- Email: [email protected]
Computer-assisted land use planning
Computer-assisted land use planning A study of the Connecticut Greenway
Meir Gross, Julius Gy. Fabos, Charles L. Tracy and Michael Waltuch
Land use planning and policy analysis Is presently being affected by new technological developments in the use of computerize geographic information systems (GIS). Until recently, computerized GIS were dependent on large mainframe computers or expensive mini-computers for data storage, manipulation and analysis. Concurrent with the evolution of the handling and analy sis of spatial data, society has witnessed the development of Workstation technology. To illustrate this point, this paper presents a case study of the Connecticut Greenway. The development of the project shows the increased complexity which greater citizen participation has brought to the planning process. The implementation of a Workstation-base GIS is presented as an effective response to such complexity. The next phase in the development of Workstation-based GIS applications for land use planning and policy analysis is then addressed. The authors can all be contacted at the Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, MA 01003, USA. Dr Gross is the Department Head and Associate Professor of Regional Planning; Professor Fabos is Professor of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning; and the last two authors are Research Assistant and Research Associate respectively.
0264-6377187/01031-l
This paper examines the implications of the new Workstation computing environment for land use policy, specifically within the sphere of participatory planning. This latest development in computer technology provides professionals in land use planning and policy analysis with a tool uniquely responsive to their needs; especially the needs and complexities generated by greater public involvement in the planning process. The public’s expanding role is perceived in this paper as part of a broader trend towards decentralization in many institutional structures in the USA. The paper will start with a discussion of the emergence of computer technology within the context of its applications for land use planning. The case study area will then be introduced followed by an analysis of the impact of decentralization on the planning process. The case study will be used to illustrate the advantage of computer technology for analysing policies related to land use planning. Finally, the next phase in the development of Workstation-based GIS applications will be addressed.
Computer technology
and geographic
information
systems
The vast potential for improving land use planning and policy analysis through computer technology has long been recognized. For example, the Journal of he American Insdirute of Planners (JAR’) published a special issue in May 1965 entitled, ‘Urban development models, new tools for planning’.’ This special issue primarily addressed how urban simulation models utilizing computer techniques can be used in land use planning. The use of computers to process spatial data began in the early 1960s in several universities in the USA, notably the University of Washington, the University of Chicago, Northwestern University and the University of Michigan. In 1963, the first computerized geographic
l$OS.OO 0 1987 Butterworth
& Co (Publishers)
Ltd
31
Computer-ussisred
land use planning
information system (GIS) was developed by Howard Fisher, while a member of the faculty of Northwestern University’s Technological Institute. Fisher’s Synagraphic Mapping System (SYMAP) was originally conceived as the result of a short course on computer applications to urban analysis conducted by E.M. Horwood at the University of Washington.2 Since 1965, a computing environment has become a standard component of university programmes in planning and geography throughout the world. It should also be noted that turnkey private sector GIS systems have enjoyed tremendous success within the last several years. A recent survey by the American Farmland Trust identified 84 vendors and developers of GIS.’ Among the more visible, technically far-reaching and commercially successful systems are Environmental Systems Research Institute’s ARC/INFO, Intergraph Corporation, Geo-Based Systems and Synercom. In essence, a GIS is a spatial data storage and retrieval process in which geographic data are converted to machine readable numeric codes and stored in a computer. For the purpose of land use planning, the data included relates to the natural and cultural aspects of the land (eg soil, elevation, slope, surface, hydrology, vegetation, land use/land cover, zoning, highway and other transportation networks, and political boundaries). The obvious advantages of a GIS include greater accuracy and efficiency, but more importantly the ability to perform complex operations on a large range of data. However, it should be noted that the success or failure of any GIS rests greatly with the ability of its users to integrate the data with which they will be working. The conceptual and physical design aspects of any database of spatial information are ‘Journal of the American Institute of Planimportant issues which must be addressed prior to any data manipulaners, Special Issue, ‘Urban development models, new tools for planning’, Vol31, No tion. 2, 1965. A brief sample of the range of operations available through the use of ‘Edgar M. Horwood, ‘Using computer the GIS includes: multiple overlay techniques, map measurement, scale graphics in community renewal’, in Community Renewal Program Guide No 7, variations, map splicing, three dimensional projections and database Urban Renewal Administration, Housing manipulations. Certain forms of analysis can be performed cost and Home Finance Agency, Washington, effectively that simply could not be done efficiently if performed DC, USA, 1963. 3Margaret S. Maize1 and Robert J. Gray, manually (ie digital terrain analysis, calculations such as slope aspect, Survey of Geographic Information Syssun intensity and watershed areas). The ability to integrate data tems for Natural Resources Decision Makcollection, spatial analysis and decision-making processes into a ing at the Local Level, The American Farmland Trust, Washington, DC, USA, common information flow facilitates rapid and repeated analytic testing 1985. of conceptual models (ie land suitability capability). Thus the evaluation 4For a discussion on GIS and its utilization of both scientific and policy criteria over large areas can be efficiently in land use policy analysis, see Paul A. Tessar and Loyola M. Caron A Legislators carried out in short periods of time.” Guide to Natural Resource Information Until recently, the disadvantages of using the GIS have been the high Systems, The National Conference of cost of initial acquisition of computer hardware, the requisite space and State Legislators, Washington, DC, USA, 1980; Charles Killpack, ‘Computer mapskilled personnel to maintain and operate the automated system and, ping, spatial analysis and landscape finally, the cost and associated technical problems of converting existing architecture’, Landscape Architecture, Vol geographic and other data into automated form (ie digitizing, scanning 1, No 1, 1982. Also, Jack Dangermond, ‘Software components commonly used in or related data conversion). However, as the result of intensive research geographic information systems’, Harvard and development in the computer industry, society has witnessed the Computer Graphics Week, Harvard Uniadvent of the Workstation. Essentially, Workstations are microcompuversitv School of Design, Cambridge, MA, USA,- 1982; and MeE Gross, Daniel J. ters equivalent in storage capacity and processing capability to much Bucko. Julius Gv. Fabos and John H. larger mainframe computers and more expensive minicomputers of a Foster] Landscape Planning and Evaluafew years ago. The Workstation is designed to fit, physically and tion: a Combined Goal-Oriented and Benefit/Loss Approach, Research Bulletin economically, within the office environment. Workstation software is No 692, Massachusetts Agricultural Exdesigned to eliminate the need for intermediary skilled technicians, periment Station, University of Masthereby further reducing financial and technical overheads. The sachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA, 1984.
32
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
Computer-assisted land use planning
‘user-fri&ly Workstation software allows direct interaction with the system by non-technical users. Thus, professional planners and others are enabled to focus on the planning problem rather than the problem of computer technology. Concurrent with the emergence of Workstation technology is a rapid increase in the availability of spatial and geographic data in automated form compatible to the computer environment. For example, spatial data is available from the US Geological Survey and the Land Satellite (LANDSAT) operated by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA), and will soon be available from Le Systeme Probatoire d’observation de la Terre (SPOT) operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). These remote sensing satellites are capable of recording areas of 80 m2 and 30 m2 (LANDSAT) and 20 m* and 10 m2 (SPOT), in the form of pixels or picture elements, and converting the data received by individual detectors into digital values. In summary, the major obstacles in the past to widespread utilization of the computerized GIS have been the high cost of acquisition and technical support required for operation and maintenance; the spatial constraints of the office environment; and the lack of data available in a format compatible to computing needs. The new Workstation successfully meets the challenge of each of these problems. The Workstation is efficient, user-friendly and suited to the economic and spatial constraints of the office environment. Combined with increased availability Of spatial data in computer-ready format, the Workstation is an inexpensive but highly useful tool for land use planning and analysis of land use policy.
The study area The Connecticut River is a unique and treasured resource which has been revered for its singular beauty for as long as human societies have lived along its banks. Spanning over 400 miles through four New England states, the river flows south from its source in northern New Hampshire to Old Saybrook, Connecticut on Long Island Sound (Figure 1). Native Americans called it the Quonehtacut, meaning ‘long tidal river’, or ‘long estuary’. In the early nineteenth century, in his book Travels in New England and New York, Timothy Dwight, then president of Yale University, wrote about the Connecticut: This stream may, with more propriety than any other in the world, be named THE BEAUTIFUL RIVER . . . The purity, salubrity and sweetness of its waters; the frequency and elegance of its meanders . . the uncommon and universal beauty of its bank . . . are objects which no traveller can thoroughly describe and no reader can adequately imagine.’ The river has also been valued for its utility, but its use has not always
%dmund T. Delaney, The Connecticut River: New England’s
Historic Waterway,
Globe Pequot Press, Chester, CT, USA, 1983, p 9.
LAND USE POLICY January
1987
been wise. Beginning in the industrial revolution and quickening in pace through most of this century, the river was routinely used as a dumping ground for industrial wastes and sewage from towns bordering the river. By the 1930s the growth of population and industry had created a severe pollution problem. The waters were no longer fit for swimming, salmon had completely disappeared from the river and the bird population in marshes along the river had greatly diminished. Another wave of mills and factories mushroomed along its banks, taking advantage of the river’s plentiful and endless energy. By 1930, there 33
Computer-assisted
land use planning
Canada Quebec
/%
!
Maine
Atlant Massachusetts Connecticut
ic
Ocean
Boston Valley
<
Miles 0
Figure 1. The New England and the Connecticut River.
region
-\.I
3c
Long Island Sound
were 14 dams on the river; one in Connecticut, two in Massachusetts and 11 in New Hampshire and Vermont, along their common border. Nature responded to the deterioration that accompanied the growth and 1800s industrialization of the region. The floods of the mid-to-late devastated the countryside; massive flooding in 1927, 1938, 1954 and 195.5 resulted in a significant loss of life and property, increased bank erosion and disruption of the river’s ecology. The extent and severity of damage was largely due to human interference with the river’s natural flood-control mechanisms. The Connecticut remained unfit to swim in, unfishable and unsightly until well past the first half of this century. Those who lived along the river, and even those who had made money through its exploitation, became increasingly concerned by its deterioration. The river came to be seen finally, as ‘an amenity of life to be valued for its beauty, environmental contribution, and recreation opportunities’, and not only as an economic resource.6
Decentralization ‘ibid,
34
p
142.
One of the profound new phenomena occurring in the USA is the shift from a centralized to a more decentralized decision-making process in
LAND USE POLICY January
1987
Computer-assisted land use planning
‘See, for example, John Naisbitt, Megatrends, Warner Books, New York, USA, 1982. *Julius Gy. Fabos, Land Use Planning: From Global to Local Challenge, Chapman and Hall, New York, USA, 1985.
many aspects of governance.7 This, in turn, is affecting land use planning by expanding the role of the public in the decision-making process. As a result, the role of the planner is shifting from strictly planning to include facilitating the resolution of conflicts between diverse interest groups and educating all participants about the planning process. The increased reliance on the strategy of decentralization by citizens eager to be more in control of their destiny ensures the vitality of the planning process. The transition from a centralized to a more decentralized form of planning in the USA is clearly portrayed in the developments which ultimately led to the current Connecticut Greenway planning. In 1968, the United States National Park Service (NPS) attempted to create a Connecticut River National Recreation Area.8 During that period the Federal government assumed the primary responsibility for regional open space and recreation planning. This ambitious project attempted to coordinate land acquisitions by Federal and four state governments Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Vermont (Figure 2). The plan had limited success; for example, a small part of the Mount Holyoke range in Massachusetts was purchased with Federal funds. Similarly, each state acquired some land for inclusion in the proposed Connecticut River Recreation Area. However, by the 1970s local opposition all but halted this Federal effort. The local opposition was due in large part to the perceived conflict between the goals of NPS and local interests, and to the strong tradition of local autonomy in the New England States, particularly in regard to local land use decisions AWII’!
Quebec
;
Y-1----------
Proposed federal area
! I
Proposed state area
i
?
i i
Vermqnt -IT
0
i
i New
(
Numbers refer to maior highways
Maine
/
Atlantic
Ocean
Miles 0
Figure 2. Connecticut Recreation
, 30
River National
Area.
Proposed by the Department of Interior in 1989.
Note:
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
Long Island Sound
35
Computer-assisted
land
use phning
The current Connecticut Greenway planning differs from the Federal effort in two important respects. First, this pIann~ng has been initiated by the Massachusetts State government. The NPS is involved only in an advisory capacity. Second, this state planning effort has acknowledged the reality of decentralization through its commitment to the full participation of all 19 towns bordering the Connecticut River in Massachusetts (Figure 3) and all special groups who have expressed interest. The Massachusetts Department of ~I~vironmentaI Management (DEM) established a regional office in the area to facilitate direct contact between its planners and all local groups. The expansion of the public’s role has several important implications for reshaping the planning process and the implementation of land use policy. Clearly, greater participation affords the opportunity for improved land use decisions by making the process more democratic. Greater public involvement also offers the potential for educating a community about its land use resources. On the other hand, increased public participation implies a broader range of values and interests than are usually considered in the conventional setting of more centralized planning. It also implies a proliferation of potential conflicts in the attempt to formulate acceptable alternatives. These new conditions require a process which is not only able to handle a much greater amount of data, but also has the ability to generate a larger set of
NEW VERMONT
:
HAMPSHIRE
I ml Hadley
Figure 3. The Connecticut Greenway study area.
36
CONNECTICUT
LAND USE POLICY January
1987
Computer-assisted
land use planning
alternatives for evaluation. As will be shown in the next section, computer technology can play a key role in assisting the planner to work effectively within the participatory framework. It is not suggested that all land use related planning is being decentralized or should be transferred to local levels. Certain land use problems are national in character and will continue to demand Federal action. The water pollution problems of the 1960s and 1970s could not be undertaken without a massive Federal involvement. Similarly, local communities and even State governments are helpless to deal with such ubiquitous problems as acid rain and related land use problems. On the other hand, the Federal government has experienced increasing difficulty in influencing policy in highly-developed regions. The difficulty arises for two important reasons. First, in Massachusetts for example, 80% of the land is privately owned, a large portion of which is in many small landholdings. Second, a strong tradition of ‘home rule’ in the New England states has traditionally kept land use decision power at the local level. Therefore, the Federal government, which is often separated from local levels by state and county governments, finds it difficult to influence planning decisions. It is expected that decentralization in land use planning will increase, together with debates on what is an appropriate level of decision for various planning problems. As our society becomes better educated and more environmentally conscious, the inefficiencies of large bureaucratic planning become more evident and we will continue to search out better methods to solve these problems.
Participatory planning for the Connecticut
Greenway
The Connecticut Greenway planning is an outgrowth of two recent developments. First, the water quality of the Connecticut River has recently been restored from its highly polluted condition during the 1960s and 1970s to a river clean enough to swim in. This programme was part of a national wastewater management planning effort which cost the US approximately 1.50 billion dollars (in 1970 dollar value). The 63 mile portion of the Connecticut River which flows through the Commonwealth of Massachusetts received approximately 250 million dollars from this national effort. Since the river is now clean, it provides a great recreational opportunity, hence private and public pressure is building for increased use of the river. Second, DEM recently renewed a statewide open space planning and land acquisition effort. Because of the increased pressure for use of this valuable resource, a large portion of the DEM planning effort has been focused on the river. In light of the fact that local opposition finally halted the earlier Federal Greenway effort, it was crucial to DEM’s preliminary organizing efforts to involve the public. This effort began with DEM hiring a person thoroughly familiar with the whole range of local issues concerning the Connecticut River. In addition, DEM organized a coordinating committee of representatives from all 19 towns and pertinent state agencies, eg the Departments of Fish and Wildlife, and Agriculture. The group meets regularly to set policies for Greenway planning and land acquisition. DEM also organized satellite committees, representing all interest groups, whose function is to advise the coordinating committee. These groups range from a Fish and Wildlife group whose interest is in the protection of the diversity of fish and
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
37
Computer-assisted
land use planning
wildlife species, to a Water Recreation Group whose task is to address the opportunities and constraints of these activities in the Greenway, to a Farmers Group interested in preserving prime agricultural land adjacent to the river. The critical outcome of this first phase is to identify as many of the potential problems, conflicts and special needs or interests related to the Greenway as soon as possible and to prioritize them. Thus, the degree of complexity created by the participation of several interest groups requires an ability to combine data collection, spatial analysis and decision making into a unified process. The key to resolving such a complex planning situation lies in the ability to analyse numerous plans and policies quickly, efficiently and economically; Workstation technology makes it possible. The GIS for this project was designed by the Metropolitan Landscape Planning Model team (METLAND), an on-going research project that represents a comprehensive approach to landscape resource assessment and planning.’ METLAND was developed by a multidisciplinary team of planners, social and natural scientists and economists at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, and it incorporates elements of both environmental and economic planning.” METLAND has been a forerunner in computer-assisted landscape planning since 1973. METLAND has oriented its current research effort away from the mainframe computer environment in order to take advantage of recent developments in Workstation technology discussed previously. The objective is to provide the processing power of the conventional GIS on hardware which is affordable for large and small government agencies, as well as private practitioners. By promoting use of the Workstationbased GIS, METLAND is actively involved in improving the process of participatory planning and design.
Implementation
gJulius Gy. Fabos, Christopher M. Greene and Spencer A. Joyner, Jr, The METLAND Landscape Planning Process, Research Bulletin No 653, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA, 1978. ‘“Gross, Bucko, Fabos and Foster, op tit, Ref 4; and Meir Gross, Daniel J. Bucko and Julius Gy. Fabos, ‘The use of geographic information systems in evaluating land resource losses in locating new development’, Environments, Vol 17, No 1, 1985.
38
of the Workstation-based
GIS
The implementation of the Workstation-based GIS for the Connecticut Greenway will allow DEM to perform at least three types of planning: alternative plans for the entire 63 mile long river segment; alternative development and preservation plans for each of the 19 towns; and analysis and evaluation of individual proposals for the acquisition of specific parcels of land. The first use of the system will be the generation of alternative plans or test policies for the 63 mile segment of the river. In order to respond to the goals and objectives of the various interest groups gathered in the first phase of the planning process, DEM and NPS initially identified seven critical areas of resources which required analysis and mapping. These include existing and potential areas for various types of recreation (based on natural resources such as soils, slopes, vegetation and depth of water table); the restriction to potential recreation areas (based primarily on land ownership pattern and accessibility); natural resource habitats; water quality and existing pollution sources (including both point and non-point sources); cultural and historic resources; agricultural resources (ie agricultural productivity); and scenic resources. Each of these areas of concern, when assessed, requires the analysis of several factors. For example, the suitability of a swimming area may be the function of variables such as slope, soil, orientation, land use, land cover and accessibility. Within the GIS, each of these factors constitutes
LAND USE POLICY January
1987
Computer-assisted land use planning
a map or datafile. At this point, the GIS can be used to overlay and rapidly analyse multiple sets of map files which reflect the interests of different groups. For example, one plan alternative may be based on the objectives of recreationists representing the motorized boating group. Another alternative may be generated by swimmers and those who favour non-motorized boating activities. Other alternatives may be biased toward the needs of farmers, fish and game clubs, historic preservationists, etc. In short, aided by the computer, it will be possible to generate an indefinite number of alternatives. The second use of the system will be to generate alternative land use plans for the 19 communities. Since the majority of land use decisions in Massachusetts are made at the town level, and since a large database will be available for all the communities located along the river, one of the most effective ways for DEM to create the Greenway is by helping communities with their local planning efforts. Many community land use interests are similar to those advocated by DEM. For example, both the communities and DEM stress the importance of open space for recreation. The Greenway offers this opportunity. Also, both the communities and DEM share an interest in avoiding development in prime agricultural land and floodplains. Since a large portion of the agricultural lands are also flood-prone areas, the GIS could help the towns to encourage developments away from low-lying areas adjacent to the river by locating development sites in the upper lands most suitable for development. In short, the GIS is expected to aid the towns with their land use planning and at the same time help DEM to promote development away from the river. The third use of the system will be the analysis and evaluation of individual recommendation for land acquisitions; perhaps the most valuable function of the system in contributing to the ultimate realization of the Greenway. This is primarily because opportunities for the acquisition of land parcels in the US almost always occur incrementally and might depend, for example, on the desire of a farmer to sell his land. Currently, without the aid of the GIS, it is very difficult to assess how the acquisition of a given parcel would contribute to the total Greenway plan. With the GIS, a potential beach area under consideration for acquisition can be compared with all other recreation sites along the river and ranked according to a wide range of criteria such as aesthetic quality, recreation potential, accessibility, proximity to large populations or potential for linkage to other Greenway sites. This function is especially valuable in prioritizing land acquisition when resources to purchase land are limited. In conclusion, it was not possible to accommodate this degree of complexity at these three levels of analysis until the advent of Workstation technology. The Workstation can provide the processing capability and storage capacity required for these operations at a reasonable cost for the office environment.
Future directions The purpose of the planning processes and the case study described above was to analyse the consequences of land use policies and to develop and evaluate land use plans based on natural and man-made attributes of the landscape. Thus the GIS was used primarily for rapid generation of maps displaying the spatial consequences of alternative
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
39
Computer-assisted
lund use planning
“See, for example, FrederickS. Hillierand Gerald J. Lieberman, lnff~ucfion To Operafions Research, Holden-Day, San Francisco, USA, 1980. j2Lewis D. Hopkins, ‘Optimum seeking methods for design of suburban land use plan’, PhD thesis, Department of City Planning, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1975; Lewis D. Hopkins, ‘Land use plan design-quadratic assignment and central-facility models’, Environment and Planning, Vol5, pp 625 642, 1977. Also Ardeshir Anjomani, The overlaying map technique: problems and suggested solutions’, Journal of flannhg Education and Research, Vol 4, No 2, 1984; and Mark Los, Simultaneous optimization of land use and trans~~ation: a synthesis of the quadratic assignment and optimal network problem, Publication No 31, Centre de Recherche sur les Transports, Montreal, Quebec, 1975.
policies and plans, with the main analytical function of the computer being to overlay a large number of maps. The next phase in the development of the Workstation-based GIS as a planning tool will take greater advantage of the computer’s processing capabilities. Through the integration of advanced modelling systems the planner will be able to address increasingly complex planning issues. The prime example of these types of models are those based on mathematical programming, already extensively used in various other disciplines such as industrial management and economic planning. I1 The important characteristic of the mathematical programming family of models is its optimization capabilities. In the context of land use planning this implies that such models can help to determine the optimal, or preferred, policy or plan among various alternatives. Thus, this type of model, also called a plan-making model, can be regarded as a logically complete synthesis of the three central stages of the planning process: generating alternative plans, predicting their outcome and choosing the best one. There are four principal applications in which these models, combined with GIS, have been proposed or tested in land use planning: 1) where the demand for various land uses is large relative to the available supply of land; 2) where the plan must respond to many, often conflicting, objectives; 3) where the plan has to respond to changes over time; and 4) where the suitability of the land to accommodate a given land use is not only a function of the characteristics of the land itself but also its location in relation to other land uses (ie location of the land use determines its interactions, or interdependence, with other land uses). These interactions could be culturally related (such as movement of people and flow of goods), or related to a combination of manmade activities and environmental factors such as air pollution dispersion or surface water runoff. Mathematical programming models have been used in the past, individually or in combination, for various types of planning. r2 However, these applications all involved the expensive environment of a mainframe computer. The advent of Workstation technology with its user-friendly, interactive orientation, will make the use of such advanced models available at a relatively low cost. In the context of the Connecticut Greenway Planning all four applications mentioned above are highly relevant. Planners and policy makers will undoubtedly be faced with these issues as the river and its surrounding environs become more desirable.
Initial results The initial results of GIS implementation for the Connecticut Greenway have been promising. The system was used to help identify potential recreation sites along the river within the context of a wide range of criteria identified by DEM and several advisory groups. DEM is now involved in land acquisition and conceptual site design for selected parcels. The METLAND team also completed a project designed to further educate planning officials from selected communities bordering the river about the broad applicability of GIS for community-based land use decision making. The project provided extensive hands-on training for participants, and initiated a valuable dialogue between the METLAND team and local planning officials. The dialogue helped to
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
Computer-assisted
land use planning
identify areas for possible modification of the GIS to further enhance its user-friendliness. In addition, experience with the capability of the GIS as a result of the training sessions led to the identification of a number of potential projects by local officials.
Conclusion As demonstrated by the events leading up to the current Connecticut Greenway planning, DEM’s decentralized planning strategy is clearly essential to the realization of a recreational river. By combining this strategy with Workstation technology, opportunities for better land use decisions, particularly with greater public involvement at the local level, can be greatly enhanced. The recent advances in Workstation technology and the availability of electronic spatial data make it feasible, both physically and economically, to use the capabilities and capacity of much larger mainframes on a machine easily suited to an office environment. Finally, the Workstation is designed to allow the planner to focus attention on the planning problem at hand, rather than the computer’s operating system or the fundamentals of database management.
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
41
Meir Gross, Julius Gy. Fabos, Charles L. Tracy and Michael Waltuch
Land use planning and policy analysis Is presently being affected by new technological developments in the use of computerize geographic information systems (GIS). Until recently, computerized GIS were dependent on large mainframe computers or expensive mini-computers for data storage, manipulation and analysis. Concurrent with the evolution of the handling and analy sis of spatial data, society has witnessed the development of Workstation technology. To illustrate this point, this paper presents a case study of the Connecticut Greenway. The development of the project shows the increased complexity which greater citizen participation has brought to the planning process. The implementation of a Workstation-base GIS is presented as an effective response to such complexity. The next phase in the development of Workstation-based GIS applications for land use planning and policy analysis is then addressed. The authors can all be contacted at the Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, MA 01003, USA. Dr Gross is the Department Head and Associate Professor of Regional Planning; Professor Fabos is Professor of Landscape Architecture and Regional Planning; and the last two authors are Research Assistant and Research Associate respectively.
0264-6377187/01031-l
This paper examines the implications of the new Workstation computing environment for land use policy, specifically within the sphere of participatory planning. This latest development in computer technology provides professionals in land use planning and policy analysis with a tool uniquely responsive to their needs; especially the needs and complexities generated by greater public involvement in the planning process. The public’s expanding role is perceived in this paper as part of a broader trend towards decentralization in many institutional structures in the USA. The paper will start with a discussion of the emergence of computer technology within the context of its applications for land use planning. The case study area will then be introduced followed by an analysis of the impact of decentralization on the planning process. The case study will be used to illustrate the advantage of computer technology for analysing policies related to land use planning. Finally, the next phase in the development of Workstation-based GIS applications will be addressed.
Computer technology
and geographic
information
systems
The vast potential for improving land use planning and policy analysis through computer technology has long been recognized. For example, the Journal of he American Insdirute of Planners (JAR’) published a special issue in May 1965 entitled, ‘Urban development models, new tools for planning’.’ This special issue primarily addressed how urban simulation models utilizing computer techniques can be used in land use planning. The use of computers to process spatial data began in the early 1960s in several universities in the USA, notably the University of Washington, the University of Chicago, Northwestern University and the University of Michigan. In 1963, the first computerized geographic
l$OS.OO 0 1987 Butterworth
& Co (Publishers)
Ltd
31
Computer-ussisred
land use planning
information system (GIS) was developed by Howard Fisher, while a member of the faculty of Northwestern University’s Technological Institute. Fisher’s Synagraphic Mapping System (SYMAP) was originally conceived as the result of a short course on computer applications to urban analysis conducted by E.M. Horwood at the University of Washington.2 Since 1965, a computing environment has become a standard component of university programmes in planning and geography throughout the world. It should also be noted that turnkey private sector GIS systems have enjoyed tremendous success within the last several years. A recent survey by the American Farmland Trust identified 84 vendors and developers of GIS.’ Among the more visible, technically far-reaching and commercially successful systems are Environmental Systems Research Institute’s ARC/INFO, Intergraph Corporation, Geo-Based Systems and Synercom. In essence, a GIS is a spatial data storage and retrieval process in which geographic data are converted to machine readable numeric codes and stored in a computer. For the purpose of land use planning, the data included relates to the natural and cultural aspects of the land (eg soil, elevation, slope, surface, hydrology, vegetation, land use/land cover, zoning, highway and other transportation networks, and political boundaries). The obvious advantages of a GIS include greater accuracy and efficiency, but more importantly the ability to perform complex operations on a large range of data. However, it should be noted that the success or failure of any GIS rests greatly with the ability of its users to integrate the data with which they will be working. The conceptual and physical design aspects of any database of spatial information are ‘Journal of the American Institute of Planimportant issues which must be addressed prior to any data manipulaners, Special Issue, ‘Urban development models, new tools for planning’, Vol31, No tion. 2, 1965. A brief sample of the range of operations available through the use of ‘Edgar M. Horwood, ‘Using computer the GIS includes: multiple overlay techniques, map measurement, scale graphics in community renewal’, in Community Renewal Program Guide No 7, variations, map splicing, three dimensional projections and database Urban Renewal Administration, Housing manipulations. Certain forms of analysis can be performed cost and Home Finance Agency, Washington, effectively that simply could not be done efficiently if performed DC, USA, 1963. 3Margaret S. Maize1 and Robert J. Gray, manually (ie digital terrain analysis, calculations such as slope aspect, Survey of Geographic Information Syssun intensity and watershed areas). The ability to integrate data tems for Natural Resources Decision Makcollection, spatial analysis and decision-making processes into a ing at the Local Level, The American Farmland Trust, Washington, DC, USA, common information flow facilitates rapid and repeated analytic testing 1985. of conceptual models (ie land suitability capability). Thus the evaluation 4For a discussion on GIS and its utilization of both scientific and policy criteria over large areas can be efficiently in land use policy analysis, see Paul A. Tessar and Loyola M. Caron A Legislators carried out in short periods of time.” Guide to Natural Resource Information Until recently, the disadvantages of using the GIS have been the high Systems, The National Conference of cost of initial acquisition of computer hardware, the requisite space and State Legislators, Washington, DC, USA, 1980; Charles Killpack, ‘Computer mapskilled personnel to maintain and operate the automated system and, ping, spatial analysis and landscape finally, the cost and associated technical problems of converting existing architecture’, Landscape Architecture, Vol geographic and other data into automated form (ie digitizing, scanning 1, No 1, 1982. Also, Jack Dangermond, ‘Software components commonly used in or related data conversion). However, as the result of intensive research geographic information systems’, Harvard and development in the computer industry, society has witnessed the Computer Graphics Week, Harvard Uniadvent of the Workstation. Essentially, Workstations are microcompuversitv School of Design, Cambridge, MA, USA,- 1982; and MeE Gross, Daniel J. ters equivalent in storage capacity and processing capability to much Bucko. Julius Gv. Fabos and John H. larger mainframe computers and more expensive minicomputers of a Foster] Landscape Planning and Evaluafew years ago. The Workstation is designed to fit, physically and tion: a Combined Goal-Oriented and Benefit/Loss Approach, Research Bulletin economically, within the office environment. Workstation software is No 692, Massachusetts Agricultural Exdesigned to eliminate the need for intermediary skilled technicians, periment Station, University of Masthereby further reducing financial and technical overheads. The sachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA, 1984.
32
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
Computer-assisted land use planning
‘user-fri&ly Workstation software allows direct interaction with the system by non-technical users. Thus, professional planners and others are enabled to focus on the planning problem rather than the problem of computer technology. Concurrent with the emergence of Workstation technology is a rapid increase in the availability of spatial and geographic data in automated form compatible to the computer environment. For example, spatial data is available from the US Geological Survey and the Land Satellite (LANDSAT) operated by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA), and will soon be available from Le Systeme Probatoire d’observation de la Terre (SPOT) operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). These remote sensing satellites are capable of recording areas of 80 m2 and 30 m2 (LANDSAT) and 20 m* and 10 m2 (SPOT), in the form of pixels or picture elements, and converting the data received by individual detectors into digital values. In summary, the major obstacles in the past to widespread utilization of the computerized GIS have been the high cost of acquisition and technical support required for operation and maintenance; the spatial constraints of the office environment; and the lack of data available in a format compatible to computing needs. The new Workstation successfully meets the challenge of each of these problems. The Workstation is efficient, user-friendly and suited to the economic and spatial constraints of the office environment. Combined with increased availability Of spatial data in computer-ready format, the Workstation is an inexpensive but highly useful tool for land use planning and analysis of land use policy.
The study area The Connecticut River is a unique and treasured resource which has been revered for its singular beauty for as long as human societies have lived along its banks. Spanning over 400 miles through four New England states, the river flows south from its source in northern New Hampshire to Old Saybrook, Connecticut on Long Island Sound (Figure 1). Native Americans called it the Quonehtacut, meaning ‘long tidal river’, or ‘long estuary’. In the early nineteenth century, in his book Travels in New England and New York, Timothy Dwight, then president of Yale University, wrote about the Connecticut: This stream may, with more propriety than any other in the world, be named THE BEAUTIFUL RIVER . . . The purity, salubrity and sweetness of its waters; the frequency and elegance of its meanders . . the uncommon and universal beauty of its bank . . . are objects which no traveller can thoroughly describe and no reader can adequately imagine.’ The river has also been valued for its utility, but its use has not always
%dmund T. Delaney, The Connecticut River: New England’s
Historic Waterway,
Globe Pequot Press, Chester, CT, USA, 1983, p 9.
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1987
been wise. Beginning in the industrial revolution and quickening in pace through most of this century, the river was routinely used as a dumping ground for industrial wastes and sewage from towns bordering the river. By the 1930s the growth of population and industry had created a severe pollution problem. The waters were no longer fit for swimming, salmon had completely disappeared from the river and the bird population in marshes along the river had greatly diminished. Another wave of mills and factories mushroomed along its banks, taking advantage of the river’s plentiful and endless energy. By 1930, there 33
Computer-assisted
land use planning
Canada Quebec
/%
!
Maine
Atlant Massachusetts Connecticut
ic
Ocean
Boston Valley
<
Miles 0
Figure 1. The New England and the Connecticut River.
region
-\.I
3c
Long Island Sound
were 14 dams on the river; one in Connecticut, two in Massachusetts and 11 in New Hampshire and Vermont, along their common border. Nature responded to the deterioration that accompanied the growth and 1800s industrialization of the region. The floods of the mid-to-late devastated the countryside; massive flooding in 1927, 1938, 1954 and 195.5 resulted in a significant loss of life and property, increased bank erosion and disruption of the river’s ecology. The extent and severity of damage was largely due to human interference with the river’s natural flood-control mechanisms. The Connecticut remained unfit to swim in, unfishable and unsightly until well past the first half of this century. Those who lived along the river, and even those who had made money through its exploitation, became increasingly concerned by its deterioration. The river came to be seen finally, as ‘an amenity of life to be valued for its beauty, environmental contribution, and recreation opportunities’, and not only as an economic resource.6
Decentralization ‘ibid,
34
p
142.
One of the profound new phenomena occurring in the USA is the shift from a centralized to a more decentralized decision-making process in
LAND USE POLICY January
1987
Computer-assisted land use planning
‘See, for example, John Naisbitt, Megatrends, Warner Books, New York, USA, 1982. *Julius Gy. Fabos, Land Use Planning: From Global to Local Challenge, Chapman and Hall, New York, USA, 1985.
many aspects of governance.7 This, in turn, is affecting land use planning by expanding the role of the public in the decision-making process. As a result, the role of the planner is shifting from strictly planning to include facilitating the resolution of conflicts between diverse interest groups and educating all participants about the planning process. The increased reliance on the strategy of decentralization by citizens eager to be more in control of their destiny ensures the vitality of the planning process. The transition from a centralized to a more decentralized form of planning in the USA is clearly portrayed in the developments which ultimately led to the current Connecticut Greenway planning. In 1968, the United States National Park Service (NPS) attempted to create a Connecticut River National Recreation Area.8 During that period the Federal government assumed the primary responsibility for regional open space and recreation planning. This ambitious project attempted to coordinate land acquisitions by Federal and four state governments Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Vermont (Figure 2). The plan had limited success; for example, a small part of the Mount Holyoke range in Massachusetts was purchased with Federal funds. Similarly, each state acquired some land for inclusion in the proposed Connecticut River Recreation Area. However, by the 1970s local opposition all but halted this Federal effort. The local opposition was due in large part to the perceived conflict between the goals of NPS and local interests, and to the strong tradition of local autonomy in the New England States, particularly in regard to local land use decisions AWII’!
Quebec
;
Y-1----------
Proposed federal area
! I
Proposed state area
i
?
i i
Vermqnt -IT
0
i
i New
(
Numbers refer to maior highways
Maine
/
Atlantic
Ocean
Miles 0
Figure 2. Connecticut Recreation
, 30
River National
Area.
Proposed by the Department of Interior in 1989.
Note:
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
Long Island Sound
35
Computer-assisted
land
use phning
The current Connecticut Greenway planning differs from the Federal effort in two important respects. First, this pIann~ng has been initiated by the Massachusetts State government. The NPS is involved only in an advisory capacity. Second, this state planning effort has acknowledged the reality of decentralization through its commitment to the full participation of all 19 towns bordering the Connecticut River in Massachusetts (Figure 3) and all special groups who have expressed interest. The Massachusetts Department of ~I~vironmentaI Management (DEM) established a regional office in the area to facilitate direct contact between its planners and all local groups. The expansion of the public’s role has several important implications for reshaping the planning process and the implementation of land use policy. Clearly, greater participation affords the opportunity for improved land use decisions by making the process more democratic. Greater public involvement also offers the potential for educating a community about its land use resources. On the other hand, increased public participation implies a broader range of values and interests than are usually considered in the conventional setting of more centralized planning. It also implies a proliferation of potential conflicts in the attempt to formulate acceptable alternatives. These new conditions require a process which is not only able to handle a much greater amount of data, but also has the ability to generate a larger set of
NEW VERMONT
:
HAMPSHIRE
I ml Hadley
Figure 3. The Connecticut Greenway study area.
36
CONNECTICUT
LAND USE POLICY January
1987
Computer-assisted
land use planning
alternatives for evaluation. As will be shown in the next section, computer technology can play a key role in assisting the planner to work effectively within the participatory framework. It is not suggested that all land use related planning is being decentralized or should be transferred to local levels. Certain land use problems are national in character and will continue to demand Federal action. The water pollution problems of the 1960s and 1970s could not be undertaken without a massive Federal involvement. Similarly, local communities and even State governments are helpless to deal with such ubiquitous problems as acid rain and related land use problems. On the other hand, the Federal government has experienced increasing difficulty in influencing policy in highly-developed regions. The difficulty arises for two important reasons. First, in Massachusetts for example, 80% of the land is privately owned, a large portion of which is in many small landholdings. Second, a strong tradition of ‘home rule’ in the New England states has traditionally kept land use decision power at the local level. Therefore, the Federal government, which is often separated from local levels by state and county governments, finds it difficult to influence planning decisions. It is expected that decentralization in land use planning will increase, together with debates on what is an appropriate level of decision for various planning problems. As our society becomes better educated and more environmentally conscious, the inefficiencies of large bureaucratic planning become more evident and we will continue to search out better methods to solve these problems.
Participatory planning for the Connecticut
Greenway
The Connecticut Greenway planning is an outgrowth of two recent developments. First, the water quality of the Connecticut River has recently been restored from its highly polluted condition during the 1960s and 1970s to a river clean enough to swim in. This programme was part of a national wastewater management planning effort which cost the US approximately 1.50 billion dollars (in 1970 dollar value). The 63 mile portion of the Connecticut River which flows through the Commonwealth of Massachusetts received approximately 250 million dollars from this national effort. Since the river is now clean, it provides a great recreational opportunity, hence private and public pressure is building for increased use of the river. Second, DEM recently renewed a statewide open space planning and land acquisition effort. Because of the increased pressure for use of this valuable resource, a large portion of the DEM planning effort has been focused on the river. In light of the fact that local opposition finally halted the earlier Federal Greenway effort, it was crucial to DEM’s preliminary organizing efforts to involve the public. This effort began with DEM hiring a person thoroughly familiar with the whole range of local issues concerning the Connecticut River. In addition, DEM organized a coordinating committee of representatives from all 19 towns and pertinent state agencies, eg the Departments of Fish and Wildlife, and Agriculture. The group meets regularly to set policies for Greenway planning and land acquisition. DEM also organized satellite committees, representing all interest groups, whose function is to advise the coordinating committee. These groups range from a Fish and Wildlife group whose interest is in the protection of the diversity of fish and
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
37
Computer-assisted
land use planning
wildlife species, to a Water Recreation Group whose task is to address the opportunities and constraints of these activities in the Greenway, to a Farmers Group interested in preserving prime agricultural land adjacent to the river. The critical outcome of this first phase is to identify as many of the potential problems, conflicts and special needs or interests related to the Greenway as soon as possible and to prioritize them. Thus, the degree of complexity created by the participation of several interest groups requires an ability to combine data collection, spatial analysis and decision making into a unified process. The key to resolving such a complex planning situation lies in the ability to analyse numerous plans and policies quickly, efficiently and economically; Workstation technology makes it possible. The GIS for this project was designed by the Metropolitan Landscape Planning Model team (METLAND), an on-going research project that represents a comprehensive approach to landscape resource assessment and planning.’ METLAND was developed by a multidisciplinary team of planners, social and natural scientists and economists at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, and it incorporates elements of both environmental and economic planning.” METLAND has been a forerunner in computer-assisted landscape planning since 1973. METLAND has oriented its current research effort away from the mainframe computer environment in order to take advantage of recent developments in Workstation technology discussed previously. The objective is to provide the processing power of the conventional GIS on hardware which is affordable for large and small government agencies, as well as private practitioners. By promoting use of the Workstationbased GIS, METLAND is actively involved in improving the process of participatory planning and design.
Implementation
gJulius Gy. Fabos, Christopher M. Greene and Spencer A. Joyner, Jr, The METLAND Landscape Planning Process, Research Bulletin No 653, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, USA, 1978. ‘“Gross, Bucko, Fabos and Foster, op tit, Ref 4; and Meir Gross, Daniel J. Bucko and Julius Gy. Fabos, ‘The use of geographic information systems in evaluating land resource losses in locating new development’, Environments, Vol 17, No 1, 1985.
38
of the Workstation-based
GIS
The implementation of the Workstation-based GIS for the Connecticut Greenway will allow DEM to perform at least three types of planning: alternative plans for the entire 63 mile long river segment; alternative development and preservation plans for each of the 19 towns; and analysis and evaluation of individual proposals for the acquisition of specific parcels of land. The first use of the system will be the generation of alternative plans or test policies for the 63 mile segment of the river. In order to respond to the goals and objectives of the various interest groups gathered in the first phase of the planning process, DEM and NPS initially identified seven critical areas of resources which required analysis and mapping. These include existing and potential areas for various types of recreation (based on natural resources such as soils, slopes, vegetation and depth of water table); the restriction to potential recreation areas (based primarily on land ownership pattern and accessibility); natural resource habitats; water quality and existing pollution sources (including both point and non-point sources); cultural and historic resources; agricultural resources (ie agricultural productivity); and scenic resources. Each of these areas of concern, when assessed, requires the analysis of several factors. For example, the suitability of a swimming area may be the function of variables such as slope, soil, orientation, land use, land cover and accessibility. Within the GIS, each of these factors constitutes
LAND USE POLICY January
1987
Computer-assisted land use planning
a map or datafile. At this point, the GIS can be used to overlay and rapidly analyse multiple sets of map files which reflect the interests of different groups. For example, one plan alternative may be based on the objectives of recreationists representing the motorized boating group. Another alternative may be generated by swimmers and those who favour non-motorized boating activities. Other alternatives may be biased toward the needs of farmers, fish and game clubs, historic preservationists, etc. In short, aided by the computer, it will be possible to generate an indefinite number of alternatives. The second use of the system will be to generate alternative land use plans for the 19 communities. Since the majority of land use decisions in Massachusetts are made at the town level, and since a large database will be available for all the communities located along the river, one of the most effective ways for DEM to create the Greenway is by helping communities with their local planning efforts. Many community land use interests are similar to those advocated by DEM. For example, both the communities and DEM stress the importance of open space for recreation. The Greenway offers this opportunity. Also, both the communities and DEM share an interest in avoiding development in prime agricultural land and floodplains. Since a large portion of the agricultural lands are also flood-prone areas, the GIS could help the towns to encourage developments away from low-lying areas adjacent to the river by locating development sites in the upper lands most suitable for development. In short, the GIS is expected to aid the towns with their land use planning and at the same time help DEM to promote development away from the river. The third use of the system will be the analysis and evaluation of individual recommendation for land acquisitions; perhaps the most valuable function of the system in contributing to the ultimate realization of the Greenway. This is primarily because opportunities for the acquisition of land parcels in the US almost always occur incrementally and might depend, for example, on the desire of a farmer to sell his land. Currently, without the aid of the GIS, it is very difficult to assess how the acquisition of a given parcel would contribute to the total Greenway plan. With the GIS, a potential beach area under consideration for acquisition can be compared with all other recreation sites along the river and ranked according to a wide range of criteria such as aesthetic quality, recreation potential, accessibility, proximity to large populations or potential for linkage to other Greenway sites. This function is especially valuable in prioritizing land acquisition when resources to purchase land are limited. In conclusion, it was not possible to accommodate this degree of complexity at these three levels of analysis until the advent of Workstation technology. The Workstation can provide the processing capability and storage capacity required for these operations at a reasonable cost for the office environment.
Future directions The purpose of the planning processes and the case study described above was to analyse the consequences of land use policies and to develop and evaluate land use plans based on natural and man-made attributes of the landscape. Thus the GIS was used primarily for rapid generation of maps displaying the spatial consequences of alternative
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
39
Computer-assisted
lund use planning
“See, for example, FrederickS. Hillierand Gerald J. Lieberman, lnff~ucfion To Operafions Research, Holden-Day, San Francisco, USA, 1980. j2Lewis D. Hopkins, ‘Optimum seeking methods for design of suburban land use plan’, PhD thesis, Department of City Planning, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA, 1975; Lewis D. Hopkins, ‘Land use plan design-quadratic assignment and central-facility models’, Environment and Planning, Vol5, pp 625 642, 1977. Also Ardeshir Anjomani, The overlaying map technique: problems and suggested solutions’, Journal of flannhg Education and Research, Vol 4, No 2, 1984; and Mark Los, Simultaneous optimization of land use and trans~~ation: a synthesis of the quadratic assignment and optimal network problem, Publication No 31, Centre de Recherche sur les Transports, Montreal, Quebec, 1975.
policies and plans, with the main analytical function of the computer being to overlay a large number of maps. The next phase in the development of the Workstation-based GIS as a planning tool will take greater advantage of the computer’s processing capabilities. Through the integration of advanced modelling systems the planner will be able to address increasingly complex planning issues. The prime example of these types of models are those based on mathematical programming, already extensively used in various other disciplines such as industrial management and economic planning. I1 The important characteristic of the mathematical programming family of models is its optimization capabilities. In the context of land use planning this implies that such models can help to determine the optimal, or preferred, policy or plan among various alternatives. Thus, this type of model, also called a plan-making model, can be regarded as a logically complete synthesis of the three central stages of the planning process: generating alternative plans, predicting their outcome and choosing the best one. There are four principal applications in which these models, combined with GIS, have been proposed or tested in land use planning: 1) where the demand for various land uses is large relative to the available supply of land; 2) where the plan must respond to many, often conflicting, objectives; 3) where the plan has to respond to changes over time; and 4) where the suitability of the land to accommodate a given land use is not only a function of the characteristics of the land itself but also its location in relation to other land uses (ie location of the land use determines its interactions, or interdependence, with other land uses). These interactions could be culturally related (such as movement of people and flow of goods), or related to a combination of manmade activities and environmental factors such as air pollution dispersion or surface water runoff. Mathematical programming models have been used in the past, individually or in combination, for various types of planning. r2 However, these applications all involved the expensive environment of a mainframe computer. The advent of Workstation technology with its user-friendly, interactive orientation, will make the use of such advanced models available at a relatively low cost. In the context of the Connecticut Greenway Planning all four applications mentioned above are highly relevant. Planners and policy makers will undoubtedly be faced with these issues as the river and its surrounding environs become more desirable.
Initial results The initial results of GIS implementation for the Connecticut Greenway have been promising. The system was used to help identify potential recreation sites along the river within the context of a wide range of criteria identified by DEM and several advisory groups. DEM is now involved in land acquisition and conceptual site design for selected parcels. The METLAND team also completed a project designed to further educate planning officials from selected communities bordering the river about the broad applicability of GIS for community-based land use decision making. The project provided extensive hands-on training for participants, and initiated a valuable dialogue between the METLAND team and local planning officials. The dialogue helped to
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
Computer-assisted
land use planning
identify areas for possible modification of the GIS to further enhance its user-friendliness. In addition, experience with the capability of the GIS as a result of the training sessions led to the identification of a number of potential projects by local officials.
Conclusion As demonstrated by the events leading up to the current Connecticut Greenway planning, DEM’s decentralized planning strategy is clearly essential to the realization of a recreational river. By combining this strategy with Workstation technology, opportunities for better land use decisions, particularly with greater public involvement at the local level, can be greatly enhanced. The recent advances in Workstation technology and the availability of electronic spatial data make it feasible, both physically and economically, to use the capabilities and capacity of much larger mainframes on a machine easily suited to an office environment. Finally, the Workstation is designed to allow the planner to focus attention on the planning problem at hand, rather than the computer’s operating system or the fundamentals of database management.
LAND USE POLICY January 1987
41