- Email: [email protected]
Community-tourism ties
Annals o/%msm l&search, Vol. 16, pp. 504-513, Printed in the USA. All rights reserved.
1989 Copyright
0160-7383/89 $3.00 + .OO @ 1989 Pergamon Press plc and J. Jafari
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
TIES Wesley S. Roehl
University
of Nevada,
Las Vegas,
USA
Robert B. Ditton Texas
A&M
University,
USA
Daniel R. Fesenmaier Indiana
University,
USA
Abstract: Many small tourism firms lack the resources to create consumer
awareness and must depend upon other organizations to provide consumer information. In order to examine this relationship, consumer information on charter and head boat fishing opportunities was requested from coastal chambers of commerce and tourism bureaus in Texas. Analysis of these materials indicated that responding and nonresponding organizations could not be differentiated using measures of local tourism economic importance and that some of the communities most dependent on tourism were not portrayed as attractive destinations. An area-wide strategy rather than a focus on a single community was suggested to increase attractiveness. Keywords: tourism development, consumer awareness, information, image, sport fishing. Resume: Liens communautaires et touristiques. Beaucoup de petites entreprises touristiques manquent de ressources pour sensibiliser les consommateurs et doivent se fier B d’autres organisations pour fournir des renseignements aux consommateurs. Aiin d’examiner les liens entre les petites entreprises et ces autres organisations, on a demand& aux syndicats d’initiative des regions &i&es du Texas des renseignements sur la p&he h bord des bateaux charter et a billet individuel. Une analyse de ces materiaux a indique qu’on ne peut pas differencier ces organisations, qu’ils aient rtpondu ou non, selon l’importance tconomique du tourisme local et que quelques-unes des localites qui dipendaient le plus du tourisme n’Ctaient pas rep&en&es comme des destinations attrayantes. On suggere une stratigie regionale plut8t que localiste pour attirer plus de touristes. Mots cl&: developpement du tourisme, conscience des consommateurs, renseignements, p&he sportive.
INTRODUCTION Previous studies of tourism development stress the need to adopt a systems approach. For example, in his “tourism functional system” Gunn (1979) illustrated the dynamic relationship among tourists, atWesley Roebl is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Hospitality Administration and Tourism, College of Hotel Administration, University of Nevada, Las Vegas (Las Vegas NV 89 154-6013, USA). Robert Ditton is a Professor in the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Science at Texas A&M University. Daniel Fesenmaier is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Recreation and Park Administration at Indiana University. 504
ROEHL, DITTON, AND FESENMAIER
505
tractions, and infrastructure. Similarly, Murphy (1985) argued that a systems perspective is necessary to achieve an ecological approach to tourism as a community-based industry. Nevertheless, the tourism industry is highly fragmented (Gunn 1985; Richter 1985) which has led to destructive competition, isolated development, a lack of political influence, and, perhaps most importantly, a lack of consumer information about the broad range of available tourism opportunities and services (US Senate 1977). As noted by Gunn (1979: 145) “one of the weakest links in all tourism is that of imparting information.” If a consumer is unaware of an attraction, the likelihood of visiting that attraction is small. Typically, the tourism industry consists of many small businesses with limited financial resources that often lack the necessary skills to make potential consumers aware of their services (PNR and Associates 1985). Other information sources within the community (e.g., chambers of commerce and tourism and convention bureaus), are good options to provide the information that small tourism businesses cannot. The continued economic health of many small tourism businesses may depend on the degree to which tourism operators have formal and informal ties with, and have proved their economic worth to, their surrounding community. The purpose of this paper is to examine the degree of inter-dependence between community information sources and one component of the tourism industry: charter and head boat fishing operators along the Texas Gulf Coast. This case study illustrates the nature of current relationships between communities and tourism attractions and suggests how such relationships can be improved.
THE
CHARTER
AND
HEAD
BOAT
INDUSTRY
Marine recreational fishing is a significant attraction in the coastal tourism system. In 1980, there were an estimated 12.3 million recreational saltwater anglers in the United States (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1982) contributing to saltwater fishing associated retail sales of nearly $4 billion (Sport Fishing Institute 1983). Commercial sportfishing vessels are an important component of this tourism subsystem. In 1980, it was estimated there were 3,952 head and charter boats in the United States with retail sales of $149 million (Sport Fishing Institute 1983). Charter boats are available for hire at a set rate per trip and usually carry six or fewer anglers. Head (or party) boats, on the other hand, charge trip fees on a per person basis and usually carry more than six anglers. As an attraction, the charter and head boat industry does not appear to be well-integrated into a systems framework. Although many economic studies have documented the demand created by consumers of charter and head boat services for lodging, food, fuel, and other supplies (Ditton, Jarmen and Woods 1978; Falk, Graefe, Alkire and Swartz 1983; Marshall and Lucy 1981), the provision of these ancillary services is often problematic. For example, in one study consumers complained that “lodging is very poor, is too far from the docks, and there is not enough available” (Mertens 1977).
506
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
TIES
Modest returns on investment, strong seasonal demand, and a lack of profit orientation in some operators create instability and high turnover in the industry. Ditton and Loomis (1985) documented that between 1975 and 1980, turnover in the Texas charter boat fleet exceeded the national average for small business failures. Only 25% of the Texas charter boat fleet active in 1975 were still in business in 1985 (Ditton and Vize 1987). Instability in the provision of these services could dampen future demand if consumers interested in entering the market cannot find experienced operators. Furthermore, the effective organization of operators as a constituency group is hindered by the observed high turnover and competition within each port area. Contributing to these problems is the failure of the industry to be recognized for its economic contribution and its lack of recognition as an integral part of tourism (PNR and Associates 1985). The integration of the marine recreational fishing industry with hotels, motels, chambers of commerce, travel planners, and local and regional businesses is necessary to industry stability. Unfortunately, the evidence suggests that in many locations these networks or linkages with surrounding communities are poorly developed (PNR and Associates 1985). This absence of recognition is due, in part, to a lack of understanding by the broader business community of charter and head boat operators and their economic impact in a community. Contributing to this lack of understanding may be the failure of charter and head boat operators to join local business oriented organizations. For example, Ditton, Jarmen and Woods (1978) reported that only 11 of the 41 operators interviewed on the Texas coast belonged to their local chamber of commerce. Charter and head boat operators have begun to recognize their lack of integration into the broader tourism industry. For example, when asked if they felt their efforts were appreciated as part of tourism, 64% of Lake Michigan charter operators in Wisconsin replied negatively (Link, Grey and Miller 1985). S’rmi 1ar attitudes were reported by a sample of charter operators in Alaska (Coughenower 1986). The realization that their efforts are not recognized by other sectors of their community may mark the first step in the integration of charter and head boat businesses into tourism. METHOD In the Fall of 1985, an exploratory study was conducted of the linkages between Texas coastal communities and the charter and head boat businesses located there. The goal of the study was to evaluate the provision of consumer information about charter and head boat services. This was accomplished through four stages. First, chambers of commerce and convention and tourism bureaus representing communities along the Texas coast were identified (East Texas Chamber of Commerce 1984; Texas Tourism Development Agency 1985). Th ese organizations, which represent community business interests and frequently serve as sources of consumer information, provided a representative example of linkage between operators and local communities. Geographically, these organizations represented all
507
ROEHL, DITTON, AND FESENMAIER
the urban areas near the Texas Gulf coast. The areas served by these organizations account for nearly all the coastal economic activity in Texas. Second, information was requested by mail from the identified organizations. Requests were made in a “disguised” and unofficial manner to identify the type of information available to the typical consumer. Letters were written on personal stationery and a residential return address was given. This approach has been used previously for gauging informational linkages in the charter and head boat industry (PNR and Associates 1985). Third, data were collected to measure community dependence on tourism. Without knowing the role played by tourism in general, and coastal tourism in particular, in an area’s economy, it was impossible to put the response of an organization representing that area into perspective. Two measures were derived from secondary sources to serve as indicators of an area’s economic dependence on tourism. Three other variables described the availability of facilities and services important to coastal tourism (Table 1). The 1982 Economic Census (US Bureau of the Census 1982a, 1982b) provided two measures of the economic importance of tourism to a community. One measure was the percentage of total service receipts coming from two tourism-related industrial classifications: hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments and eating and drinking establishments (Standard Industrial Classification 70 and 58, respectively). The total number of hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments, amusement firms, and eating and drinking establishments per one thousand residents was the other (Standard Industrial Classification 70, 78 and 79 and 58, respectively). Three additional measures were used to describe the importance of coastal tourism to an area: the number of marinas, saltwater fishing tournaments hosted, and charter and head boats operating in 1980. Data on these contextual indicators were collected for the implied area of concern of each organization. For example, if an organization represented an entire county, county level figures were used. Similarly, if a single city was represented, data at the city level were used. Additionally, the materials received in response to the request for information from the various organizations were evaluated in a number of
Table 1. Variables Used to Describe the Economic Importance of Tourism to Coastal Areas in Texas Variable Number of tourism-related
Meall
Median
Std. Dev.
Minimum
M&IllUIIl
firms 6.33
2.73
2.47
1.28
1.00
Hotel, eating. and drinking place recei ts divided by total service firm receipts P
0.24
0.18
0.20
0.02
0.79
Number of marinasb
3.36
2.00
4.17
0.00
14.00
2.09
1.00
3.01
0.00
13.00
4.09
0.00
7.66
0.00
27.00
per 1000 resident@
Number of saltwater Number of charter
fishing tournamentsc and head boats in
mod
Source: la) ITS Bureau of the Census 198%. Mathewsik and Ditton 1981.
1982b; (bl Hollin 1986: (c) Christian
and Trimm 1986; and(d)
508
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
TIES
ways. Response time was measured in days. The total number of charter and head boat operators listed in the materials received was summed. Furthermore, the ratio of operators in the organization’s home community to the total number of operators mentioned in the materials was derived. A ratio approaching unity indicated that few operators from outside the organization’s home area had been included in the informational materials. A smaller ratio indicated that operators were listed from both within the community and other nearby towns. The materials were also characterized by the image they portrayed of the destination. A panel of six judges examined the materials received from each of the promotional organizations. The judges were asked to evaluate the destination based solely on the materials. The portrayed image of the destination was rated on seven-point scales along two dimensions: orientation to saltwater fishing and overall attractiveness as a vacation destination. The reliability of each of these ratings was estimated using ANOVA techniques (Hoyt 1951; Kerlinger 1973:445-455). The reliability of the perceived attractiveness scale was 0.84. Ratings of saltwater fishing orientation had a reliability of 0.92. Both of these reliability coefficients are of reasonable magnitude; variation in the rating of attractiveness and saltwater fishing orientation was primarily a function of the materials evaluated, rather than judges’ bias. Mean ratings were then used to represent the materials of the responding organizations. RESULTS Analysis of the requested informational materials involved three steps. First, descriptive characteristics of the materials were reported (Table 2). Second, systematic differences in the economic context of responding and nonresponding organizations were investigated. Final-
Table 2. Descriptive Characteristics of Texas Coastal Information Response to the Request for Information Variablea Organization’s
response
Total number of charter boat operators listed
time in days
Minimum
Sources
Mean
Median
Std. Dev.
8.90
6.OlJ
9.90
3.00
Maxinlunl 46.00
7.00
6.00
7.10
0.00
28.00
and head
Ratio of operators in organization’s home community to total operators listed
0.60
0.76
0.46
0.00
1.00
Saltwater
3.42
3.26
1.47
1.00
6.83
3.40
3.60
1.22
1.00
6.33
fishing
Attractiveness
orientationh as B vacation
destinationC
a All variables created by authors. h Saltwater fishing orientation judged on a 7 point scale where: l.=no orientation at all to swf: Z=weak orientation to swf; 3=some orientation to swf but less than the “average” destination; I=ebout as strongly oriented to awf as the “average” destination: b=strongly oriented to swf. more than the sversge destination: B=very strongly swf oriented, little mention of anything else: and ‘I=completely oriented to swf. C Attractiveness as a vacation destination judged on a 7 point scale where: l=not at all attractive: Z=much Ias attractive than the “average” destination; 3=slightly less attractive than the “average” destination; 4=about as attractive a8 the “average” destination; b=slightly more attractive than the “average” destination: B=much more attractive than the ‘average” destination: and 7=very attractive. close to being the ideal destination.
ROEHL, DITTON,
AND FESENMAIER
509
ly, for those organizations that responded to the request for informational materials, a more detailed examination of economic context and characteristics of the response was conducted. A variety of materials were received from the various organizations in response to the request for information. These materials ranged from professional quality, multicolor brochures to poorly mimeographed or photocopied lists of names. After 45 days, materials had been received from 17 of the 23 contacted organizations. Response time varied from 3 to 45 days, with a mean response time of 8.9 days. The average number of charter and head boat operators listed in the informational materials was 7. The most operators listed by an organization was 28. Some organizations provided materials that did not mention any operators. The ratio of home community operators to total operators ranged from 0.0 to 1.0, with a mean of 0.50. Community attractiveness ratings ranged from 1.0 to 5.33, with a mean attractiveness of 3.40. Saltwater fishing orientation ratings ranged from 1.0 to 5.83, with a mean of 3.42. In order to evaluate nonresponse bias, logistic regression was used to investigate any systematic differences between the 17 responding and 6 nonresponding organizations. Logistic regression, rather than discriminate analysis, was used because it is less affected when the data set is not multivariate normal in its distribution (Press and Wilson 1978). Response was modeled as a function of the five economic context variables. Using a stepwise variable selection procedure (Harrell 1983), none of the five economic context variables was useful in discriminating between responding and nonresponding organizations. Testing the hypothesis that all regression parameters were zero resulted in a chisquare value of 2.93 with 5 degrees of freedom, which was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. An examination of the areas represented by responding and nonresponding organizations supports these statistical findings. Respondents included organizations representing Houston and Port Arthur, diversified economies not dependent on tourism, and South Padre Island and Port O’Connor, smaller economies dependent on tourism. Conversely, nonrespondents represented economies where tourism plays a minor role and those heavily dependant on tourism. Interestingly, response was not influenced by whether an organization represented a county or a city. Furthermore, whether or not an organization responded to the request for information, and the characteristics of the response materials from those organizations that did respond, were independent of the population in the area represented by the organization. When population size was correlated with the presence or absence of a response and the five variables used to characterize the response materials, the Pearson Correlation Coefficients were not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. The presence or absence of a response from an organization provides a crude indication of ties between a community and the charter and head boat industry. In order to identify other relevant relationships between the economic context of an area and the type of organizational response, factor analysis was used. Specifically, a principal factor anal-
510
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
TIES
ysis (Harman 1976: 135-141) with a varimax rotation was applied to the economic and response characteristic variables of the seventeen responding organizations. A two-factor solution accounted for 60% of the variance (Table 3). The first factor accounted for 31% of the variance and reflected a relationship among variables measuring the size of the charter and head boat fleet, infrastructure, the ratio of local to total operators listed in the materials, and the portrayed community image. This suggests that destinations with many charter and head boats and enough infrastructure (such as marinas) tend to list primarily local operators and also appear as attractive destinations as represented by their promotional literature. The second factor accounted for 29% of the variance and described a different situation. Loading highly were variables that measured the importance of tourism to the local economy, the ratio of local to total operators listed in the promotional material, and the portrayed attractiveness of the destination. However, attractiveness loaded negatively on this factor. This result indicates that the promotional materials from those communities most dependent on tourism primarily list local operators and do not portray an attractive image of the destination. DISCUSSION This study found a considerable degree of information linkage between coastal communities and the charter and head boat industry in Texas. A majority (almost 74%) of the contacted organizations provided the requested information. The accuracy of the information provided by the various organizations appeared to be high. For example, the number of operators listed in the materials correlated highly (.80) with the derived fleet size in 1980. The results indicate that it was not possible to differentiate statistically between responding and nonresponding organizations using measures of local tourism importance. The nonresponding organizations despite its real economic impormay represent communities where, tance, the charter and head boat industry has yet to demonstrate its worth. Operators in these locales may need to establish their economic
Table 3. Factor Analysis of Economic Context and Organization Response Variables for Texas Coastal Tourism Information Sources
Factor
Variable Total boats listed Number of marinas Total boats 1080 Number of saltwater fishing tournaments Hotel. eating. and drinking receipts rlivided by total service receipts Tourism firms per 1000 residents Ratio of home community to total listed operators Response time Saltwater fishing orientation Attractiveness as vacation destination Variation a Loadings
accounted
IPSS than 0.333 in absolute
value have been deleted.
Factor
X2a
.X98
.487 ,498 .MO 31.0%
for
#Ia
.020 ,872 .7GI .77h .8G3 .70D -.403 20.0%
O.HGS 0.7x7 KG4 0.817
I
O.GfX “.H (1.740 ‘,.MM ,I.249 0.476
IO
-_
ROEHL,
DITTON, AND FESENMAIER
511
importance to, and forge closer ties with, their local business community. If operators in these communities joined their local chamber of commerce, this might be a first step in the creation of closer industrybusiness community ties. Additionally, population size did not appear to be directly related to either response to the request for information or the characteristics of the material provided by responding organizations. However, the effect of population size may be more subtle. Organizations representing large communities may have more options. Charter and head boat businesses, or the saltwater fishing industry in general, may represent but one potential route to economic success. Larger communities, and the organizations promoting these communities, can choose what “business” they are in. If they choose to concentrate on charter and head boats, they can do a good job of presenting themselves as an attractive destination. Smaller communities may find themselves in a more difficult situation; they have fewer feasible alternatives for economic development and fewer resources with which to promote those resources. Perhaps the most important conclusion that can be drawn from this study comes from the factor analysis of economic context and response characteristic variables. The extracted factors emphasize the importance of portrayed community image. It is well-documented that the image of an activity or destination is an extremely important component in consumer recreational decision making (Hunt 1975; La Page and Cormier 1977). Apparently, communities in Texas with large charter and head boat fleets have also been able to create a favorable image as an overall vacation destination. An attractive image and a large fleet both may result from these communities’ developed infrastructure. If this is so, it emphasizes Gunn’s (1985) point that attractions cannot successfully stand alone. However, communities most dependent on tourism have a less positive image as destinations as represented by their own promotional literature. These are often the smaller, geographically isolated communities with fewer alternatives for economic development (Ditton, Jarmen, Mertens, Schwartz and Woods 1977). The development of a diversified tourism infrastructure within each of these communities may be an unreasonable goal, given their small size, isolation, the cost of development, and social costs of altering an established way of life. Evidence exists, however, that unproductive images in tourism can be improved (Perry, Izraeli and Perry 1976). One useful approach is suggested by the data. Organizations representing communities highly dependent on tourism tend to list only charter and head boat operators within the community. This exclusion of outsiders may extend to nearby attractions and service centers as well. If the area, rather than one community, was presented to potential consumers, its overall attractiveness as a vacation destination would no doubt be enhanced. Organizations providing information to consumers about these areas could present the coastal region as a whole rather than supply information about a single community. This regional approach to information provision could include tourism attractions beyond charter and head boat businesses. By giving attention to the total
512
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
TIES
tourism product, it may prove possible to increase the perceived attractiveness of the area as a vacation destination. Although all profits from this approach would not accrue within any one community, long-term regional economic viability might increase. Of equal importance, the costs associated with development, both social and economic, would also be shared. 00 Acknowledgemmts - Much of the data used in this paper was collected the Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program.
with support
from
REFERENCES Christian, R. T., and D. L. Trimm 1986 An Inventory of Texas Saltwater Fishing Tournaments: Spatial, Temporal and Participation Patterns in 1983. Austin TX: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Data Management Series Number 97. Coughenower, D. D. 1986 Homer, Alaska Charter Fishing Industry Study. Alaska Sea Grant College Program. Marine Advisory Bulletin No. 22, Fairbanks. Ditton, R. B., and D. K. Loomis 1985 Examining Business Turnover in the Texas Charter Boat Fishing Industry: 1975-1980. Marine Fisheries Review 47(1):43-47. Ditton, R. B., R. N. Jarmen, and S. A. Woo’ds 1978 An Analysis of the Charter Boat Fishing Industry on the Texas Gulf Coast. Marine Fisheries Review 40(8): 1-7. Ditton, R. B., R. N. Jarmen, T. J. Mertens, M. P. Schwartz, and S. A. Woods 1977 Charter Fishing on the Texas Coast. Unpublished Technical Report submitted to the Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program, 186 pp. Ditton, R. B., and J. D. Vize 1987 Business Turnover in the Texas Charter Fishing Industry: Revisited. Marine Fisheries Review 49(2): 162-165. East Texas Chamber of Commerce 1984 Directorv of Chambers of Commerce in Texas. Loneview TX: East Texas Chamber ofCommerce. Falk, J. M., A. R. Graefe, C. Alkire, and D. Swartz 1983 1982 Head/Charter-Boat Fishing in Delaware: An Analysis of Customers and Their Economic Impact. University of Delaware Sea Grant College Program (NA80AA-D-00106), Newark DE. Gunn, C. A. 1979 Tourism Planning. New York: Crane Russak. 1985 Viewpoint. Getting Ready for Megatrends in Travel Attractions. Tourism Management 6(2):133-141. Harman, H. H. 1976 Modern Factor Analysis. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Harrell, F. E. 1983 The LOGIST Procedure. In SUGI Supplemental Library User’s Guide, S. J. o er ed. Cary NC: SAS Institute. Ho~~&,~D: 1985 Directory of Texas Gulf Coast Marinas and Freshwater Marinas (second edition). Texas A&M University College Sea Grant Program (TAMU-SG-81-502), College Station TX. Hoyt, C. 1941 Test Reliability Obtained by Analysis of Variance. Psychometrika 6: 153-160. Hunt, J. D. 1975 Image as a Factor in Tourism Development. Journal of Travel Research 13(3): l-7. Kerlinger, F. N. 1973 Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
ROEHL,
DIT-ION,
AND FESENMAIER
513
La Page, W. F., and P. L. Cormier of Travel Research 1977 Image of CampingBarriers to Participation. Journal 15(4):21-25. Link, D., J. Grey, and A. Miller 1985 1982 Charter Boat Operator Study. Wisconsin Sea Grant College Program (WIS-SG-85-427), Madison WI. Marshall, A. R., and J. A. Lucy 1981 Virginia’s Charter and Head Boat Fishery: Analysis of Catch and Socioeconomic Impacts. Special Report in Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering No. 253. Virginia Sea Grant Program, Virginia Institute of Marine Resources, College of William & Mary, Gloucester Point VA. Mathewsik, R. E. M., and R. B. Ditton 1981 A Listing of Charter and Party Boats Operating from Texas Ports. Unpublish24 pp. Department of Recreation and Parks, Texas A&M ed document, University. Mertens, T. J. 1977 Charter Boat Fisherman on the Texas Coast. Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program. (TAMU-SG-79-603) College Station TX. Murphy, P. E. 1985 Tourism: A Community Approach. New York: Methuen. Perry, M., D. Izraeli, and A. Perry 1976 Image Change as the Result of Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research 6(1):45-50. PNR and Associates 1985 Marketing Strategies for the Northeast Region Party Boat, Charter Boat and Rental Fishing Boat Industry. NMFS contract #NA-84-FA-D-00002. Elkins Park PA: PNR and Associates. Inc. Press, S. J., and S. Wilson 1978 Choosing Between Logistic Regression and Discriminant Analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association 73(364):699-705. Richter, L. K. 1985 Fragmented Politics of US Tourism. Tourism Management 6(3):162-173. \ , Sport FishiGg Institute 1983 Economic Activity Associated with Marine Recreational Fishing in 1980. Report prepared for the National Marine Fisheries Service. Washington DC: Sport Fishing Institute. Texas Tourism Development Agency 1985 Pre-registration List, 20th Annual Texas Conference on Tourism Development. Holiday Inn Downtown, El Paso. US Bureau of the Census 1982a Census of Retailing. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. 198213 Census of Service Industries. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. US Fish and Wildlife Service 1982 1980 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. US Senate 1977 National Tourism Policy Study, Ascertainment Phase. US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. Submitted 17 December 1987 Revised version submitted 17 January Accepted 29 January 1989 Final version submitted 7 April 1989 Refereed anonymously
1989
1989 Copyright
0160-7383/89 $3.00 + .OO @ 1989 Pergamon Press plc and J. Jafari
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
TIES Wesley S. Roehl
University
of Nevada,
Las Vegas,
USA
Robert B. Ditton Texas
A&M
University,
USA
Daniel R. Fesenmaier Indiana
University,
USA
Abstract: Many small tourism firms lack the resources to create consumer
awareness and must depend upon other organizations to provide consumer information. In order to examine this relationship, consumer information on charter and head boat fishing opportunities was requested from coastal chambers of commerce and tourism bureaus in Texas. Analysis of these materials indicated that responding and nonresponding organizations could not be differentiated using measures of local tourism economic importance and that some of the communities most dependent on tourism were not portrayed as attractive destinations. An area-wide strategy rather than a focus on a single community was suggested to increase attractiveness. Keywords: tourism development, consumer awareness, information, image, sport fishing. Resume: Liens communautaires et touristiques. Beaucoup de petites entreprises touristiques manquent de ressources pour sensibiliser les consommateurs et doivent se fier B d’autres organisations pour fournir des renseignements aux consommateurs. Aiin d’examiner les liens entre les petites entreprises et ces autres organisations, on a demand& aux syndicats d’initiative des regions &i&es du Texas des renseignements sur la p&he h bord des bateaux charter et a billet individuel. Une analyse de ces materiaux a indique qu’on ne peut pas differencier ces organisations, qu’ils aient rtpondu ou non, selon l’importance tconomique du tourisme local et que quelques-unes des localites qui dipendaient le plus du tourisme n’Ctaient pas rep&en&es comme des destinations attrayantes. On suggere une stratigie regionale plut8t que localiste pour attirer plus de touristes. Mots cl&: developpement du tourisme, conscience des consommateurs, renseignements, p&he sportive.
INTRODUCTION Previous studies of tourism development stress the need to adopt a systems approach. For example, in his “tourism functional system” Gunn (1979) illustrated the dynamic relationship among tourists, atWesley Roebl is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Hospitality Administration and Tourism, College of Hotel Administration, University of Nevada, Las Vegas (Las Vegas NV 89 154-6013, USA). Robert Ditton is a Professor in the Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Science at Texas A&M University. Daniel Fesenmaier is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Recreation and Park Administration at Indiana University. 504
ROEHL, DITTON, AND FESENMAIER
505
tractions, and infrastructure. Similarly, Murphy (1985) argued that a systems perspective is necessary to achieve an ecological approach to tourism as a community-based industry. Nevertheless, the tourism industry is highly fragmented (Gunn 1985; Richter 1985) which has led to destructive competition, isolated development, a lack of political influence, and, perhaps most importantly, a lack of consumer information about the broad range of available tourism opportunities and services (US Senate 1977). As noted by Gunn (1979: 145) “one of the weakest links in all tourism is that of imparting information.” If a consumer is unaware of an attraction, the likelihood of visiting that attraction is small. Typically, the tourism industry consists of many small businesses with limited financial resources that often lack the necessary skills to make potential consumers aware of their services (PNR and Associates 1985). Other information sources within the community (e.g., chambers of commerce and tourism and convention bureaus), are good options to provide the information that small tourism businesses cannot. The continued economic health of many small tourism businesses may depend on the degree to which tourism operators have formal and informal ties with, and have proved their economic worth to, their surrounding community. The purpose of this paper is to examine the degree of inter-dependence between community information sources and one component of the tourism industry: charter and head boat fishing operators along the Texas Gulf Coast. This case study illustrates the nature of current relationships between communities and tourism attractions and suggests how such relationships can be improved.
THE
CHARTER
AND
HEAD
BOAT
INDUSTRY
Marine recreational fishing is a significant attraction in the coastal tourism system. In 1980, there were an estimated 12.3 million recreational saltwater anglers in the United States (US Fish and Wildlife Service 1982) contributing to saltwater fishing associated retail sales of nearly $4 billion (Sport Fishing Institute 1983). Commercial sportfishing vessels are an important component of this tourism subsystem. In 1980, it was estimated there were 3,952 head and charter boats in the United States with retail sales of $149 million (Sport Fishing Institute 1983). Charter boats are available for hire at a set rate per trip and usually carry six or fewer anglers. Head (or party) boats, on the other hand, charge trip fees on a per person basis and usually carry more than six anglers. As an attraction, the charter and head boat industry does not appear to be well-integrated into a systems framework. Although many economic studies have documented the demand created by consumers of charter and head boat services for lodging, food, fuel, and other supplies (Ditton, Jarmen and Woods 1978; Falk, Graefe, Alkire and Swartz 1983; Marshall and Lucy 1981), the provision of these ancillary services is often problematic. For example, in one study consumers complained that “lodging is very poor, is too far from the docks, and there is not enough available” (Mertens 1977).
506
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
TIES
Modest returns on investment, strong seasonal demand, and a lack of profit orientation in some operators create instability and high turnover in the industry. Ditton and Loomis (1985) documented that between 1975 and 1980, turnover in the Texas charter boat fleet exceeded the national average for small business failures. Only 25% of the Texas charter boat fleet active in 1975 were still in business in 1985 (Ditton and Vize 1987). Instability in the provision of these services could dampen future demand if consumers interested in entering the market cannot find experienced operators. Furthermore, the effective organization of operators as a constituency group is hindered by the observed high turnover and competition within each port area. Contributing to these problems is the failure of the industry to be recognized for its economic contribution and its lack of recognition as an integral part of tourism (PNR and Associates 1985). The integration of the marine recreational fishing industry with hotels, motels, chambers of commerce, travel planners, and local and regional businesses is necessary to industry stability. Unfortunately, the evidence suggests that in many locations these networks or linkages with surrounding communities are poorly developed (PNR and Associates 1985). This absence of recognition is due, in part, to a lack of understanding by the broader business community of charter and head boat operators and their economic impact in a community. Contributing to this lack of understanding may be the failure of charter and head boat operators to join local business oriented organizations. For example, Ditton, Jarmen and Woods (1978) reported that only 11 of the 41 operators interviewed on the Texas coast belonged to their local chamber of commerce. Charter and head boat operators have begun to recognize their lack of integration into the broader tourism industry. For example, when asked if they felt their efforts were appreciated as part of tourism, 64% of Lake Michigan charter operators in Wisconsin replied negatively (Link, Grey and Miller 1985). S’rmi 1ar attitudes were reported by a sample of charter operators in Alaska (Coughenower 1986). The realization that their efforts are not recognized by other sectors of their community may mark the first step in the integration of charter and head boat businesses into tourism. METHOD In the Fall of 1985, an exploratory study was conducted of the linkages between Texas coastal communities and the charter and head boat businesses located there. The goal of the study was to evaluate the provision of consumer information about charter and head boat services. This was accomplished through four stages. First, chambers of commerce and convention and tourism bureaus representing communities along the Texas coast were identified (East Texas Chamber of Commerce 1984; Texas Tourism Development Agency 1985). Th ese organizations, which represent community business interests and frequently serve as sources of consumer information, provided a representative example of linkage between operators and local communities. Geographically, these organizations represented all
507
ROEHL, DITTON, AND FESENMAIER
the urban areas near the Texas Gulf coast. The areas served by these organizations account for nearly all the coastal economic activity in Texas. Second, information was requested by mail from the identified organizations. Requests were made in a “disguised” and unofficial manner to identify the type of information available to the typical consumer. Letters were written on personal stationery and a residential return address was given. This approach has been used previously for gauging informational linkages in the charter and head boat industry (PNR and Associates 1985). Third, data were collected to measure community dependence on tourism. Without knowing the role played by tourism in general, and coastal tourism in particular, in an area’s economy, it was impossible to put the response of an organization representing that area into perspective. Two measures were derived from secondary sources to serve as indicators of an area’s economic dependence on tourism. Three other variables described the availability of facilities and services important to coastal tourism (Table 1). The 1982 Economic Census (US Bureau of the Census 1982a, 1982b) provided two measures of the economic importance of tourism to a community. One measure was the percentage of total service receipts coming from two tourism-related industrial classifications: hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments and eating and drinking establishments (Standard Industrial Classification 70 and 58, respectively). The total number of hotels, motels, and other lodging establishments, amusement firms, and eating and drinking establishments per one thousand residents was the other (Standard Industrial Classification 70, 78 and 79 and 58, respectively). Three additional measures were used to describe the importance of coastal tourism to an area: the number of marinas, saltwater fishing tournaments hosted, and charter and head boats operating in 1980. Data on these contextual indicators were collected for the implied area of concern of each organization. For example, if an organization represented an entire county, county level figures were used. Similarly, if a single city was represented, data at the city level were used. Additionally, the materials received in response to the request for information from the various organizations were evaluated in a number of
Table 1. Variables Used to Describe the Economic Importance of Tourism to Coastal Areas in Texas Variable Number of tourism-related
Meall
Median
Std. Dev.
Minimum
M&IllUIIl
firms 6.33
2.73
2.47
1.28
1.00
Hotel, eating. and drinking place recei ts divided by total service firm receipts P
0.24
0.18
0.20
0.02
0.79
Number of marinasb
3.36
2.00
4.17
0.00
14.00
2.09
1.00
3.01
0.00
13.00
4.09
0.00
7.66
0.00
27.00
per 1000 resident@
Number of saltwater Number of charter
fishing tournamentsc and head boats in
mod
Source: la) ITS Bureau of the Census 198%. Mathewsik and Ditton 1981.
1982b; (bl Hollin 1986: (c) Christian
and Trimm 1986; and(d)
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COMMUNITY-TOURISM
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ways. Response time was measured in days. The total number of charter and head boat operators listed in the materials received was summed. Furthermore, the ratio of operators in the organization’s home community to the total number of operators mentioned in the materials was derived. A ratio approaching unity indicated that few operators from outside the organization’s home area had been included in the informational materials. A smaller ratio indicated that operators were listed from both within the community and other nearby towns. The materials were also characterized by the image they portrayed of the destination. A panel of six judges examined the materials received from each of the promotional organizations. The judges were asked to evaluate the destination based solely on the materials. The portrayed image of the destination was rated on seven-point scales along two dimensions: orientation to saltwater fishing and overall attractiveness as a vacation destination. The reliability of each of these ratings was estimated using ANOVA techniques (Hoyt 1951; Kerlinger 1973:445-455). The reliability of the perceived attractiveness scale was 0.84. Ratings of saltwater fishing orientation had a reliability of 0.92. Both of these reliability coefficients are of reasonable magnitude; variation in the rating of attractiveness and saltwater fishing orientation was primarily a function of the materials evaluated, rather than judges’ bias. Mean ratings were then used to represent the materials of the responding organizations. RESULTS Analysis of the requested informational materials involved three steps. First, descriptive characteristics of the materials were reported (Table 2). Second, systematic differences in the economic context of responding and nonresponding organizations were investigated. Final-
Table 2. Descriptive Characteristics of Texas Coastal Information Response to the Request for Information Variablea Organization’s
response
Total number of charter boat operators listed
time in days
Minimum
Sources
Mean
Median
Std. Dev.
8.90
6.OlJ
9.90
3.00
Maxinlunl 46.00
7.00
6.00
7.10
0.00
28.00
and head
Ratio of operators in organization’s home community to total operators listed
0.60
0.76
0.46
0.00
1.00
Saltwater
3.42
3.26
1.47
1.00
6.83
3.40
3.60
1.22
1.00
6.33
fishing
Attractiveness
orientationh as B vacation
destinationC
a All variables created by authors. h Saltwater fishing orientation judged on a 7 point scale where: l.=no orientation at all to swf: Z=weak orientation to swf; 3=some orientation to swf but less than the “average” destination; I=ebout as strongly oriented to awf as the “average” destination: b=strongly oriented to swf. more than the sversge destination: B=very strongly swf oriented, little mention of anything else: and ‘I=completely oriented to swf. C Attractiveness as a vacation destination judged on a 7 point scale where: l=not at all attractive: Z=much Ias attractive than the “average” destination; 3=slightly less attractive than the “average” destination; 4=about as attractive a8 the “average” destination; b=slightly more attractive than the “average” destination: B=much more attractive than the ‘average” destination: and 7=very attractive. close to being the ideal destination.
ROEHL, DITTON,
AND FESENMAIER
509
ly, for those organizations that responded to the request for informational materials, a more detailed examination of economic context and characteristics of the response was conducted. A variety of materials were received from the various organizations in response to the request for information. These materials ranged from professional quality, multicolor brochures to poorly mimeographed or photocopied lists of names. After 45 days, materials had been received from 17 of the 23 contacted organizations. Response time varied from 3 to 45 days, with a mean response time of 8.9 days. The average number of charter and head boat operators listed in the informational materials was 7. The most operators listed by an organization was 28. Some organizations provided materials that did not mention any operators. The ratio of home community operators to total operators ranged from 0.0 to 1.0, with a mean of 0.50. Community attractiveness ratings ranged from 1.0 to 5.33, with a mean attractiveness of 3.40. Saltwater fishing orientation ratings ranged from 1.0 to 5.83, with a mean of 3.42. In order to evaluate nonresponse bias, logistic regression was used to investigate any systematic differences between the 17 responding and 6 nonresponding organizations. Logistic regression, rather than discriminate analysis, was used because it is less affected when the data set is not multivariate normal in its distribution (Press and Wilson 1978). Response was modeled as a function of the five economic context variables. Using a stepwise variable selection procedure (Harrell 1983), none of the five economic context variables was useful in discriminating between responding and nonresponding organizations. Testing the hypothesis that all regression parameters were zero resulted in a chisquare value of 2.93 with 5 degrees of freedom, which was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. An examination of the areas represented by responding and nonresponding organizations supports these statistical findings. Respondents included organizations representing Houston and Port Arthur, diversified economies not dependent on tourism, and South Padre Island and Port O’Connor, smaller economies dependent on tourism. Conversely, nonrespondents represented economies where tourism plays a minor role and those heavily dependant on tourism. Interestingly, response was not influenced by whether an organization represented a county or a city. Furthermore, whether or not an organization responded to the request for information, and the characteristics of the response materials from those organizations that did respond, were independent of the population in the area represented by the organization. When population size was correlated with the presence or absence of a response and the five variables used to characterize the response materials, the Pearson Correlation Coefficients were not statistically significant at the 0.05 level. The presence or absence of a response from an organization provides a crude indication of ties between a community and the charter and head boat industry. In order to identify other relevant relationships between the economic context of an area and the type of organizational response, factor analysis was used. Specifically, a principal factor anal-
510
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
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ysis (Harman 1976: 135-141) with a varimax rotation was applied to the economic and response characteristic variables of the seventeen responding organizations. A two-factor solution accounted for 60% of the variance (Table 3). The first factor accounted for 31% of the variance and reflected a relationship among variables measuring the size of the charter and head boat fleet, infrastructure, the ratio of local to total operators listed in the materials, and the portrayed community image. This suggests that destinations with many charter and head boats and enough infrastructure (such as marinas) tend to list primarily local operators and also appear as attractive destinations as represented by their promotional literature. The second factor accounted for 29% of the variance and described a different situation. Loading highly were variables that measured the importance of tourism to the local economy, the ratio of local to total operators listed in the promotional material, and the portrayed attractiveness of the destination. However, attractiveness loaded negatively on this factor. This result indicates that the promotional materials from those communities most dependent on tourism primarily list local operators and do not portray an attractive image of the destination. DISCUSSION This study found a considerable degree of information linkage between coastal communities and the charter and head boat industry in Texas. A majority (almost 74%) of the contacted organizations provided the requested information. The accuracy of the information provided by the various organizations appeared to be high. For example, the number of operators listed in the materials correlated highly (.80) with the derived fleet size in 1980. The results indicate that it was not possible to differentiate statistically between responding and nonresponding organizations using measures of local tourism importance. The nonresponding organizations despite its real economic impormay represent communities where, tance, the charter and head boat industry has yet to demonstrate its worth. Operators in these locales may need to establish their economic
Table 3. Factor Analysis of Economic Context and Organization Response Variables for Texas Coastal Tourism Information Sources
Factor
Variable Total boats listed Number of marinas Total boats 1080 Number of saltwater fishing tournaments Hotel. eating. and drinking receipts rlivided by total service receipts Tourism firms per 1000 residents Ratio of home community to total listed operators Response time Saltwater fishing orientation Attractiveness as vacation destination Variation a Loadings
accounted
IPSS than 0.333 in absolute
value have been deleted.
Factor
X2a
.X98
.487 ,498 .MO 31.0%
for
#Ia
.020 ,872 .7GI .77h .8G3 .70D -.403 20.0%
O.HGS 0.7x7 KG4 0.817
I
O.GfX “.H (1.740 ‘,.MM ,I.249 0.476
IO
-_
ROEHL,
DITTON, AND FESENMAIER
511
importance to, and forge closer ties with, their local business community. If operators in these communities joined their local chamber of commerce, this might be a first step in the creation of closer industrybusiness community ties. Additionally, population size did not appear to be directly related to either response to the request for information or the characteristics of the material provided by responding organizations. However, the effect of population size may be more subtle. Organizations representing large communities may have more options. Charter and head boat businesses, or the saltwater fishing industry in general, may represent but one potential route to economic success. Larger communities, and the organizations promoting these communities, can choose what “business” they are in. If they choose to concentrate on charter and head boats, they can do a good job of presenting themselves as an attractive destination. Smaller communities may find themselves in a more difficult situation; they have fewer feasible alternatives for economic development and fewer resources with which to promote those resources. Perhaps the most important conclusion that can be drawn from this study comes from the factor analysis of economic context and response characteristic variables. The extracted factors emphasize the importance of portrayed community image. It is well-documented that the image of an activity or destination is an extremely important component in consumer recreational decision making (Hunt 1975; La Page and Cormier 1977). Apparently, communities in Texas with large charter and head boat fleets have also been able to create a favorable image as an overall vacation destination. An attractive image and a large fleet both may result from these communities’ developed infrastructure. If this is so, it emphasizes Gunn’s (1985) point that attractions cannot successfully stand alone. However, communities most dependent on tourism have a less positive image as destinations as represented by their own promotional literature. These are often the smaller, geographically isolated communities with fewer alternatives for economic development (Ditton, Jarmen, Mertens, Schwartz and Woods 1977). The development of a diversified tourism infrastructure within each of these communities may be an unreasonable goal, given their small size, isolation, the cost of development, and social costs of altering an established way of life. Evidence exists, however, that unproductive images in tourism can be improved (Perry, Izraeli and Perry 1976). One useful approach is suggested by the data. Organizations representing communities highly dependent on tourism tend to list only charter and head boat operators within the community. This exclusion of outsiders may extend to nearby attractions and service centers as well. If the area, rather than one community, was presented to potential consumers, its overall attractiveness as a vacation destination would no doubt be enhanced. Organizations providing information to consumers about these areas could present the coastal region as a whole rather than supply information about a single community. This regional approach to information provision could include tourism attractions beyond charter and head boat businesses. By giving attention to the total
512
COMMUNITY-TOURISM
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tourism product, it may prove possible to increase the perceived attractiveness of the area as a vacation destination. Although all profits from this approach would not accrue within any one community, long-term regional economic viability might increase. Of equal importance, the costs associated with development, both social and economic, would also be shared. 00 Acknowledgemmts - Much of the data used in this paper was collected the Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program.
with support
from
REFERENCES Christian, R. T., and D. L. Trimm 1986 An Inventory of Texas Saltwater Fishing Tournaments: Spatial, Temporal and Participation Patterns in 1983. Austin TX: Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, Data Management Series Number 97. Coughenower, D. D. 1986 Homer, Alaska Charter Fishing Industry Study. Alaska Sea Grant College Program. Marine Advisory Bulletin No. 22, Fairbanks. Ditton, R. B., and D. K. Loomis 1985 Examining Business Turnover in the Texas Charter Boat Fishing Industry: 1975-1980. Marine Fisheries Review 47(1):43-47. Ditton, R. B., R. N. Jarmen, and S. A. Woo’ds 1978 An Analysis of the Charter Boat Fishing Industry on the Texas Gulf Coast. Marine Fisheries Review 40(8): 1-7. Ditton, R. B., R. N. Jarmen, T. J. Mertens, M. P. Schwartz, and S. A. Woods 1977 Charter Fishing on the Texas Coast. Unpublished Technical Report submitted to the Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program, 186 pp. Ditton, R. B., and J. D. Vize 1987 Business Turnover in the Texas Charter Fishing Industry: Revisited. Marine Fisheries Review 49(2): 162-165. East Texas Chamber of Commerce 1984 Directorv of Chambers of Commerce in Texas. Loneview TX: East Texas Chamber ofCommerce. Falk, J. M., A. R. Graefe, C. Alkire, and D. Swartz 1983 1982 Head/Charter-Boat Fishing in Delaware: An Analysis of Customers and Their Economic Impact. University of Delaware Sea Grant College Program (NA80AA-D-00106), Newark DE. Gunn, C. A. 1979 Tourism Planning. New York: Crane Russak. 1985 Viewpoint. Getting Ready for Megatrends in Travel Attractions. Tourism Management 6(2):133-141. Harman, H. H. 1976 Modern Factor Analysis. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Harrell, F. E. 1983 The LOGIST Procedure. In SUGI Supplemental Library User’s Guide, S. J. o er ed. Cary NC: SAS Institute. Ho~~&,~D: 1985 Directory of Texas Gulf Coast Marinas and Freshwater Marinas (second edition). Texas A&M University College Sea Grant Program (TAMU-SG-81-502), College Station TX. Hoyt, C. 1941 Test Reliability Obtained by Analysis of Variance. Psychometrika 6: 153-160. Hunt, J. D. 1975 Image as a Factor in Tourism Development. Journal of Travel Research 13(3): l-7. Kerlinger, F. N. 1973 Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
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AND FESENMAIER
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La Page, W. F., and P. L. Cormier of Travel Research 1977 Image of CampingBarriers to Participation. Journal 15(4):21-25. Link, D., J. Grey, and A. Miller 1985 1982 Charter Boat Operator Study. Wisconsin Sea Grant College Program (WIS-SG-85-427), Madison WI. Marshall, A. R., and J. A. Lucy 1981 Virginia’s Charter and Head Boat Fishery: Analysis of Catch and Socioeconomic Impacts. Special Report in Applied Marine Science and Ocean Engineering No. 253. Virginia Sea Grant Program, Virginia Institute of Marine Resources, College of William & Mary, Gloucester Point VA. Mathewsik, R. E. M., and R. B. Ditton 1981 A Listing of Charter and Party Boats Operating from Texas Ports. Unpublish24 pp. Department of Recreation and Parks, Texas A&M ed document, University. Mertens, T. J. 1977 Charter Boat Fisherman on the Texas Coast. Texas A&M University Sea Grant College Program. (TAMU-SG-79-603) College Station TX. Murphy, P. E. 1985 Tourism: A Community Approach. New York: Methuen. Perry, M., D. Izraeli, and A. Perry 1976 Image Change as the Result of Advertising. Journal of Advertising Research 6(1):45-50. PNR and Associates 1985 Marketing Strategies for the Northeast Region Party Boat, Charter Boat and Rental Fishing Boat Industry. NMFS contract #NA-84-FA-D-00002. Elkins Park PA: PNR and Associates. Inc. Press, S. J., and S. Wilson 1978 Choosing Between Logistic Regression and Discriminant Analysis. Journal of the American Statistical Association 73(364):699-705. Richter, L. K. 1985 Fragmented Politics of US Tourism. Tourism Management 6(3):162-173. \ , Sport FishiGg Institute 1983 Economic Activity Associated with Marine Recreational Fishing in 1980. Report prepared for the National Marine Fisheries Service. Washington DC: Sport Fishing Institute. Texas Tourism Development Agency 1985 Pre-registration List, 20th Annual Texas Conference on Tourism Development. Holiday Inn Downtown, El Paso. US Bureau of the Census 1982a Census of Retailing. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. 198213 Census of Service Industries. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. US Fish and Wildlife Service 1982 1980 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting and Wildlife Associated Recreation. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. US Senate 1977 National Tourism Policy Study, Ascertainment Phase. US Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office. Submitted 17 December 1987 Revised version submitted 17 January Accepted 29 January 1989 Final version submitted 7 April 1989 Refereed anonymously
1989