Characteristics of successful foster families according to Flemish foster care workers

Children and Youth Services Review 107 (2019) 104519

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Characteristics of successful foster families according to Flemish foster care workers

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Frank Van Holena, , Lynn Geysb, Delphine Westb, Laura Gypenb, Johan Vanderfaeillieb a b

Pleegzorg Vlaams-Brabant en Brussel, Sainctelettesquare 17, 1000 Brussels, Belgium Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Clinical and Lifespan Psychology, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium

A R T I C LE I N FO

A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Foster family characteristics Successful foster families Concept mapping

Concept mapping was used to identify characteristics of successful foster families in Flanders (Dutch speaking part of Belgium). A sample of 97 (out of 505) foster care workers from all foster care agencies were asked to answer in writing the question: “What characteristics does a successful foster family have?” Sixty unique characteristics were identified by three researchers. In a second phase, 50 foster care workers individually grouped together the statements that according to them covered the same topic. Furthermore, they were asked to indicate the degree of importance of each response on a seven-point scale. Multidimensional scaling and hierarchic cluster analyses identified eight clusters of successful foster family characteristics: willingness to cooperate with all stakeholders (foster care worker and birth parents), emotional-affective characteristics, characteristics that are conditions for stability, a child-oriented motivation supported by the whole family, adaptability, social-cognitive characteristics, social and material circumstances that are conditions for foster care, and good parenthood. Although sometimes differently grouped or named, the characteristics mentioned by foster care workers were almost entirely in line with findings from other research. Identification of these characteristics can contribute to the development of a foster family profile. Such a profile increases the chance of screening of quality foster families, enables training of families that don’t meet certain conditions, and contributes to standardized decision-making.

1. Introduction Family foster care (children live with a relative or nonrelative adult foster carer and their family) is assigned an increasingly important role in Flemish (Dutch speaking part of Belgium) youth care (Vanderfaeillie, Damen, Pijnenburg, Van Den Bergh, & Van Holen, 2016). It is the first option of choice for children in need of out-of-home-care (Vanderfaeillie, Van Holen, De Maeyer, Belenger, & Gypen, 2017). A lot is expected from foster parents (De Baat, 2014). First, similar to parents in regular parenting situations, they are expected to offer a safe, stable, loving and stimulating environment in which a child can develop socially, emotionally and intellectually (Orme, Cuddeback, Buehler, Cox, & Le Prohn, 2007). Next, foster parents face additional challenges (Day et al., 2018), such as taking care of a child with its own past and with specific problems (De Baat, 2014), dealing with various complex relationships and roles (Orme et al., 2007), and meeting the specific needs of the foster child (Rhodes, Orme, & McSurdy, 2003). The past of a foster child is often characterized by traumatic experiences such as abuse or neglect (Brown & Calder, 2000; De Baat, 2014; Okma-Rayzner,

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2006). These experiences often result in emotional problems such as anxiety, insecurity, grief and feelings of guilt (Okma-Rayzner, 2006), and can manifest themselves in the form of behavioral and development problems, social problems and educational problems (Brown & Calder, 2000; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Farmer et al., 2001). It is therefore important to select high-quality families who can handle these tasks (De Maeyer, Klingels, Vanderfaeillie, & Van Holen, 2012; Moore, McDonald, & Cronbaugh-Auld, 2016). Foster parents need the skills and abilities to increase the stability of a placement (Crum, 2010). Empirical research showed that the qualities of foster parents contribute to the success of a placement (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Koh, Rolock, Cross, & Eblen-Manning, 2014; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003; Zeijlmans, López, Grietens, & Knorth, 2017). It remains however unclear which specific skills and capacities these are (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012). It is useful to identify those characteristics and competencies (Buehler, Rhodes, Orme, & Cuddeback, 2006; Crum, 2010; Day et al., 2018; Kennedy & Thorpe, 2006; Orme et al., 2004; Shlonsky & Berrick, 2001) because this can contribute to the optimization of the recruitment and screening procedure (Berrick & Skivenes,

Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Van Holen).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.104519 Received 12 August 2019; Received in revised form 26 September 2019; Accepted 26 September 2019 Available online 16 October 2019 0190-7409/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

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Koh et al., 2014; Shklarski, 2019). Furthermore, successful foster parents prove to be sensitive for the background situation of the foster child and its history (Day et al., 2018; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Shklarski, 2019). They are able to look behind the behavior of the foster child (Ter Meulen et al., 2014). In addition, Rowe (1976) noted that successful foster parents are more tolerant when the behavior of the foster child is not in line with their expectations, values and norms. Furthermore, several researchers found that successful foster parents are patient, persevering, psychologically stable, flexible, humorous, tolerant, open-minded, caring, warm, loving and optimistic (Brown, Arnault, George, & Sintzel, 2009; Buehler et al., 2003; Delgado & Pinto, 2011; Kennedy & Thorpe, 2006; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003; Sinclair, Baker, Lee, & Gibbs, 2007; Ter Meulen et al., 2014). Successful foster parents usually use an authoritative parenting style characterized by structure, routine, stability, clear boundaries and rules combined with flexibility, understanding and realistic expectations (Buehler et al., 2003; Crum, 2010; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003; Sinclair et al., 2007). Other characteristics associated with successful foster parenting are good mental and physical health, and sufficient support from the partner, the family and friends (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012; Buehler et al., 2003; Crum, 2010; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Orme et al., 2006; Rhodes et al., 2003; Shklarski, 2019). Furthermore, successful foster parents show empathy, respect and understanding for the birth parents (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012; Geiger, Hayes, & Lietz, 2013), are willing to involve the birth parents in the placement, and help to maintain the relationship between the foster child and his or her family (Butler & Charles, 1999; Day et al., 2018; Koh et al., 2014; Shklarski, 2019; Ter Meulen et al., 2014). Moreover, placements proved to be more successful when foster parents are willing to invest in a good cooperation with transparent communication and a problem-solving attitude (Crum, 2010; Delgado & Pinto, 2011; Sinclair et al., 2007; Ter Meulen et al., 2014). Furthermore, participation in religious or spiritual activities also proved to be a significant indicator of effective foster parenting (Buehler et al., 2003; Henderson & Scannapieco, 2006; Rhodes et al., 2003; Shklarski, 2019). Finally, Brown (2008) highlighted the importance of sufficient financial means to meet basic needs, buy personal items and get access to other resources.

2012; Kennedy & Thorpe, 2006; Orme et al., 2004, 2007), can help to develop a more standardized decision-making procedure (Kennedy & Thorpe, 2006), and can contribute to better training and support for foster families (Crum, 2010; Delgado & Pinto, 2011; Orme et al., 2007). Further research is necessary as there are only few valid and reliable instruments to support these processes (Buehler et al., 2006; De Maeyer et al., 2012; Luke & Sebba, 2013; Orme et al., 2007). This study examined which characteristics according to foster care workers are characteristic for successful foster families. There is a need for a comprehensive understanding of characteristics, skills and abilities of foster families (Day et al., 2018). Research focusing on the view of foster care workers regarding this topic is scarce. What foster care workers consider successful foster parent characteristics becomes even more meaningful taking into account the importance of good cooperation between foster parents and foster care workers for the retention of foster parents (Brown & Calder, 1999; MacGregor, Rodger, Cummings, & Leshied, 2006). Cooperation can be difficult and challenging, and views concerning the role of foster parents diverge frequently (Cooley & Petren, 2011; Rhodes, Orme, Cox, & Buehler, 2003; Shklarski, 2019). Therefore, expectations and views of foster parents and foster care workers must be well matched. However, matching of or reflecting on ideas and views is only possible when the latter are made explicit. This research aims to contribute to this process. First, we discuss findings from the literature. Next, we present our research results using concept mapping (Trochim, 1989). Finally, the implications for practice are discussed. 1.1. Characteristics of successful foster parents Various empirical studies focused on demographic characteristics and to a lesser extent on personal characteristics and competencies of foster parents (Kennedy & Thorpe, 2006). They examined characteristics such as marital status, family income, level of education, profession, socio-economic status and nationality of the foster parents as possible indicators of successful foster parenting (Orme et al., 2004; Rhodes et al., 2003; Rowe, 1976). However, high-quality foster parenting could not be defined exclusively based on demographic characteristics. After all, every foster parent has unique strengths and weaknesses that influence the quality of care (Shlonsky & Berrick, 2001). Buehler et al. (2006) integrated the competencies from different models into one model distinguishing twelve domains: providing a safe and secure environment (freedom from abuse and neglect, home physical safety, neighborhood safety, emotional security), providing a nurturing environment, supporting educational attainment and success, meeting physical and mental healthcare needs, promoting social and emotional development, supporting diversity and children’s cultural needs, supporting permanency planning, managing ambiguity and loss for the foster child and the family, growing as a foster parent, managing the demands of fostering on personal and familial well-being, supporting relationships between children and their families, and working as a team member. In addition to these twelve domains, other characteristics and competencies that are associated with the success of foster care placement were studied. Different researchers found that successful foster parents had a child-oriented motivation (Buehler, Cox, & Cuddeback, 2003; Shklarski, 2019). These foster parents spent a lot of time and effort in fulfilling their duties as foster parents and are satisfied with this (Crum, 2010; Delgado & Pinto, 2011; Koh et al., 2014; Rhodes et al., 2003; Ter Meulen, Vinke, De Baat, & Spoelstra, 2014). They attach great importance to the well-being of the foster child and do their best to meet his/her specific needs (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012; Buehler et al., 2003; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Shklarski, 2019). They try to deal with the emotional and behavioral problems of the foster child as best as they can and are willing to take extra training when the foster child's situation requires it (Day et al., 2018; Kennedy & Thorpe, 2006;

2. Research question This study aimed to find an answer to the following question: “What are the characteristics of a successful foster family according to Flemish foster care workers?” Within the foster care context, foster care workers work most closely with the foster parents (Brown, Anderson, & Rodgers, 2016). Sinclair et al. (2007) showed that foster care workers are very capable in distinguishing between good and bad quality placements. This makes them an interesting source of information for research into the characteristics of successful foster families.

3. Method 3.1. Participants All five Flemish foster care services participated in the study. A foster care service consists of different support teams of on average nine foster care workers under supervision of a team leader. In total, 505 foster care workers in 54 support teams were employed in Flanders at the moment of the study. In each foster care service two support teams were randomly selected to participate in the first phase of this study (see further). All 97 foster care workers of these ten teams participated. Out of the group of 97 foster care workers that participated in the first phase of the study, 50 foster care workers (10 per foster care service) were randomly selected to participate in the second phase of the study (see further). 2

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Fig. 1. Dendrogram: visual representation of the possible clusters in which the statements can be grouped.

2017). Through these analyses, visual representations of the data are constructed (Miller & Jones, 2015). Concept mapping has been used several times in foster care research, inter alia to examine the needs of (specific groups of) foster parents (e.g., Brown, 2008; Brown & Calder, 2000; Brown, Ivanova, Mehta, Skrodzki, & Gerrits, 2013; Van Holen, Trogh, West, Meys, & Vanderfaeillie, 2019; Van Holen, Van Loock, Belenger, & Vanderfaeillie, 2017). The following steps are distinguished in data collection.

3.2. Procedure Concept mapping (Trochim, 1989) was used to answer the research question. Concept mapping is used to create clarity around complex problems and concepts and find consensus in the structure and meaning in a diversity of suggestions, ideas, and beliefs (Nabitz, van Randeraadvan der Zee, Kok, van Bon-Martens, & Severens, 2017). It is a participatory, mixed-method approach using a quantitative fixed statistical algorithm to analyze qualitative data (Brown, 2008; Nabitz et al., 3

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(1) Generating statements to one well-defined question.

4. Results

The 97 foster care workers participating in the first phase of the study anonymously filled in a questionnaire regarding demographic characteristics. Subsequently, they were asked to anonymously answer in writing the question: “What are the characteristics of a successful foster family? Please write down everything that comes to mind, both family characteristics and characteristics of individual family members. There are no wrong answers. Every answer is correct as long it reflects your experience.” All answers were carefully collected by the researchers. At the end, the foster care workers were asked if they were willing to participate in the second phase of the study. All foster care workers were willing to do so.

4.1. Characteristics of the sample The foster care workers who participated in the first part of the study (n = 97) consisted of 8 man (8.2%) and 89 women (91.8%). Their mean age was 39.08 years (SD = 10.7). On average they had 9.5 years of work experience in foster care (SD = 8.83). Most of them (n = 72, 74.2%) had children of their own, 25 (25.8%) were childless. A minority of the participants (n = 9, 9.3%) is or had been foster parent themselves. For the second phase of the study, 10 foster care workers in each service (n = 50) were randomly chosen to participate out of the 97 foster care workers who participated in the first phase of the study. The foster care workers who participated in the second phase did not differ from foster care workers not participating in this phase regarding gender (χ 2 = 0.419, p = .52), age (t(94) = −0.915, p = .36), work experience (t(89.657) = −1.414, p = .16), number of children (t (95) = −0.408, p = .68) and number of foster children (t (79.666) = −1.685, p = .10).

(2) Selecting unique statements. All responses were independently analyzed by three researchers in order to identify unclear or redundant statements. When at least two researchers agreed that statements covered the same idea or statements needed editing, the statement was deleted or changes were made for clarity. All researchers had a master or PhD degree in psychological or educational sciences. They had extensive experience in the use of concept mapping.

4.2. Analysis and interpretation of the data In total, 126 answers were given in the first phase of the study. In order to arrive at a consistent terminology, three researchers independently identified statements they judged covering the same idea or identical. In statements covering the same idea, the researchers mutually agreed upon rephrasing reflecting the meaning of all statements concerned (e.g., “being able to set limits, being able to watch over limits, being creative as a parent, good parenting skills” was rephrased as “good parenting skills”). In case of statements judged to be identical, only one was retained (e.g., from the responses “sharing parenthood” and “not wanting to replace parents”, only the first was retained; from the responses “discrete” and “respecting privacy”, only the first was retained). This resulted in 60 unique statements (see Table 1). Full details including the number of times each statement was mentioned by the foster care workers can be obtained from the first author. The unique statements were classified in a point map using multidimensional scaling. A two dimensional representation had a Kruskal stress index of 0.22 indicating a bad fit and an R2 of 0.79 indicating a reasonable fit between the representation and the original data. A three dimensional configuration on the other hand, with a Kruskal stress index of 0.16 (indicating a reasonable fit) and an R2 of 0.85 (indicating a reasonable fit), showed a better fit. Taking into account the relative distances in the dendrogram (see Fig. 1), as well as the possibility of interpretation of the clusters obtained, and the representation in the point map, it was opted for the eight cluster solution. Because a three-dimensional configuration is difficult to represent two-dimensionally, the point map is presented in three figures, each from a different rotation (see Figs. 2–4). The clustered statements are presented in Table 1. They were ranked in descending order of importance using the mean ratings on the Likert sevenpoint scale. The mean cluster scores range from 4.55 up to 6.01 with standard deviations ranging from 0.22 up to 1.56. Below, each cluster is described.

(3) Structuring and scoring statements. The 50 foster care workers who participated in the second phase of the study were interviewed individually by the fourth author. They were presented the unique statements (each written on a separate card) in random order. The aim was to sort the statements using the following assignment: “Group together the statements that according to you belong to the same theme. Please note that you do not divide all the statements into one group.” Finally, the foster care workers were asked to score each unique answer (in the form of a questionnaire) according to its importance on a Likert seven-point scale (from (1) completely unimportant to (7) very important).

3.3. Data analyses The data were analyzed using multidimensional scaling and hierarchical cluster analysis. Multidimensional scaling results in a point map, which is a visual representation of similarities or differences between statements (Jaworska & Chupetlovska-Anastasova, 2009). The proximity between the points in the map (representing the statements) reflects the number of times participants placed them together in the same group. The more often statements were grouped together, the closer they are to each other on the map (Trochim, 1989). The badnessof-fit between the presentation in the map and the original data is measured by the stress index: indexes greater than 0.20 are bad, from 0.20 to 0.10 reasonable, from 0.10 to 0.05 good, and smaller than or equal to 0.05 excellent (Giguère, 2006). A second indication of the fit of the model is the R-squared (R2) which is considered acceptable if greater than 0.60 (Jaworska & Chupetlovska-Anastasova, 2009). The multidimensional scaling coordinates for each statement (point on the map) are the input for the hierarchical cluster analyses. All possible cluster compositions are presented in a dendrogram (see Fig. 1). The vertical axis of the dendrogram represents all statements and possible clusters; the horizontal axis represents the distance/dissimilarity between the statements and the clusters. The decision regarding the most appropriate number of clusters is based on a best conceptual and statistical fit between the statements and the underlying themes (Brown & Calder, 2000).

Cluster 1 – Willingness to cooperate with all stakeholders (foster care worker and birth parents) The first cluster consists of nine statements that relate to the willingness to cooperate with all stakeholders in general and more specific with the birth parents as well as with the foster care workers. Good foster parents should be able to share parenthood with birth parents, should have insight into the problems of birth parents, and dare to give birth parents new chances. They are willing to work towards reunification and are able to deal with separation from the child. 4

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Table 1 (continued)

Table 1 Clusters, statements, mean ratings (M), and standard deviations (SD). Cluster and statement

M

SD

Cluster 1: willingness to cooperate with all stakeholders (foster care worker and birth parents)

6.01

0.48

55. Signalling: passing along important information to the foster care worker 49. Sharing parenthood 45. Respectful to all concerned 48. To be open to support 46. Being able to cooperate with all concerned 59. Daring to give new chances to birth parents 52. Being able to deal with separation from the child 54. Having insight into problems of birth parents 51. Working towards reunification

6.52

0.61

6.44 6.38 6.34 6.20 6.16 5.44 5.30 5.28

0.68 0.70 0.66 0.67 0.77 1.03 1.11 1.07

Cluster 2: emotional-affective characteristics

5.96

0.40

4. Honest 5. Transparent 2. Empathic 21. Self-reflective 7. Sensitive-responsive 14. Ability to put things into perspective 3. Open-minded 50. Flexible 28. Discrete 6. Authentic 16. Tolerant 23. Communicative 13. Positive

6.60 6.48 6.44 6.34 6.24 5.92 5.84 5.82 5.76 5.60 5.56 5.49 5.36

0.67 0.68 0.68 0.75 0.85 0.80 0.93 0.78 1.04 1.03 0.79 1.12 0.88

Cluster 3: characteristics that are conditions for stability

5.92

0.22

27. 44. 31. 36. 22.

6.30 5.98 5.88 5.70 5.70

0.76 0.87 0.80 0.93 1.07

Cluster 4: a child-oriented motivation supported by the whole family

5.81

0.54

41. 33. 57. 42.

6.62 5.84 5.66 5.10

0.70 1.22 0.87 1.28

Cluster 5: adaptability

5.68

0.40

53. Being able to adjust expectations 60. Daring to pose oneself vulnerable 26. Being able to speak their minds

6.14 5.74 5.16

0.73 1.01 1.08

Cluster 6: social-cognitive characteristics

5.07

0.57

29. Responsible 1. Self-reliant 9. Perseverant 18. Patient 30. Problem solving 25. Alert 24. Observing 8. Social 10. Critical 12. Sense of humour 15. Intelligent 11. Altruistic 19. Calm 17. Modest

6.04 5.70 5.70 5.62 5.42 5.16 5.06 5.00 4.98 4.92 4.66 4.48 4.26 3.98

0.70 0.79 0.91 1.05 0.93 1.00 1.17 0.90 0.89 1.12 1.06 1.17 1.19 1.08

Cluster 7: social and material conditions for foster care

4.72

0.52

32. 35. 38. 37. 39. 34.

5.58 5.26 4.80 4.76 4.76 4.54

1.03 0.99 1.05 1.02 0.85 1.20

Psychological stability Self-care Stable relation with partner Warm family culture Safely attached

Foster care is a well-considered choice of the whole family No adoptive attitude Being competent and willing to organize extra services No distinction between biological children and foster children

Supportive network Enough time Being mobile Enough space Sufficient financial resources Parenting experience

Cluster and statement

M

SD

20. Life experience 43. Administrative skilled

4.16 3.84

1.24 1.04

Cluster 8: good parenthood

4.55

1.56

40. 58. 56. 47.

5.90 5.80 4.46 2.04

0.76 0.90 1.22 1.14

Good parenting skills Insight in the problems of the child Developmental psychological knowledge Consanguinity with the child

Furthermore, they should be respectful and able to cooperate with all concerned, they should be open to support from the agency and pass along important information to their foster care worker. Cluster 2 – Emotional-affective characteristics In cluster two, no less than thirteen emotional-affective characteristics of foster parents are summed up. According to foster care workers, successful foster parents should be honest, transparent, empathic, selfreflective, sensitive-responsive, able to put things into perspective, open-minded, flexible, discrete, authentic, tolerant, communicative, and positive. Cluster 3 – Characteristics that are conditions for stability In this cluster, foster care workers indicate the importance of psychological stability, a safe attachment, and self-care. Furthermore, they point to the necessity of a stable relation with their partner and a warm family culture. Cluster 4 – A child-oriented motivation supported by the whole family In this cluster, foster care workers emphasize the importance of a child-oriented motivation. Therefore, foster parents should not have an adoptive attitude and should be competent and willing to organize extra services if needed. Furthermore, foster care should be a wellconsidered choice of the whole family and no distinction may be made between the foster child and the biological children of the foster family. Cluster 5 – Adaptability The ability to adapt to foster care shows from three statements. According to foster care workers, foster parents should be able to adjust their expectations, to speak their minds and to pose themselves vulnerable. Cluster 6 – Social-cognitive characteristics Foster care workers allocate fourteen social-cognitive characteristics to successful foster parents although they are not all considered equally important. In descending order of importance, the following characteristics were mentioned: foster parents should be responsible, selfreliant, perseverant, patient, problem solving, alert, observing, and social. They should have a sense of humor, be critical, intelligent, altruistic, calm, and modest. Cluster 7 – Social and material conditions for foster care Adequate social and material circumstances refer to the presence of a supportive network, and sufficient time, mobility, space and financial resources. Administrative skills on the other hand are considered less important. Furthermore, successful foster parents need to have parenting and life experience.

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Fig. 2. Concept map of 60 clustered items based on vertical rotation = 193 and horizontal rotation = 18 in SPSS with visual representation of clusters 1, 2, 4, 5 and 6.

Cluster 8 – Good parenthood

expectations of foster families are high, and that the assignment of foster families is multifaceted and complex (e.g., Day et al., 2018; De Baat, 2014; Orme et al., 2007). Moreover, clusters had a high score of importance. The mean differences in importance between the clusters were small. Therefore, we can conclude that foster care workers consider all clusters equally associated with successful foster parenting. It is unclear to what extent foster parents are aware of these high expectations, whether they meet these demands, how case workers deal with foster parents who do not meet all expectations, and how this influences their relationship. Indeed, being recognized for their skills and feeling valued is of great importance for foster parents (Geiger, Piel, Lietz, & Julien-Chinn, 2016). Yet, communicating effectively with caseworkers is often particularly challenging (Shklarski, 2019) and foster parents and caseworkers frequently have divergent views concerning the role of foster parents (Rhodes et al., 2003). Research showed that the presence of disagreement based on different values, beliefs, is associated with negative outcomes for all parties (Brown et al., 2009). Only three individual items were considered not important: consanguinity with the child, administrative skills, and modesty. It is not surprising that foster care workers consider consanguinity with the child unimportant for successful foster parenting. After all, kin- and non-kinship foster care are both fully-fledged foster care forms, each with their advantages and disadvantages (e.g., Vanschoonlandt, Vanderfaeillie, Van Holen, De Maeyer, & Andries, 2012). In contrast to the findings of Buehler et al. (2006), that point to the importance of administrative skills, Flemish foster care workers attach less importance to administrative skills. A possible explication could be differences in care systems that reflect themselves in different needs regarding administrative skills. Administrative support of foster parents is, besides psychological support, part of tasks of Flemish foster care facilities (Vanderfaeillie & Van Holen,

In the final cluster, foster care workers point to the importance of good parenthood referring to developmental psychological knowledge and insight into problems of foster children and the skills to deal with them. Finally, consanguinity with the foster child, in the first round first called a characteristic of a successful foster parent, is not considered important.

5. Discussion It is important to select high-quality foster families who can handle the complex upbringing task in family foster care (e.g., De Maeyer et al., 2012). They must have specific skills and competencies in order to ensure the success of a family foster placement (e.g., Berrick & Skivenes, 2012). This is the first study in Flanders that examined the characteristics of successful foster families according to Flemish foster care workers. The delineation of characteristics that add to the success of a placement can help foster care agencies improve the recruitment, screening, training, and support of foster families. Sixty unique characteristics were identified. Multidimensional scaling and the clustering of these characteristics gave rise, on a scale of decreasing importance, to eight clusters: willingness to cooperate with all stakeholders (foster care worker and birth parents), emotional-affective characteristics, conditions for stability, a child-oriented motivation supported by the whole family, adaptability, social-cognitive characteristics, social and material conditions for foster care, and good parenthood. The large number of characteristics that, according to foster care workers, are associated with successful foster parenting underlines that 6

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Cluster 3

Cluster 8

Fig. 3. Concept map of 60 clustered items based on vertical rotation = 239 and horizontal rotation = 245 in SPSS with visual representation of clusters 3 and 8.

the continuation of the placement (Brown et al., 2016). The importance of the willingness to cooperate with birth parents is also supported in earlier research (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012; Buehler et al., 2006; Day et al., 2018; Geiger et al., 2016; Shklarski, 2019): it is expressed in empathy and respect for birth parents, in being able to share parenting, in the willingness to involve birth parents and to empower the relationship between birth parents and child. Issues regarding cooperation between foster parents and birth parents are reported frequently (e.g., Murray, Tarren-Sweeny, & France, 2011) and are an important reason for the breakdown of foster care placements (e.g., Vanderfaeillie, Goemans, Damen, Van Holen, & Pijnenburg, 2018). The many emotional-affective and social-cognitive characteristics considered associated with successful foster parenting were almost all mentioned in previous research, although sometimes differently named or merged into overarching terminology (e.g., Brown et al., 2009; Buehler et al., 2003; Delgado & Pinto, 2011; Kennedy & Thorpe, 2006; Sinclair et al., 2007; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003; Shklarski, 2019; Ter Meulen et al., 2014). The literature is also largely consistent with the responses of foster care workers related to the characteristics that are conditions for stability such as the necessity for foster parents to have a good partner relationship and a stable and warm family situation (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012; Buehler et al., 2003, 2006; Crum, 2010; De

2018), which may not be the case in other countries. Finally, modesty presumably is considered less important compared to a whole series of other social-cognitive characteristics of foster parents. 5.1. Similarities with former research When we scrutinize all clusters and compare them with the existing literature, it becomes apparent that what Flemish foster care workers considered characteristics of successful foster families is almost similar to findings from other research with different designs. Although sometimes differently named or grouped, almost all characteristics were already mentioned in former research. The cluster given the highest importance, covered the willingness of foster parents to cooperate with both the foster care workers and the birth parents. This is in line with earlier research. A good cooperation with the foster care service, which is expressed in smooth communication, in collaboration with permanency planning, and in working as a team member, is important for the success of the foster care placement (Brown & Calder, 2000; Buehler et al., 2006; Crum, 2010; Delgado & Pinto, 2011; Geiger et al., 2016; Shklarski, 2019; Sinclair et al., 2007; Ter Meulen et al., 2014). A good relationship with the foster care worker also contributes to the satisfaction of the foster parents and to 7

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Cluster 7

Fig. 4. Concept map of 60 clustered items based on vertical rotation = 12 and horizontal rotation = 331 in SPSS with visual representation of cluster 7.

et al., 2014).

Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Orme et al., 2006; Rhodes et al., 2003; Shklarski, 2019), as well as for the need to practice self-care as a perquisite for successful fostering (Brown, Moraes, & Mayhew, 2005; Shklarski, 2019). The literature also includes references to the importance of a child-oriented motivation that is supported by the whole family and the willingness to organize extra services if needed (Buehler et al., 2003, 2006; Shklarski, 2019). Foster parents must attend effects that fostering might have on their own children (Buehler et al., 2006). A personal oriented motivation such as an adoptive attitude on the other hand, is not a good motivation to foster (Buehler et al., 2003). Adaptability is another characteristic that is considered to be associated with successful foster parenting. Indeed, expectations of foster parents do not always come thru. Successful foster parents were more tolerant for such discrepancies and were abler to adjust their expectations (Brown et al., 2009; Buehler et al., 2003; Crum, 2010; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Rowe, 1976; Shklarski, 2019; Sinclair & Wilson, 2003; Sinclair et al., 2007). Social and material conditions for foster care are also mentioned in foster care research, albeit not always in the same formulation. Some researchers (Brown, 2008; Geiger et al., 2016) distinguished the presence of a supportive network into different types of support, such as a supportive family (partner, family), networks of foster families, and community support (e.g., friends, agencies, church). As part of community support, Brown (2008) also points to other material conditions such as sufficient financial means. Finally, much agreement exists in literature regarding the importance of good parenthood in foster families. Among other things, researchers point to the importance of authoritative parenting, developmental psychological knowledge, the acceptance of the child’s past, offering a caring environment, and the ability to adapt parenting skills to the needs and requirements of the child (Berrick & Skivenes, 2012; Buehler et al., 2006; De Baat & Bartelink, 2012; Orme et al., 2006; Rhodes et al., 2003; Ter Meulen

5.2. Differences with former research Characteristics that were not mentioned by foster care workers but were cited in previous studies relate to the willingness and ability of foster parents to promote the development of foster children’s cultural identity and to meet their cultural needs (Brown et al., 2009; Buehler et al., 2006), and to the importance of faith or support from church (Buehler et al., 2003; Shklarski, 2019). The fact that foster care workers didn’t mention the importance of promoting the development of the children’s cultural identity and to meet their cultural needs is surprising. On the one hand, this could be explained by the low number of cross-cultural placements in Flanders (Van Holen, Trogh, Carlier, & Vanderfaeillie, 2016). On the other hand, due to the refugee crisis, this number is not only increasing, it recently resulted in special projects to arrange and support foster care for unaccompanied minor refugees in foster families with the same cultural background (mostly kinship care), as well as in non-kinship foster families (mostly from Caucasian ethnicity), and in training-sessions for foster parents and foster care workers concerning the fostering of a child of a different race or culture (Pleegzorg Vlaanderen, 2018). Furthermore, Flemish foster parents from Caucasian ethnicity who take care of refugee minors explicitly mentioned the need for information and support in understanding their cultural and religious background and needs (Van Holen et al., 2019). Foster care workers in our study did point to the importance of a supportive network, but didn’t explicitly link it to the participation in religious communities. We see two possible explanations. (1) This might be the consequence of cultural differences. Perhaps church communities are less embedded and play a less important role in 8

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parties such as the foster parents, the birth parents and the foster children could provide additional information to include into the foster family profile. Yet, our data are based on perceptions and not on actual outcomes. Therefore, a next essential step is to examine which (set of) characteristics effectively contribute to successful outcomes. For this, the characteristics should be operationalized, and associations with outcome measures such as placement stability, permanency, well-being and breakdown of foster care placements should be examined, preferably in a longitudinal research design. Additional research is required to determine if the characteristics that support positive outcomes can be trained or if it is critical for foster parents to possess them before becoming a foster parent (Day et al., 2018). Future research could also identify characteristics that should be targeted for specific populations of foster children such as adolescents, children with disabilities, unaccompanied minors, etc.

Flanders compared to the US. (2) In the studies of Buehler et al. (2003) and Shklarski (2019) faith and support from the church was mentioned by foster carers themselves. Possibly, foster care workers in our study overlooked the importance of this issue. 5.3. Implications for practice Identification of characteristics that are associated with successful foster parenting can contribute to the development of a foster family profile that can be used as a basis for the recruitment and screening of aspirant foster parents. A list of characteristics would help caseworkers to recruit foster families with desired specific characteristics in a more targeted way. Selecting foster parents coming up to this profile enhances the likelihood of screening high quality foster families. However, foster care services should be careful not to be trapped by a ‘super family’ paradigm (Buehler et al., 2006). Many good families will not have all desirable characteristics and therefore will not meet all high expectations. Therefore, such a profile can also be used as an instrument to identify training needs of families not meeting some (necessary) conditions. Furthermore, a distinction between minimum and desired standards should be made. However, limited training is available for foster parents (Day et al., 2018). Evidence base for a wide range of approaches is very limited (Dorsey et al., 2008). Most training focusses on helping potential foster parents assess whether they want to become a foster parent and do not focus on skill development to prepare them for the demands associated with fostering a child (Cooley & Petren, 2011; Dorsey et al., 2008). Teaching foster parents to recognize and utilize inherent strengths during training situations may improve feelings of competence and prepare them to transfer skills to real life situations (Cooley & Petren, 2011). Finally, a foster family profile should contribute to standardized decision-making in the screening of foster families, as well as to the matching of a specific child with its individual needs to the most appropriate foster family.

6. Conclusion An important task for foster care services is to recruit, screen and train high-quality foster parents. Insight into characteristics of successful foster parents can help in optimizing recruitment procedures and training programs. Until now opinions of foster care workers were almost absent in the debate regarding the required characteristics. This research aimed at filling this knowledge gap. Although sometimes differently grouped or named, the characteristics that according to foster care workers are associated with successful foster parenting, were almost entirely in line with findings from earlier research. Eight clusters of high quality foster families were identified: willingness to cooperate with all stakeholders (foster care worker and birth parents), emotionalaffective characteristics, characteristics that are conditions for stability, a child-oriented motivation supported by the whole family, adaptability, social-cognitive characteristics, social and material circumstances that are conditions for foster care, and good parenthood. Identification of parents with these characteristics can probably contribute to the strengthening of foster care as a child welfare intervention.

5.4. Limitations Concept mapping is an explorative method with a number of limitations. First, the research question is very broad which results in broad responses. Second, it remains unclear whether the judgement of the individual statements is always based on personal experiences of foster care workers or on common stereotypes. Third, regardless of how carefully the decision regarding the number of clusters is taken, it remains an arbitrary decision that determines the abstraction level of the interpretation of the results. Moreover, solutions on real data sets are always open to the criticism that the “true” structure has not been found (Revelle, 1979). Furthermore, the actual research did not examine if the identified characteristics were empirically associated with (more) successful placements. Therefore, it should be considered only a first step at identifying what foster care workers considered characteristics of successful foster families. Another drawback was that a convenient sample of foster care workers participated in each phase of the study. Therefore, it is not known whether the ideas of the response group are representative. Another sample could have identified or rated characteristics differently. Non-respondents might have different ideas about what makes successful foster families, which might have produced additional data, and thus altered the data structure. Consequently, caution is advised in generalizing the results. For validity, the study could be replicated using the same question with a different group of foster care workers (Miller et al., 2017).

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