Dental Wear Patterns and Subsistence Activities in Early Nomadic Pastoralist Communities of the Central Asian Steppes

ARCHAEOLOGY, ETHNOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY OF EURASIA Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 40/3 (2012) 149–157 E-mail: [email protected]

149

ANTHROPOLOGY

M.L. Machicek1 and A.V. Zubova2 Smithsonian Institution, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, 10th St. and Constitution Ave. NW, MRC 112, Washington DC, 20013, USA E-mail: [email protected] 2 Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Akademika Lavrentieva 17, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia E-mail: [email protected]

1

DENTAL WEAR PATTERNS AND SUBSISTENCE ACTIVITIES IN EARLY NOMADIC PASTORALIST COMMUNITIES OF THE CENTRAL ASIAN STEPPES*

Dental wear patterns were studied in ¿ve ancient groups of Siberia and Mongolia. The results indicate considerable variation of subsistence activities among populations practicing different forms of pastoralism. In all groups, dental wear patterns in various classes of teeth appear to be more related to subsistence activities than to age at death. Keywords: Dental wear, pastoralism, Xiongnu, Pazyryk culture, Kamen culture.

Introduction The development of nomadic pastoralism as a major form of subsistence began at varying times throughout the Central Asian steppes, but was arguably initiated on a broad scale by the Late Bronze Age – Early Iron Age (ca 1000–400 BC). Subsequent periods would see *This study was supported by the Wenner Gren Foundation (USA), the Natural Environment Research Council (UK), the Council of American Overseas Research Centers, the National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution (USA), and the Russian Academy of Sciences Program “Traditions and Innovations in History and Culture.” Our thanks are extended to the National University of Mongolia and the Institute of Archaeology (Mongolian Academy of Sciences) in Ulaanbaatar, Peter the Great Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography (Kunstkamera) RAS in St. Petersburg, and the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS in Novosibirsk for kindly facilitating this research.

the refinement and widespread transmission of this development take shape in various forms, dependent upon local circumstances and environmental settings. The extensive reliance on this form of subsistence has often predisposed an image of communities depending almost exclusively on domesticated animals and animal products for their dietary needs. However, evidence for other subsistence related activities in nomadic pastoralist groups has been found in the form of wild faunal remains from archaeological contexts, iconographic evidence for hunting and paleobotanical analyses of grains, seeds, and food remains on vessels (Jacobson, 1993; Rösch et al., 2005; Korolyuk, Polosmak, 2010). Dietary resources and their relative importance in nomadic societies are dif¿cult to evaluate on the basis of archaeological data alone. Such information is typically recovered from refuse pits at settlements (see, e.g., (Polosmak, 1987: 111–112; Matveyeva, 1993: 116–120; Mogilnikov, 1997: 96–97; Kosintsev, Bobkovskaya,

© 2012, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2012.11.017

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1997)) and food remains in burials (Kosintsev, Razhev, 1997). The informative potential of these sources is limited. In the former case, animal bones may have been used for manufacturing tools; some animals may be slaughtered for sale, etc. In the latter case, faunal remains placed in burials may have differed from that which was consumed in everyday life. The likelihood of discovering agricultural products, even if they were a principal dietary staple, is very low either at settlements or in burials. In exceptional cases, charred remains of foods are preserved on vessels, in ceramic paste, or in oxides on metal ware, i.e., under conditions favoring the conservation of organic matter. Such exceptional cases do not provide reliable information about the prevalence of a speci¿c type of food. Therefore a comprehensive approach is needed, one in which skeletal data is used alongside archaeological evidence as an independent source of information. The isotopic analysis of bone tissue is very informative for the reconstruction of diet, but it cannot always be conducted on a comprehensive scale. An additional line of evidence, also based on skeletal remains, is the study of enamel wear on the occlusal surfaces of teeth. Comparative studies utilizing this type of data are abundant and concern numerous populations inhabiting various regions. The majority of earlier assessments have explored dental pathology and wear patterns in hunter-gatherer and farming populations (e.g., (Smith P., 1972; Smith B., 1984; Kaifu, 1999; Eshed et al., 2006)). Previous dental wear studies have investigated populations spanning a wide variety of time periods and geographic locales. Establishing age-at-death estimations based on population-speci¿c dental wear rates has been a common focus of this type of analysis (e.g., (Miles, 1962; Tomenchuk, Mayhall, 1979; Walker et al., 1991; Hillson, 1996; Mays, 2002)). In addition, the rate and severity of wear patterns has been assessed to provide an indication of the degree of coarseness or grit in the diet of various populations (Molnar, 1971; Smith, 1972; Walker et al., 1991). Relatively few, however, have examined variation in groups that are considered to be predominantly mobile or “nomadic” pastoralists. Potential sources of abrasion, that could be consumed to supplement a diet based primarily on domesticated animals and animal products, are roots, tubers and other wild plants, which can be quite ¿brous and from exogenous materials introduced through food preparation methods of these items or of cultigens (e.g., grinding, pounding) (Hillson, 1996). Another possible source of dietary abrasion could result from the consumption of dried meat. In ancient historical texts that describe various attributes of the Mongol Army it is mentioned that troops would carry dried meat as one of their basic uniform supplies (Lane, 2006). More detailed information can be found in treatises

by European travelers who visited the Mongol Empire in the mid-13th century. According to one, Pian de Carpine, the food of the Mongols is “everything that can be eaten; for they eat dogs, wolves, foxes and horses... They have no bread nor oil nor vegetables, nothing but their cosmos, that is to say mare’s milk, they care not for any other food. So then if it happens that an ox or a horse dies, they dry its Àesh by cutting it into narrow strips and hanging it in the sun and the wind, where at once and without salt it becomes dry without any evil smell. With the intestines of horses they make sausages better than pork ones, and they eat them fresh. The rest of the Àesh they keep for winter” (Rockhill, 1900: 63–65). Agriculture and hunting were practiced too. Pian de Carpine says, “They hunt and practice archery” (Ibid.: 76), and according to Rubruck, “the great lords have villages in the south, from which millet and Àour are brought to them for the winter. The poor procure [these things] by trading sheep and pelts” (Ibid.: 68). It could be suggested that in terms of dental wear patterns, pastoralist groups should be closer, not to agriculturalist groups but to hunter-gatherer populations due to similarities in the two economies (Machicek, 2011). Such similarities include, for example, lowlevels of population density and a mixed reliance on non-domesticated plants and meat. However, a strong dependence on soft food products such as dairy items and the utilization of certain food preparation methods such as boiling, could affect dental wear and dental pathology rates in dissimilar ways. Overall, we propose that it is likely that, dental wear in pastoralist groups will be lower than in foraging ones (e.g., (Tayles et al., 2000; Temple, Larsen, 2007)). The primary objectives of this study were to undertake a comparative analysis of dental wear across populations that are considered to be nomadic pastoralists and to assess the possible inÀuences for observed wear patterns in these groups. In order to explore these objectives, skeletal samples from ¿ve sites located in Siberia and Mongolia were analyzed and compared. Previously, no such information was available, and therefore our results can provide a starting point for future studies of diet and dental wear in local groups of Central Asian pastoralists. Materials and methods Cranial samples used in this study were obtained through archaeological excavations in Western and Eastern Siberia and Mongolia (Fig. 1). Four of these date to the Early Iron Age, while the ¿fth sample dates to the Mongol Period, i.e., to the Middle Ages. It is generally accepted that by the beginning of the Iron Age, communities in these regions were relying extensively on nomadic

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pastoralism as a major form of subsistence economy (Rudenko, 1970; Volkov, 1995; DiCosmo, 2002; Honeychurch, Amartuvshin, 2006). However, to what degree this reliance was variable between communities and to what extent it changed over time has yet to be evaluated through dental wear analysis in these populations. The earliest sample represents the Pazyryk culture (7th–3rd centuries BC). This sample was combined from several sites – Bertek-1, Ala-Gail, Baratal, Barburgazy, Balyk-Soök, Kuray Steppe, Dzholin, Buraty, and sites in 0 the Ulandryk and Yustyd river valleys. All those sites are located in Gorny Altai north of the modern-day Mongolian border. Judging by archaeological data, the Pazyryk people were primarily nomadic pastoralists. However, their dietary resources were likely to be quite variable. They arguably came from several different sources – domesticated animals and animal products, hunted (wild) animals and possibly cultivated plants, specifically cereals. Dietary reliance on cultigens is supported by the discovery of a millstone at Bertek-1 and by the results of the palaeobotanical analysis of grains and seeds from Pazyryk contexts (Rudenko, 1970; Naseleniye Gornogo Altaya…, 2003; Arkheologicheskiye pamyatniki…, 2004). Results of isotope analysis of human hair from Verkh-Kaldzhin-2 indicated the predominance of animal proteins derived from the meat of terrestrial animals and from ¿sh (O’Connell, 2000). The following period (2nd century BC – 1st century AD) is represented by the sample from Verkh-Suzun-5 in the forest-steppe zone of the Upper Ob basin, in what is now the Suzun Region of the Novosibirsk Province (Zhurba, 2001). This population was associated with the Kamen (Bolshaya Rechka) culture. Verkh-Suzun people were mostly nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists who also practiced agriculture and hunted large mammals (Mogilnikov, 1997). Based on faunal remains recovered from settlements, their domestic animals were cattle, horses, and sheep, whereas the hunted animals were elk, deer, and boar (Ibid.: 97). The third sample, dating to the 3rd century BC – 2nd century AD, represents the Xiongnu culture of Southern Siberia. It comes from Ivolga – a site located 16 km southwest of Ulan Ude, Buryatia. It is commonly held that the Xiongnu communities relied heavily on domesticated animals and animal products for their dietary needs. This information is largely gathered from ancient Chinese historic texts that discuss the “nomadic” lifestyle of the Xiongnu (Watson, 1993). However, excavations at Ivolga revealed not only bones of domestic animals such as sheep and goat but also grain storage areas and ¿sh bones (Davydova, 1995; 1996).

1000 km

Fig. 1. Location of sites.

Another sample representing the Xiongnu culture was excavated from the site of Burkhan Tolgoi, also dating to the 3rd century BC – 2nd century AD, and located in the Egiin Gol Valley of north-central Mongolia. Over several ¿eld seasons, archaeologists excavated a series of Xiongnu burials at this site (Turbat et al., 2003). The burials were constructed in the characteristic “ring tomb” style of the Xiongnu Period (Turbat, 2006). Faunal remains found within the burial contexts were comprised of domesticated animals such as sheep, goat, horses and dogs as well as wild animals such as deer. Analyses of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of human bone collagen from the Burkhan Tolgoi sample indicate a dietary intake that consisted heavily of terrestrial animals, but also with input from C3 and C4 plants (Machicek 2011). This supports the possibility of a multi-resource based subsistence economy for this population. The latest sample dates to the 12th–14th centuries AD. It includes materials from Sharga and Tavan-Tolgoi near Sukhbaatar, eastern Mongolia. These Mongol Period burials are considered to be generally characteristic of the period (Batsaikhan, 2003). Individuals were buried in relatively shallow burials marked on the ground surface by circular or oval alignments of unaltered stones (Batsaikhan, 2003; 2006). Potential dietary evidence for this period has been identi¿ed through palaeobotanical research at the site of Karakorum where investigators identi¿ed several species of nuts and fruits that are both local and imported (Rösch et al., 2005; Oyuntuya, Rösch, 2007). However, the importance of these resources in the diet and their availability to communities further a¿eld is unknown at present. Only individuals that were assigned as fully adult were included in the present study. Because dental wear rates are known to increase with advanced age (Miles, 1962; Walker et al., 1991; Mays, 2002), individuals for whom age estimates were too broad (e.g., “above ¿fty”) were

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Table 1. Sample sizes Number of individuals

Number of teeth

Verkh-Suzun-5

11

200

Pazyryk culture

64

831

Ivolga

21

326

Burkhan Tolgoi

28

321

Eastern Mongolia

19

237

Total

143

1915

Sample

excluded. Sex and age estimation was carried outon the basis of cranial sutures and pelvic morphology according to guidelines available in Ubelaker (1989) and Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). The ¿ve samples comprise a total of 143 individuals (1915 teeth) (Table 1). The severity of dental wear for each tooth was assigned a score based on the eight grade scale devised by Smith (1984). The average degree of wear for each tooth type was then calculated for each sample as the average tooth wear (sum of each tooth wear grade divided by the number of teeth observed). This is similar to the method used by Liu et al. (2010) although here the average was tabulated based on the numerical score rather than the frequency. Males and females were combined into a single group for each sample. This was considered appropriate because the sample sizes were not robust enough for meaningful statistical comparison when divided by sex. In addition, both left and right side results were combined on the same basis. The mean scores were then compared through statistical analyses both within and between sample groups in order to establish degrees of possible variation in wear patterns. Results between more than two samples were compared using multi-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests, while comparisons between two sample groups were assessed by t-tests. In all cases signi¿cance level was set at p”0.05. Results The highest average scores for the anterior teeth (incisors and canines) of the upper dentition are from Ivolga for the central incisor (I1) and Burkhan Tolgoi for the lateral incisor (I2). Verkh-Suzun exhibited the highest average wear scores for the premolars and molars and the lowest scores for the incisors and canines. The lowest average scores for the upper molars were from eastern Mongolia (M1 and M3) and Burkhan Tolgoi (M2). The Pazyryk and Burkhan Tolgoi samples showed similar average scores across all upper dentition with some overlapping results from the other groups (Table 2, Fig. 2).

The results for the lower dentition show similar average scores for the incisors across the sample groups (I1 and I2) with the exception of the eastern Mongolian sample with no overlapping average scores for the incisors or premolars*. The lowest average scores for all lower teeth were from the eastern Mongolian sample. The highest scores for the premolars and molars are from Verkh-Suzun with the next highest from Ivolga for the premolars and M1. As in the upper dentition, the Pazyryk and Burkhan Tolgoi samples exhibited similar average scores for all lower teeth (Table 3, Fig. 3). Multi-way ANOVA tests found no significant differences between samples for the upper dentition. However, signi¿cant variation was observed in ANOVA tests for the lower anterior teeth/premolars and all lower teeth combined (Tables 2, 3). Two-way t-test comparisons identi¿ed signi¿cant differences between several groups (Tables 4, 5). Signi¿cant variation was observed between the eastern Mongolian and Ivolga samples for the upper anterior dentition and premolars and between Verkh-Suzun and Burkhan Tolgoi for the upper molars. Signi¿cant variation in the attrition of lower anterior teeth and premolars was found when comparing Verkh-Suzun with Pazyryk; Burkhan Tolgoi with eastern Mongolia; and Ivolga with eastern Mongolia. Attrition scores of the lower molars were signi¿cantly variable between the eastern Mongolian and Verkh-Suzun samples. Discussion Overall the results of this assessment indicate similar wear patterns between the population samples, with several notable exceptions. The two most divergent groups are those from Verkh-Suzun and eastern Mongolia. The marked degree of variation for the upper dentition of Verkh-Suzun, where the severity of wear of lateral incisors is much less than that of medial incisors, canines, premolars and molars, is likely a reÀection of the small sample sizes for the anterior teeth. Based on the evidence from the molars in this sample, it is possible that the diet of the Kamen people differed from that of the other, possibly more exclusively pastoralist populations. Speci¿cally, these people may have practiced an early form of pastoralism, and consumed a mostly cereal diet that was more abrasive or contained abrasive extradietary material. It is likely that, hunting and gathering still played an important role in this community; also, cooking techniques may not have been as re¿ned at this point. . This is probable, given the early date of Verkh-

*No correlation between average dental wear score and the proportion of aged individuals in the group was found.

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Table 2. Average dental wear scores and results of ANOVA. Upper teeth Class of teeth

Verkh-Suzun-5

Pazyryk, pooled X

N

Burkhan Tolgoi X

N

Eastern Mongolia, Mongol Period

N

X

1

I

5

2.6

20

3.5

12

4.17

15

3.0

3

3.0

I2

6

1.67

24

2.96

16

3.19

20

3.4

7

2.86

C

9

3.44

28

3.54

20

4.3

23

3.87

9

3.11

P1

14

4.0

42

3.21

25

3.92

24

3.54

13

3.31

2

P

14

4.4

54

3.7

25

3.52

23

3.35

12

3.42

1

M

15

5.0

82

4.2

33

4.94

21

3.81

20

3.75

M2

18

4.2

72

3.4

24

3.33

15

2.8

17

3.24

M

8

4.5

30

3.1

8

2.75

7

2.43

4

2.0

3

N

Ivolga

X

N

X

ANOVA, anterior teeth: ɪ = 0.42 Molars: ɪ = 0.15 All teeth: ɪ = 0.24

Table 3. Average dental wear scores and results of ANOVA. Lower teeth Eastern Mongolia, Mongol Period

Class of teeth

Verkh-Suzun-5 N

X

N

X

N

X

N

N

X

I1

4

4.2

46

3.8

12

4.17

20

4

9

3.22

I2

1

3.6

34

3.65

16

3.19

22

3.64

11

3.18

C

3

4

47

3.64

20

4.3

21

3.57

13

3.0

P1

4

4.7

59

2.97

25

3.92

22

3.14

9

2.56

P2

6

4.2

63

2.9

25

3.52

21

2.76

12

2.33

M1

6

5

83

3.98

33

4.94

21

3.62

16

3.19

M2

5

3.9

86

3.43

24

3.33

27

3.07

18

2.72

M3

2

3.9

61

3.25

8

2.75

19

2.58

11

2.55

Pazyryk, pooled

Ivolga

Burkhan Tolgoi X

ANOVA, anterior teeth: ɪ = 0.0019 Molars: ɪ = 0.14 All teeth: ɪ < 0.0001

Note. Statistically signi¿cant values are set in bold.

Table 4. Results of pairwise comparisons of average dental wear scores. Upper teeth Samples

Anterior teeth and premolars, ɪ

Molars, ɪ

Verkh-Suzun-5/Pazyryk

0.77

0.064

Verkh-Suzun-5/Ivolga

0.30

0.25

Verkh-Suzun-5/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.70

0.02788

Pazyryk/Ivolga

0.11

0.91

Pazyryk/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.80

0.34

Ivolga/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.16

0.44

Eastern Mongolia/Verkh-Suzun-5

0.87

0.07

Eastern Mongolia/Pazyryk

0.19

0.40

Eastern Mongolia/Ivolga

0.02617

0.47

Eastern Mongolia/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.14

0.98

Note. Statistically signi¿cant values are set in bold.

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ɚ b c d e

Fig. 2. Average wear scores in various classes of upper teeth. a – Verkh-Suzun-5; b – Ivolga; c – Eastern Mongolia; d – Pazyryk culture; e – Burkhan Tolgoi.

Fig. 3. Average wear scores in various classes of lower teeth. See Fig. 2 for explanations.

Table 5. Results of pairwise comparisons of average dental wear scores. Lower teeth Samples

Anterior teeth and premolars, ɪ

Molars, ɪ

Verkh-Suzun-5/Pazyryk

0.0183

0.16

Verkh-Suzun-5/Ivolga

0.08

0.33

Verkh-Suzun-5/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.0290

0.06

Pazyryk/Ivolga

0.34

0.92

Pazyryk/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.92

0.28

Ivolga/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.43

0.60

Eastern Mongolia/Verkh-Suzun-5

0.00091

0.0364

Eastern Mongolia/Pazyryk

0.073

0.067

Eastern Mongolia/Ivolga

0.01366

0.40

Eastern Mongolia/Burkhan Tolgoi

0.078

0.4976

Note. Statistically signi¿cant values are set in bold.

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Suzun and the fact that it is located on the border of the forest-steppe zone. One possibility to account for the divergence of the eastern Mongolian sample, which dates to the latest period, is that these results may indicate a more “purely” nomadic pastoralist diet (e.g., heavier reliance on processed dairy and meat items). On the other hand, our results may also reÀect a trend of dietary change over time on a broad macro-regional scale: with diet becoming less and less abrasive over time. An extensive study by Kaifu (1999) of prehistoric populations in Japan has shown a similar temporal trend. In addition, eastern Mongolia is an area where the natural environment offers less in the way of dietary resources that could potentially supplement a diet based primarily on domesticated animals and animal products. Thus environmental variation likely inÀuenced these results as well. Dental wear patterns in samples from the Pazyryk burials and from Burkhan Tolgoi are very similar. Both samples are from burial contexts that possibly attest to higher status due to their elaborate burial construction and associated mortuary offerings. The dental wear results for the Pazyryk and Burkhan Tolgoi samples may reÀect similar dietary habits in these two populations resulting from comparable environments, either natural or social. The Ivolga sample is rather close to the Pazyryk and Burkhan Tolgoi groups in terms of dental wear. While the distribution of wear scores across classes of teeth is broadly the same, the degree of dental attrition in the Ivolga people is higher than in either Pazyryk or Mongolian Xiongnu. The Ivolga cemetery adjoins a forti¿ed settlement – one of the largest Xiongnu sites east of Lake Baikal. Archaeologists believe that this population was a conglomerate consisting of Xiongnu proper and immigrants from China, Eastern Siberia, and other territories controlled by Xiongnu (Davydova, 1985, 1995; Kradin, 2007: 127). It has been suggested that most of them were agriculturalists, sedentary pastoralists, and ¿shermen (Davydova, 1985: 68–74). In short, this was essentially a sedentary group with a mixed economy. The evidence for grain storage facilities at Ivolga indicates that this population may also have relied more extensively on cereals, and these cereals could have been prepared in such a way as to introduce a high degree of grit into the diet. Most samples exhibited low average wear scores for the anterior dentition. In several individuals throughout the groups, however, incisors and canines were heavily worn. This might be the result of compensatory use of those teeth because of pathological conditions such as dental abscess or ante-mortem tooth loss. Another reason may be the extra-dietary use of the anterior teeth as a

“tool” or as an “extra hand” while performing various tasks (Merbs, 1968; Larsen, 1997). Comparisons between samples revealed signi¿cant differences in patterns of wear of the anterior teeth. The highest scores of lower anterior teeth wear were found in the Verkh-Suzun sample; by contrast, the attrition of the upper anterior teeth in this group is minimal. Because this sample is very small, these results may be incidental. However, they could also indicate an atypical use of the front teeth. The eastern Mongolian and Ivolga sample differ in anterior wear of both the upper and lower dentition. One reason may be the greater proportion of grain products in the diet of the Ivolga people. On the other hand, dental wear is multifactorial in aetiology, and it is rarely possible to identify one speci¿c cause of particular wear patterns (Molnar, 1971). The results, therefore, are likely to be reÀective of a combination of factors discussed throughout this investigation. Conclusions While dental wear patterns between the ancient populations of the Central Asian steppes are broadly similar, apparently attesting to a high role of meat and dairy products in the diet of all groups, there is also evidence for signi¿cant variation in some cases. This likely reflects different subsistence activities associated with various forms of pastoralism. The results, as a whole, indicate that while certain populations are considered to be nomadic pastoralists, based on evidence from archaeological contexts or historical sources, they did not necessarily engage in identical subsistence regimes. General observations include a lesser degree of wear in the anterior teeth, while upper premolars and molars exhibited more extensive wear than their lower counterparts. Differences between populations practicing various subsistence activities were most extensive in the degree of abrasion between both the upper and the lower molars. As a case in point, the variation between Verkh-Suzun and Ivolga, when compared to the other populations, primarily concern these teeth. Without the aid of isotopic analyses, it is dif¿cult to make more re¿ned inferences about the diet of each population. Our results, however, do suggest that the people of Verkh-Suzun and Ivolga consumed a more varied diet than did the Pazyryk or the Xiongnu of Mongolia. In addition, the broad ¿ndings of this study suggest a trend towards a less abrasive diet by the time of the Mongol Period. Overall, our results indicate considerable variety in local subsistence activities in early pastoralist communities of the Central Asian steppes.

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