
agencies have experience i n t r a i n i n g a l r e a d y w i t h i n selected investment projects, speed developmen t.
under
A
Many development
a n d t h e i r knowledge together
p a r t i c u l a r l y in the resource f i e l d ,
may
44 It
has
been
found
that
developing
communities
can
learn
technical
tasks q u i t e e a s i l y a n d t a k e p r i d e in t h e i r p r o d u c t i o n a n d i t i s hoped more training will
be s p e c i f i e d
i n f u t u r e project
w i l l have to cover a wide f i e l d of people, simple people to technical work.
t r a i n i n g of
A t t i t u d e to w o r k i n g d a y s ,
h a v e to
be demonstrated,
and
specifications.
may
training
r a n g i n g from moral g u i d a n c e of
those a b l e to
learn and
responsibilities and h a r d it
Such
mean
sacrifice
willing
will
work
by
the
be
based
to
also
wealthy
in
accepting these people i n t o t h e i r f i e l d o f concern.
A
way
of
assessing
expectancy which
level
of
civilization
i s a f u n c t i o n of medical
could
facilities.
2.3
Fig.
on
life
shows
life
expectancies a r o u n d the world.
Human A t t i t u d e s The
willingness
success of a project.
and
ability
of
the
people
Factors w h i c h h a v e to
are
necessary
b e checked
ensure
to
parallel
in
with
f e a s i b i I i t y studies i n c l u d e : Government
-
policy,
Administrative structure
-
systems
integrity,
stability
efficiency,
holders,
ability
of
office
i n t e g r i t y , experience
Infrastructure -
extent, efficiency
National -
pay
levels,
standards
of
living,
commun i c a t ion Workers -
a v a i l a b i I it y
,
s k i I Is, a t t i tude,
requ ired,
laziness, p r i d e , Backup
-
t r a i n in g
spares,
customs,
superstitions
maintenance,
operational
produce,
equipment,
training Ouside influence -
theft
of
geurilla
action,
(can
introduce
i r r e s p o n s i b i I it y )
,
propaganda, sense
but
others
of
require
decades,
I f civilization
increasing
e.g.
attitudes,
or
even
numbers,
a t t i t u d e s i s the f i r s t t h i n g to tackle. i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 2.2.
then
it
appears
e.g.
training,
generations,
i s to b e imposed on people which
population
of
threats.
Some deficiencies can be t a c k l e d w i t h i n p r o j e c t time frames, customs.
aid
i t will
training
e.g.
in view in
The effect of non-engineering
basic factors
45
c i t e d technoloav transfer Llmited training Proiect exDenditure
I F i g . 2.2
\
Benefit-Cost
relationship with external factors
REFERENCES Biswas, A.K. 1980. "Environment a n d Water Development in T h i r d World," ASCE Journal of the Water Resources P l a n n i n g a n d Management D i v i s i o n . J i g g i n s , Janice, 1986. "Gender-related Impacts a n d t h e Work of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l Research Centre, CIGAR Study Paper No. 17, World Bank. L i t t l e , E.C.S., 1969. "Weeds in Man-Made Lakes," in Man-Made Lakes, Ghana U n i v e r s i t y Press. Petersen, M.S., 1984. Water Resources P l a n n i n g a n d Development, Prentice-Hal I. World Bank, 1980. Energy i n Developing Countries.
F-
m
30 years
yeors
years
years
years
.
:lY',Lars