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Derogation of student female athletes who consult a sport psychologist: An alternative perspective on the negative halo effect
Derogation of Student Female Athletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist: An Alternative Perspective on the Negative Halo Effect Jocelyne E Brooks & Stephen J Bull Cheltenham & Gloucester College, Francis Close Hall, Gloucester, UK. Brooks, J.E., & Bull, S.J. (2001). Derogation of student female athletes who consult a sport psychologist: An alternative perspective on the negative helo effect Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 4 (1): 39-47. This study attempts to further research female student athletes' perceptions of the sport psychologist and other sport and mental health professionals. 90 British student athletes from 17 different sports completed a two-part questionnaire to examine the potential derogation effect as a result of consulting one of three identified professionals and to explore the perceived definition and role of the sport psychologist. A fictitious selection report of a female field hockey player was presented to subjects with coach, sport psychologist and psychotherapist as the three professionals. It was hypothesised that subjects' recommendations regarding selection would differ depending on the consultant used. No differences were found which suggests the absence of a negative halo effect and that derogation would not occur within this sample group. Definitions and perceived role of the sport psychologist varied with the subjective tone of the responses from participants being mainly positive (74%). These results indicate that this female student athlete sample has a moderated, even a positive, perception of the sport psychologist. A general acceptance of the sport psychologist falls in line with the suggestions of Murstein and Fontaine (1993) concerning a reported increase in acceptance of mental health professionals.
Introduction Entry into a p r o g r a m m e of rehabilitation facilitating t r e a t m e n t adherence h a s been identified as the first p h a s e in the process of achieving adherence (Meichenbaum & Turk, 1987). Research h a s examined adherence to mental skills training a n d found t h a t as with exercise, injury a n d cardiac rehabilitation, adherence c a n be a problem (Bull, 1991). Little research h a s looked at this early stage of the adherence process, a l t h o u g h it h a s b e e n suggested t h a t h o w the sport psychologist is perceived could be influential in the future u s e of a consultant. deFrancesco & Cronin (1988) identified image a n d u s a g e as two potential variables which might affect the future use of psychological techniques by consumers. For athletes a n d recreational competitors to perceive applied sport psychology techniques as viable tools to e n h a n c e performance, the perception of the profession a n d the c o n s u l t a n t n e e d s to be a favourable one. Recent research reports the existence of favourable perceptions from coaches, athletes a n d administrators (Gould, Murphy, T a m m e n & May, 1991; Sullivan & Hodge, 1991) a l t h o u g h negative c o n n o t a t i o n s a n d their potential r e p e r c u s s i o n s on the profession b y coaches have also b e e n recounted (Partin~on & Orlick, 1987; Anshel, 1992).
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Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
Within this relatively new area of study, two themes have been investigated. First, perceptions of the sport psychologist, by different samples, in comparison to a n u m b e r of mental health practitioners and sport-oriented professionals. Second, the potential magnitude of derogation encountered, known as the negative halo effect, as a result of an athlete's contact with either a sport psychologist, a coach (Linder, Pillow & Reno, 1989) or in a later study a psychotherapist (Linder, Brewer, Van Raalte & De Lange, 1991) The negative halo effect relates to "the tendency to bias our judgement on the basis of other aspects of one particular feature" (Atkinson, Atkinson & Hilgard, 1983, p.403). This could be interpreted as meaning that distortions of first impressions m a y result, due to concentration on one characteristic deemed as favourable or unfavourable on the basis of existing perceptions. The negative halo effect causes one of two responses. A derogation response from the observer on, in this case, an athlete, where the athlete is discredited or looked down upon for seeking assistance from a sport psychologist. The other is a stigma response, for example, where the competitor is labelled as a problem athlete, as a result for example, of consulting a sport psychologist or less sport-oriented professional s u c h as a psychotherapist. A stigma can be described as 'an imputation attached to a person's reputation' (Collin's Dictionary, 1991) or 'a sign of disgrace or discredit' (Oxford Dictionary, 1991). There are a n u m b e r of studies that have considered perceptions of the sport psychologist (Linder, Pillow & Reno, 1989; Linder et al., 1991, Van Raalte et al., 1990; 1992; 1996). Linder et al., (1989; 1991) and Van Raalte et al., (1992) specifically investigated the existence of the negative halo in relation to sport. Linder, Pillow and Reno (1989) found that the public were more likely to discredit an athlete who consulted a sport psychologist rather t h a n a coach for a similar performance consistency problem. Such 'derogation' h a s been referred to as 'the negative halo effect' (Linder et al, 1991). Linder et al., (1991), replicated the previous study, b u t included a psychotherapist as a consultant. The study found that athletes were viewed more negatively if they consulted either a sport psychologist or the 'mental health professional' compared to those who consulted a coach. Van Raalte et al., (1992) found that participants only derogated an athlete who consulted a psychotherapist as opposed to consulting a coach. No difference was perceived between the use of a sport psychologist as opposed to a psychotherapist. This could suggest that individuals might have difficulty in differentiating between a sport psychologist and an established mental health professional. In addition this could suggest that the t e r m 'sport' fails to modify the perception of the role of a sport psychologist, the t e r m 'psychologist' identified as the main determinant orienting the perception (Van Raalte et al., 1990). Both studies (Linder et al., 1989; 1991) suggested that females might be less likely to derogate associate athletes due to a moderated perception of the sport psychologist and other consultants. Linder et al., (1991) suggested that sportswomen might be able to draw upon a variety of support services due to lesser stereotypic expectations from others. Rajecki (1990) stated that social stereotypes operate, in part, as normative expectations to which we conform in order to gain social reinforcement. Additionally, personal significance and labels that are attached to situations and behaviours are learned through interpersonal situations (Backmann, 1985; Damon, 1988). Therefore, if a negative label or adverse stereotype is given for a n 40
Derogation of Student Female Athletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
athlete or individual who consults a sport psychologist, the performer is potentially less likely to continue with the consultancy or experience conflict if this goes against the normative expectations of others. These stereotypes could be attached as a result of lack of knowledge concerning the role of a sport psychologist in relation to other mental health practitioners where labelling of 'problem' conditions is more common or as a result of first hand experience. Two models have been employed by Linder et al., (1989;1991) and Van Raalte et al., (1992) to try and explain the derogation effect. These are the stigma model and the deviance model. The stigma model is based on the view that athletes m a y avoid any contact and advice from a sport psychologist on the grounds that stigmatisation as a mental patient m a y occur. It is a potential belief that stigmatisation will occur even if the reaction is negligible. Nuimally (1961) reported that the mentally fll are in most cases regarded with fear, distrust and dislike. It would be presumptuous, in the eyes of an athlete where careers are at stake, to believe that the public can distinguish knowledgeably about the differences between the psychological and mental health professions and psychology relating to sport. An alternative viewpoint is that an athlete m a y be derogated or labelled purely because h e / s h e is deviating from the perceptions of how an individual described as a n athlete should behave held by others (whether it be an individual or society in general) (Archer, 1985). Becker (1963) believed that it is possible, as a result of this 'deviate' label that athletes m a y suffer in respect of how people view them in other areas of life. Both models are similar in that labels are created, which lead potentially to derogation and the establishing of perceptions by observers. Cyclically, the reinforcement by the athlete in performing the action supports the label, thus providing the impression that the athlete is capable of performing other problematic or deviating behaviours. The purpose of this study was threefold. First to explore the potential derogation effect as a result of consultancy and how the sport psychologists' role was perceived. Second to p u r s u e a research question posed by Linder et al., (1991) that female athletes would be less likely to exhibit the negative halo effect. Finally to further investigate British female athletes' perceptions of the sport psychologist.
Methods and procedures Participants Participants were 90 female university level athletes (mean age_+S.D.=20.44_+3.44) involved in either individual or team sports (n=15). The sports were hockey, lacrosse, basketball, volleyball, soccer, netball, track and field, swimming, mountain biking, gymnastics, judo, triathlon, mountaineering, tennis, canoeing, squash, table tennis. Participants were recruited via the University sports office.
Instrumentation The questionnaire comprised two parts. The first part was a fictitious selection report for a female hockey player based on the fictitious scouting report for a quarterback used by Van Raalte (personal communication, adapted from Linder et al., 1989; 1991). Hockey was chosen as the sport as it was thought to be the most familiar to this sample group. Changes were made within the report to account for cultural differences within the sport and to aid understanding. The adapted questionnaire was produced in conjunction with a hockey specialist (player and lecturer in t e a m games), to m a k e the facts as clear and applicable as
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Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
possible. The selection report included information about the fictitious player with her n a m e deleted (such as position of centre forward and statistics about her performance). All the information was constant except for which of the three professionals the player was identified as consulting for her performance consistency. The three professionals were the sport psychologist, psychotherapist and coach. Participants were requested to rate on a 7 point Likert type scale, the degree to which they would recommend this player for selection (1 not recommend - 7 strongly recommend). The higher the n u m b e r on the selection rating, the stronger the recommendation. 12 bipolar statements, rated on a similar 7-point scale, were also given to explore the attributions on which this selection rating had been based. The lower the rating on the attribution statement, the more favourable the attribute score. The statements were 1) be a t e a m player/play for individual glory, 2) play consistently game to g a m e / p l a y inconsistently game to game, 3) have trouble relating to other players/relate well to other players, 4) negatively influence the team's public i m a g e / e n h a n c e the team's public image, 5) possess personality that fits well with m a n a g e m e n t / p o s s e s s personality that conflicts with management, 6) be very disciplined/not disciplined, 7) play consistently season to s e a s o n / p l a y inconsistently season to season, 8) possess possibility of drug or alcohol p r o b l e m s / p o s s e s s no possibility of drug or alcohol problems, 9) be emotionally u n s t a b l e / b e emotionally stable, 10) be tough and d u r a b l e / b e soft and easily hurt, 11) puts forth very little extra effort/puts forth above average extra effort, 12) is loaded with natural ability/is below average in natural ability. The second part of the questionnaire requested demographic information and identification of the participants' definition of sport psychology and perceived role of a sport psychologist. This was requested to assess the level of understanding by the participants of w h a t a sport psychologist is and what they can do for the consumer.
Procedure The research proposal was examined by a n internal reviewing committee at the University, prior to data collection. 168 questionnaires were distributed to female university athletes via a n internal mailing system. An identified collection box was provided for questionnaire return. The response rate for fully completed questiolmaires was 56%. Students who had studied a specialist option in sport psychology were omitted from the study, due to their potential greater experience of the area as compared with the other participants.
Data analysis The fictitious selection report data was subjected to a 3 x 2 factorial ANOVA (consultant x rating) and a post-hoc Scheffe F-test's. This tested for significant differences between the three consultants on the selection rating, the 12 attribution ratings and the overall attribution rating. The content of the definitions and role responses were subjectively analysed for tone, fullness of response and particular language, t e r m s or attributes.
Results As m a y be seen in Table 1 no significant difference existed between the selection ratings for the 3 consultant t e r m s (F(2,87) = .26, p= 0.77), or between the total attribution ratings for the sport psychologist, coach and psychotherapist (F (2,87) = .35, p= 0.71).
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Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
Mean Ratings
Sport Psychologist (n=34)
Coach (n=29)
Psychotherapist (n=27)
P
Selection Rating
5.53_+0.89
5.41_+1.12
5.59_+0.79
.77
Attribution Rating
33.5_+9.93
35.31_+7.19
34.22_+8.22
.71
Table I:
Mean rating of recommendation for selection and overall attribution ratings for the fictitious hockey player.
Attribute
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
team player/plays for individual glory play consistently/inconsistently game to game relates well/has trouble relating to other players enhance/negativelyinfluence team's public image possesspersonality that fits well/conflicts with management 6. very disciplined/not disciplined 7. play consistently/inconsistently season to season 8. possesspossibility/no possibility of drug or alcohol related problem 9. emotionally stable/unstable 10. tough & durable/soft~ easily hurt 11. puts forth above average/very little extra effort 12. loaded/below average natural ability
Mean for Consultant
P Value (df=2,87)
C
SP
PT
3.48 3.69 3.24 2.72
3.08 3.47 2.91 2.53
2.93 3.63 3.26 2.78
0.33 0.85 0.58 0.65
2.86 2.83 3.35
2.82 2.47 2.41
3.41 2.95 3.19
0.26 0.52 0.01"
2.72 3.10 2.76 2.21 2.38
2.56 2.91 2.88 2.11 2.44
2.22 2.85 2.74 2.79 2.19
0.42 0.77 0.905 0.16 0.65
From the post-hoc Scheffe, significance at 95% is denoted by a
*
Table2.: Meanvalues and ANOVAresults for consultants on the 12 attribution ratings.
The analyses between the consultants and the individual attribution statements revealed one significant difference that separated the sport psychologist from the psychotherapist and coach. This attribute was to play consistently season to season or play inconsistently season to season. The rating for the sport psychologist, compared to the other two professionals was significantly lower (p= 0.01), indicating that by consulting a sport psychologist the individual would play more consistently. The second part of the study was concerned primarily with the participants' perception of how a sport psychologist is defined and the roles possessed, to be used as complementary information to the findings. For each of the two responses each identified term, attribute and subjective tone received a tally mark, which was aggregated to obtain an outlook on the group as a whole. The responses were found to fit three categories: tone of response, t e r m s used and mentioned attributes. The findings from these categories were used to provide further support for this samples' perceptions of the sport psychologist. The second part of the questionnaire comprised complementary data, which subjectively viewed the level of understanding of sport psychology. This data lends support to the results from the questionnaire that exhibits no derogation effect or a negative halo
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Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
response. A response that might provide some support for the existence of a negative halo effect was "to prevent sports-people going loopy". However, the majority of responses were in a positive tone, which offers support for the existence of a more positive halo for this participant sample. Terms, which were perceived to be associated with the sport psychologist, were generally descriptions rather t h a n techniques. The t e r m 'mental' was used most frequently, b u t often used in the conjunction with 'preparation', another popular associated term. Such as "A person who aids the mental preparation of an athlete to increase their physical performance". In the attempts to try and define sport psychology synonyms of assists, s u c h as helps or aids were also frequently used. The practical t e r m s m o s t readily referred to were stress, anxiety, confidence and
training. The sport psychologist was perceived to be m o s t involved with performance enhancement, '~1"o put a n athlete in the best frame of mind for optimal performance". It would appear that this sample of female athletes agree with sport psychologists who state that their main role is performance enhancement, as opposed to the perception that they treat problem athletes. Treating and dealing with problems was highlighted, "A person that helps and advises you on psychological problems relating to your sport" as well as the existence of specialist skills and knowledge of sport psychology and its application to the sporting world. This indicates that some participants viewed the field as a specialist area, requiring specific knowledge in order to practice. Fewer references were made to team and individual sports and working with coaches. Within the complementary data no link was established with mental health issues or any psychological disorders. The responses were linked to performance issues or a sporting context, competitive or otherwise.
DIscussIon No support for the existence of a negative halo effect, based upon a selection rating, was found for this female sample. In previous research (Linder et al., 1991) the male participants of the study derogated a n athlete if he was believed to be consulting either a sport psychologist or a psychotherapist rather t h a n a coach for a performance consistency problem. Later research on athletes themselves (Van Raalte et al., 1992) found that participants only derogated a n athlete who consuited a psychotherapist (indicated by a lower draft rating). Lower draft ratings were not communicated when the consultant was a sport psychologist in comparison to a coach. A limitation of this study is that it was not possible to include male student athletes as participants. However this study was trying to extend Van Raalte et al.s (1992) research of male athlete's perceptions of other male athletes by investigating a female sample and target. Van Raalte et al. (1992) suggested that "males show a clear pattern of derogation when the consultant was either a sport psychologist or psychotherapist. Females did not respond differentially as a fimction of the type of consultant or the sport played" (p. 142) and t h u s would warrant investigation.. The m e a n selection ratings for each of the consultants in this study were slightly higher, and more numerically similar, t h a n those recounted by male athletes in Van Raalte et al., (1992) which were reported at 4.52 (coach), 4.24 (sport psychologist) and 3.82 (psychotherapist), as demonstrated in Table 1. Direct comparisons can not be made due to the differences in gender, population studied and culture. However, the higher selection ratings and similarity between 44
Derogation of Student Female Athletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
consultant ratings could suggest that female participants' selection rating was less influenced by the type of consultant used by the athlete. These results offer potential support for research conducted in the area of mental health suggesting that females are more at ease with mental health professionals t h a n males (Murstein & Fontaine, 1993) or simply suggest that they are not capable of differentiation between consultant types. In addition they are comfortable to exhibit their support system in an attempt to deal with a problem and less concerned about the consultant type (Al-Issa, 1982). It is possible that consulting any one of the three consultants is not, within a female ideal, disclosing a sign of weakness. This could suggest that females are more concerned with preparation for performance as opposed to expressing greater physical prowess (Yambor & Connelly, 1991). Research by Yambor and Coimelly (1991) suggested that as a result of the greater masculine orientation of competitive sport, males m a y exhibit more resistance, and females less resistance to using sport psychology consultation, due to the athletes' wish not to be seen as weak or in need of support. Consultation by this female sample m a y indicate that they do not view consultation with a sport psychologist or psychotherapist as a deviant behaviour, or outside the boundaries of a 'expected' athlete behaviour. Although the questionnaire asked t h e m to aid in the selection of the athlete into an England squad, this sample were not high profile athletes and it might be that with a higher representative group of athletes, perceptions might alter. An interpretative limitation of this study is the lack of qualitative information to compare the two consultants, which might support the participant's lack of ability to differentiate between consultants. This supporting information might highlight participants' ability to m a k e informed judgements based u p o n their knowledge of the differences between consultants or their ignorance in relation to the differing roles of consultants thus masking any judgements. Only one of the 12 attribution statements was significant, namely that if an athlete was consulting a sport psychologist she would play more consistently season to season t h a n if she were consulting a psychotherapist or a coach. This differs from the findings of Linder et al., (1989), where athletes were seen as emotionally unstable and having difficulty in the relationship with management. Later studies reported no differences in attribution ratings (Linder et al., 1991; Van Raalte et al., 1992). Despite cultural differences between the studies, this could support the concept of females possessing a moderated perception of the sport psychologist or a more favourable view of the profession. In this study consistency is associated with the sport psychologist whose field is identified as enhancing performance and issues relating to the mental demands of the sport. A study by Kreiner-Phillips and Orlick (1993) found that for a particular group of Olympic level athletes, to perform consistently well at the highest level, "much revolved around a mental component" (p.43). If the mental component was in place along with high quality in other areas, athletes could perform at a consistently high level. Athletes studied who could not sustain performance at a high level attributed this to areas that were lacking or that their view became out of perspective. Participants in this study were found not to derogate an athlete on the basis of contact with a coach, compared to a sport psychologist or a psychotherapist. No foundation was found for either the stigma or deviance models. This supports earlier suggestions (Linder et al., 1991; Van Raalte et al., 1992) that females would be less likely to derogate other athletes for 45
Derogation of Student Female Athletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
consultation with a sport psychologist or a psychotherapist. Another explanation could support suggestions m a d e by Murstein and Fontaine (1993) concerning a greater acceptance of mental health professionals by the public, and to a greater extent females. This study could imply a lack of concern in the attitude to discriminate between the sport psychologist and the psychotherapist or a more neutral approach to receiving advice. Stereotyping is one fear associated with the negative halo or derogation effect. When a n individual is stereotyped as a n unfamih'ar individual, those initiating the stereotype first assign that person to a category and then react to that category rather t h a n the individual (Rajecki, 1990). Thereafter, others a s s u m e a variety of things a b o u t the individual without any accurate information. Stereotypes generally involve the creation of mental images by one group of another. Rajecki (1990) reported that distorted characteristics arise from personal experience, interpersonal communication, exposure to the media, and also lack of information disabling proper judgements. This sample did not view consulting a sport psychologist or psychotherapist as a deviant behaviour or perceive that stereotyping or labelling would occur. This m a y be due to the sample being from a university population, as opposed to from higher level or professional sport. Within the field of mental health stereotypical standards are not the only factors that will influence the attitude towards the profession, and the willingness to use it, the way in which males and females are considered healthy m a y also be quite influential. Males are considered healthy w h e n they exhibit personality characteristics s u c h as independence, assertiveness, competitiveness and rationality. Females are considered healthy when they exhibit personality characteristics s u c h as warmth, emotional expressiveness, dependency and concern for relationships. (Al-Issa, 1982). T h u s a healthy mind might be based u p o n what an individual can mentally accept and w h a t they are expected to accept.
Conclusion With speculation, it is possible that we can be less concerned with the perceptions of university female athletes, of sport psychologists. However, sport psychology does need to portray itself with a particular image, that sets it apart from the role and image of the mental health professions. Sport psychologists do need to be aware of how they want to be perceived, in order to educate consumers and the public a b o u t their roles in a simple way to avoid any confusion. Future research could examine how these psychology professions see themselves and others, whilst continuing to explore in more depth the barriers that exist to using a sport psychologist and any conceptions athletes and other support staff have a b o u t the role.
References Al-Issa, I. {1982). Gender and psychopathology. Academic Press, NY. Atkinson, R.L., Aittanson, R.L., & Hflgard, F.R. (1983). Introduction to psychology. H~I, NY. International edition. Anshel, M.H. (1992). The case against the certification of sport psychologists: In search of the phantom expert. The Sport Psychologist 6: 265-286. Archer, D. (1985). Social deviance. In G. Lindsey & E. Aronson {Eds.), Handbook of social psychology Vol. II (pp.743-804). Random House, NY. Backmann, C.W. (1985). Identity, seK-presentation, and the resolution of moral dilemma: Towards a social psychological theory of model behaviour. In B.R. Schlenker (Ed.), The self and social life (pp.261-289). McGraw-Hill, NY. Becket, H.S. (1963). Outsiders. Free Press, NY.
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Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist... Bull S.J. (1991). Personal and situational influences on adherence to mental skills training. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 13: 121-132. Damon, W. (1988). The moral child. Free Press, NY. deFranscesco, C., & Cronin, J.J. (1988). Marketing the sport psychologist. The Sport Psychologist 2: 28-38. Gould, D., Murphy, S., Tammen, V., & May, J. (1991}. An evaluation of U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultant effectiveness. The Sport Psychologist 5:111-127. Kreiner- Phillips, K., & Orlick, T. (1993). Winning after winning: The psychology of on-going excellence. The Sport Psychologist 7: 31-48. Linder, D.E., Brewer, B.W., Van Raalte, J.L., & De Lange, N. (1991}. A negative halo for athletes who consult sport psychologists: Replication and extension. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 13: 133-148. Linder, D.E., Pillow, D.R., & Reno, R.R. (1989). Shrinking jocks: Derogation of athletes who consult a sport psychologist. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 11: 270-280. Meichenbaum, D., & Turk, D.C. (1987). Facilitating treatment adherence: A practitioner's guidebook. Plenum Press, NY. Murstein, B.I., & Fontaine, P.A. (1993). The public's knowledge about psychologists and other mental health professionals. American Psychologist 48: 839-845. Nunnally, J.C. Jr. (1961). Popular conceptions of mental health. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, NY. Orllck, T., & Partington, J. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Olympic coaches views. The Sport Psychologist 1: 95-101. Rajecki, D.W. (1990). Attitudes. Sinauer Associates, NY. Sullivan, J., & Hodge, K.P. (1991). A survey of coaches and athletes about sport psychology in New Zealand. The Sport Psychologist 4: 63-76. Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Brewer, D.D., & Linder, D.E. (1992}. NCAA division II college football players' perceptions of an athlete who consults a sports psychologist. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 14: 273-282. Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, D.B., Matheson, H., & Brewer, B.W. (1996). British athlete's perceptions of sport and mental health practitioners. The Sport Psychologist 8:102-108. Yambor, J., & Connelly, D. (1991). Issues confronting female sport psychology consultants working with male student athletes. The Sport Psychologist 5: 304-312.
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Introduction Entry into a p r o g r a m m e of rehabilitation facilitating t r e a t m e n t adherence h a s been identified as the first p h a s e in the process of achieving adherence (Meichenbaum & Turk, 1987). Research h a s examined adherence to mental skills training a n d found t h a t as with exercise, injury a n d cardiac rehabilitation, adherence c a n be a problem (Bull, 1991). Little research h a s looked at this early stage of the adherence process, a l t h o u g h it h a s b e e n suggested t h a t h o w the sport psychologist is perceived could be influential in the future u s e of a consultant. deFrancesco & Cronin (1988) identified image a n d u s a g e as two potential variables which might affect the future use of psychological techniques by consumers. For athletes a n d recreational competitors to perceive applied sport psychology techniques as viable tools to e n h a n c e performance, the perception of the profession a n d the c o n s u l t a n t n e e d s to be a favourable one. Recent research reports the existence of favourable perceptions from coaches, athletes a n d administrators (Gould, Murphy, T a m m e n & May, 1991; Sullivan & Hodge, 1991) a l t h o u g h negative c o n n o t a t i o n s a n d their potential r e p e r c u s s i o n s on the profession b y coaches have also b e e n recounted (Partin~on & Orlick, 1987; Anshel, 1992).
39
Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
Within this relatively new area of study, two themes have been investigated. First, perceptions of the sport psychologist, by different samples, in comparison to a n u m b e r of mental health practitioners and sport-oriented professionals. Second, the potential magnitude of derogation encountered, known as the negative halo effect, as a result of an athlete's contact with either a sport psychologist, a coach (Linder, Pillow & Reno, 1989) or in a later study a psychotherapist (Linder, Brewer, Van Raalte & De Lange, 1991) The negative halo effect relates to "the tendency to bias our judgement on the basis of other aspects of one particular feature" (Atkinson, Atkinson & Hilgard, 1983, p.403). This could be interpreted as meaning that distortions of first impressions m a y result, due to concentration on one characteristic deemed as favourable or unfavourable on the basis of existing perceptions. The negative halo effect causes one of two responses. A derogation response from the observer on, in this case, an athlete, where the athlete is discredited or looked down upon for seeking assistance from a sport psychologist. The other is a stigma response, for example, where the competitor is labelled as a problem athlete, as a result for example, of consulting a sport psychologist or less sport-oriented professional s u c h as a psychotherapist. A stigma can be described as 'an imputation attached to a person's reputation' (Collin's Dictionary, 1991) or 'a sign of disgrace or discredit' (Oxford Dictionary, 1991). There are a n u m b e r of studies that have considered perceptions of the sport psychologist (Linder, Pillow & Reno, 1989; Linder et al., 1991, Van Raalte et al., 1990; 1992; 1996). Linder et al., (1989; 1991) and Van Raalte et al., (1992) specifically investigated the existence of the negative halo in relation to sport. Linder, Pillow and Reno (1989) found that the public were more likely to discredit an athlete who consulted a sport psychologist rather t h a n a coach for a similar performance consistency problem. Such 'derogation' h a s been referred to as 'the negative halo effect' (Linder et al, 1991). Linder et al., (1991), replicated the previous study, b u t included a psychotherapist as a consultant. The study found that athletes were viewed more negatively if they consulted either a sport psychologist or the 'mental health professional' compared to those who consulted a coach. Van Raalte et al., (1992) found that participants only derogated an athlete who consulted a psychotherapist as opposed to consulting a coach. No difference was perceived between the use of a sport psychologist as opposed to a psychotherapist. This could suggest that individuals might have difficulty in differentiating between a sport psychologist and an established mental health professional. In addition this could suggest that the t e r m 'sport' fails to modify the perception of the role of a sport psychologist, the t e r m 'psychologist' identified as the main determinant orienting the perception (Van Raalte et al., 1990). Both studies (Linder et al., 1989; 1991) suggested that females might be less likely to derogate associate athletes due to a moderated perception of the sport psychologist and other consultants. Linder et al., (1991) suggested that sportswomen might be able to draw upon a variety of support services due to lesser stereotypic expectations from others. Rajecki (1990) stated that social stereotypes operate, in part, as normative expectations to which we conform in order to gain social reinforcement. Additionally, personal significance and labels that are attached to situations and behaviours are learned through interpersonal situations (Backmann, 1985; Damon, 1988). Therefore, if a negative label or adverse stereotype is given for a n 40
Derogation of Student Female Athletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
athlete or individual who consults a sport psychologist, the performer is potentially less likely to continue with the consultancy or experience conflict if this goes against the normative expectations of others. These stereotypes could be attached as a result of lack of knowledge concerning the role of a sport psychologist in relation to other mental health practitioners where labelling of 'problem' conditions is more common or as a result of first hand experience. Two models have been employed by Linder et al., (1989;1991) and Van Raalte et al., (1992) to try and explain the derogation effect. These are the stigma model and the deviance model. The stigma model is based on the view that athletes m a y avoid any contact and advice from a sport psychologist on the grounds that stigmatisation as a mental patient m a y occur. It is a potential belief that stigmatisation will occur even if the reaction is negligible. Nuimally (1961) reported that the mentally fll are in most cases regarded with fear, distrust and dislike. It would be presumptuous, in the eyes of an athlete where careers are at stake, to believe that the public can distinguish knowledgeably about the differences between the psychological and mental health professions and psychology relating to sport. An alternative viewpoint is that an athlete m a y be derogated or labelled purely because h e / s h e is deviating from the perceptions of how an individual described as a n athlete should behave held by others (whether it be an individual or society in general) (Archer, 1985). Becker (1963) believed that it is possible, as a result of this 'deviate' label that athletes m a y suffer in respect of how people view them in other areas of life. Both models are similar in that labels are created, which lead potentially to derogation and the establishing of perceptions by observers. Cyclically, the reinforcement by the athlete in performing the action supports the label, thus providing the impression that the athlete is capable of performing other problematic or deviating behaviours. The purpose of this study was threefold. First to explore the potential derogation effect as a result of consultancy and how the sport psychologists' role was perceived. Second to p u r s u e a research question posed by Linder et al., (1991) that female athletes would be less likely to exhibit the negative halo effect. Finally to further investigate British female athletes' perceptions of the sport psychologist.
Methods and procedures Participants Participants were 90 female university level athletes (mean age_+S.D.=20.44_+3.44) involved in either individual or team sports (n=15). The sports were hockey, lacrosse, basketball, volleyball, soccer, netball, track and field, swimming, mountain biking, gymnastics, judo, triathlon, mountaineering, tennis, canoeing, squash, table tennis. Participants were recruited via the University sports office.
Instrumentation The questionnaire comprised two parts. The first part was a fictitious selection report for a female hockey player based on the fictitious scouting report for a quarterback used by Van Raalte (personal communication, adapted from Linder et al., 1989; 1991). Hockey was chosen as the sport as it was thought to be the most familiar to this sample group. Changes were made within the report to account for cultural differences within the sport and to aid understanding. The adapted questionnaire was produced in conjunction with a hockey specialist (player and lecturer in t e a m games), to m a k e the facts as clear and applicable as
41
Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
possible. The selection report included information about the fictitious player with her n a m e deleted (such as position of centre forward and statistics about her performance). All the information was constant except for which of the three professionals the player was identified as consulting for her performance consistency. The three professionals were the sport psychologist, psychotherapist and coach. Participants were requested to rate on a 7 point Likert type scale, the degree to which they would recommend this player for selection (1 not recommend - 7 strongly recommend). The higher the n u m b e r on the selection rating, the stronger the recommendation. 12 bipolar statements, rated on a similar 7-point scale, were also given to explore the attributions on which this selection rating had been based. The lower the rating on the attribution statement, the more favourable the attribute score. The statements were 1) be a t e a m player/play for individual glory, 2) play consistently game to g a m e / p l a y inconsistently game to game, 3) have trouble relating to other players/relate well to other players, 4) negatively influence the team's public i m a g e / e n h a n c e the team's public image, 5) possess personality that fits well with m a n a g e m e n t / p o s s e s s personality that conflicts with management, 6) be very disciplined/not disciplined, 7) play consistently season to s e a s o n / p l a y inconsistently season to season, 8) possess possibility of drug or alcohol p r o b l e m s / p o s s e s s no possibility of drug or alcohol problems, 9) be emotionally u n s t a b l e / b e emotionally stable, 10) be tough and d u r a b l e / b e soft and easily hurt, 11) puts forth very little extra effort/puts forth above average extra effort, 12) is loaded with natural ability/is below average in natural ability. The second part of the questionnaire requested demographic information and identification of the participants' definition of sport psychology and perceived role of a sport psychologist. This was requested to assess the level of understanding by the participants of w h a t a sport psychologist is and what they can do for the consumer.
Procedure The research proposal was examined by a n internal reviewing committee at the University, prior to data collection. 168 questionnaires were distributed to female university athletes via a n internal mailing system. An identified collection box was provided for questionnaire return. The response rate for fully completed questiolmaires was 56%. Students who had studied a specialist option in sport psychology were omitted from the study, due to their potential greater experience of the area as compared with the other participants.
Data analysis The fictitious selection report data was subjected to a 3 x 2 factorial ANOVA (consultant x rating) and a post-hoc Scheffe F-test's. This tested for significant differences between the three consultants on the selection rating, the 12 attribution ratings and the overall attribution rating. The content of the definitions and role responses were subjectively analysed for tone, fullness of response and particular language, t e r m s or attributes.
Results As m a y be seen in Table 1 no significant difference existed between the selection ratings for the 3 consultant t e r m s (F(2,87) = .26, p= 0.77), or between the total attribution ratings for the sport psychologist, coach and psychotherapist (F (2,87) = .35, p= 0.71).
42
Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
Mean Ratings
Sport Psychologist (n=34)
Coach (n=29)
Psychotherapist (n=27)
P
Selection Rating
5.53_+0.89
5.41_+1.12
5.59_+0.79
.77
Attribution Rating
33.5_+9.93
35.31_+7.19
34.22_+8.22
.71
Table I:
Mean rating of recommendation for selection and overall attribution ratings for the fictitious hockey player.
Attribute
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
team player/plays for individual glory play consistently/inconsistently game to game relates well/has trouble relating to other players enhance/negativelyinfluence team's public image possesspersonality that fits well/conflicts with management 6. very disciplined/not disciplined 7. play consistently/inconsistently season to season 8. possesspossibility/no possibility of drug or alcohol related problem 9. emotionally stable/unstable 10. tough & durable/soft~ easily hurt 11. puts forth above average/very little extra effort 12. loaded/below average natural ability
Mean for Consultant
P Value (df=2,87)
C
SP
PT
3.48 3.69 3.24 2.72
3.08 3.47 2.91 2.53
2.93 3.63 3.26 2.78
0.33 0.85 0.58 0.65
2.86 2.83 3.35
2.82 2.47 2.41
3.41 2.95 3.19
0.26 0.52 0.01"
2.72 3.10 2.76 2.21 2.38
2.56 2.91 2.88 2.11 2.44
2.22 2.85 2.74 2.79 2.19
0.42 0.77 0.905 0.16 0.65
From the post-hoc Scheffe, significance at 95% is denoted by a
*
Table2.: Meanvalues and ANOVAresults for consultants on the 12 attribution ratings.
The analyses between the consultants and the individual attribution statements revealed one significant difference that separated the sport psychologist from the psychotherapist and coach. This attribute was to play consistently season to season or play inconsistently season to season. The rating for the sport psychologist, compared to the other two professionals was significantly lower (p= 0.01), indicating that by consulting a sport psychologist the individual would play more consistently. The second part of the study was concerned primarily with the participants' perception of how a sport psychologist is defined and the roles possessed, to be used as complementary information to the findings. For each of the two responses each identified term, attribute and subjective tone received a tally mark, which was aggregated to obtain an outlook on the group as a whole. The responses were found to fit three categories: tone of response, t e r m s used and mentioned attributes. The findings from these categories were used to provide further support for this samples' perceptions of the sport psychologist. The second part of the questionnaire comprised complementary data, which subjectively viewed the level of understanding of sport psychology. This data lends support to the results from the questionnaire that exhibits no derogation effect or a negative halo
43
Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
response. A response that might provide some support for the existence of a negative halo effect was "to prevent sports-people going loopy". However, the majority of responses were in a positive tone, which offers support for the existence of a more positive halo for this participant sample. Terms, which were perceived to be associated with the sport psychologist, were generally descriptions rather t h a n techniques. The t e r m 'mental' was used most frequently, b u t often used in the conjunction with 'preparation', another popular associated term. Such as "A person who aids the mental preparation of an athlete to increase their physical performance". In the attempts to try and define sport psychology synonyms of assists, s u c h as helps or aids were also frequently used. The practical t e r m s m o s t readily referred to were stress, anxiety, confidence and
training. The sport psychologist was perceived to be m o s t involved with performance enhancement, '~1"o put a n athlete in the best frame of mind for optimal performance". It would appear that this sample of female athletes agree with sport psychologists who state that their main role is performance enhancement, as opposed to the perception that they treat problem athletes. Treating and dealing with problems was highlighted, "A person that helps and advises you on psychological problems relating to your sport" as well as the existence of specialist skills and knowledge of sport psychology and its application to the sporting world. This indicates that some participants viewed the field as a specialist area, requiring specific knowledge in order to practice. Fewer references were made to team and individual sports and working with coaches. Within the complementary data no link was established with mental health issues or any psychological disorders. The responses were linked to performance issues or a sporting context, competitive or otherwise.
DIscussIon No support for the existence of a negative halo effect, based upon a selection rating, was found for this female sample. In previous research (Linder et al., 1991) the male participants of the study derogated a n athlete if he was believed to be consulting either a sport psychologist or a psychotherapist rather t h a n a coach for a performance consistency problem. Later research on athletes themselves (Van Raalte et al., 1992) found that participants only derogated a n athlete who consuited a psychotherapist (indicated by a lower draft rating). Lower draft ratings were not communicated when the consultant was a sport psychologist in comparison to a coach. A limitation of this study is that it was not possible to include male student athletes as participants. However this study was trying to extend Van Raalte et al.s (1992) research of male athlete's perceptions of other male athletes by investigating a female sample and target. Van Raalte et al. (1992) suggested that "males show a clear pattern of derogation when the consultant was either a sport psychologist or psychotherapist. Females did not respond differentially as a fimction of the type of consultant or the sport played" (p. 142) and t h u s would warrant investigation.. The m e a n selection ratings for each of the consultants in this study were slightly higher, and more numerically similar, t h a n those recounted by male athletes in Van Raalte et al., (1992) which were reported at 4.52 (coach), 4.24 (sport psychologist) and 3.82 (psychotherapist), as demonstrated in Table 1. Direct comparisons can not be made due to the differences in gender, population studied and culture. However, the higher selection ratings and similarity between 44
Derogation of Student Female Athletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
consultant ratings could suggest that female participants' selection rating was less influenced by the type of consultant used by the athlete. These results offer potential support for research conducted in the area of mental health suggesting that females are more at ease with mental health professionals t h a n males (Murstein & Fontaine, 1993) or simply suggest that they are not capable of differentiation between consultant types. In addition they are comfortable to exhibit their support system in an attempt to deal with a problem and less concerned about the consultant type (Al-Issa, 1982). It is possible that consulting any one of the three consultants is not, within a female ideal, disclosing a sign of weakness. This could suggest that females are more concerned with preparation for performance as opposed to expressing greater physical prowess (Yambor & Connelly, 1991). Research by Yambor and Coimelly (1991) suggested that as a result of the greater masculine orientation of competitive sport, males m a y exhibit more resistance, and females less resistance to using sport psychology consultation, due to the athletes' wish not to be seen as weak or in need of support. Consultation by this female sample m a y indicate that they do not view consultation with a sport psychologist or psychotherapist as a deviant behaviour, or outside the boundaries of a 'expected' athlete behaviour. Although the questionnaire asked t h e m to aid in the selection of the athlete into an England squad, this sample were not high profile athletes and it might be that with a higher representative group of athletes, perceptions might alter. An interpretative limitation of this study is the lack of qualitative information to compare the two consultants, which might support the participant's lack of ability to differentiate between consultants. This supporting information might highlight participants' ability to m a k e informed judgements based u p o n their knowledge of the differences between consultants or their ignorance in relation to the differing roles of consultants thus masking any judgements. Only one of the 12 attribution statements was significant, namely that if an athlete was consulting a sport psychologist she would play more consistently season to season t h a n if she were consulting a psychotherapist or a coach. This differs from the findings of Linder et al., (1989), where athletes were seen as emotionally unstable and having difficulty in the relationship with management. Later studies reported no differences in attribution ratings (Linder et al., 1991; Van Raalte et al., 1992). Despite cultural differences between the studies, this could support the concept of females possessing a moderated perception of the sport psychologist or a more favourable view of the profession. In this study consistency is associated with the sport psychologist whose field is identified as enhancing performance and issues relating to the mental demands of the sport. A study by Kreiner-Phillips and Orlick (1993) found that for a particular group of Olympic level athletes, to perform consistently well at the highest level, "much revolved around a mental component" (p.43). If the mental component was in place along with high quality in other areas, athletes could perform at a consistently high level. Athletes studied who could not sustain performance at a high level attributed this to areas that were lacking or that their view became out of perspective. Participants in this study were found not to derogate an athlete on the basis of contact with a coach, compared to a sport psychologist or a psychotherapist. No foundation was found for either the stigma or deviance models. This supports earlier suggestions (Linder et al., 1991; Van Raalte et al., 1992) that females would be less likely to derogate other athletes for 45
Derogation of Student Female Athletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist...
consultation with a sport psychologist or a psychotherapist. Another explanation could support suggestions m a d e by Murstein and Fontaine (1993) concerning a greater acceptance of mental health professionals by the public, and to a greater extent females. This study could imply a lack of concern in the attitude to discriminate between the sport psychologist and the psychotherapist or a more neutral approach to receiving advice. Stereotyping is one fear associated with the negative halo or derogation effect. When a n individual is stereotyped as a n unfamih'ar individual, those initiating the stereotype first assign that person to a category and then react to that category rather t h a n the individual (Rajecki, 1990). Thereafter, others a s s u m e a variety of things a b o u t the individual without any accurate information. Stereotypes generally involve the creation of mental images by one group of another. Rajecki (1990) reported that distorted characteristics arise from personal experience, interpersonal communication, exposure to the media, and also lack of information disabling proper judgements. This sample did not view consulting a sport psychologist or psychotherapist as a deviant behaviour or perceive that stereotyping or labelling would occur. This m a y be due to the sample being from a university population, as opposed to from higher level or professional sport. Within the field of mental health stereotypical standards are not the only factors that will influence the attitude towards the profession, and the willingness to use it, the way in which males and females are considered healthy m a y also be quite influential. Males are considered healthy w h e n they exhibit personality characteristics s u c h as independence, assertiveness, competitiveness and rationality. Females are considered healthy when they exhibit personality characteristics s u c h as warmth, emotional expressiveness, dependency and concern for relationships. (Al-Issa, 1982). T h u s a healthy mind might be based u p o n what an individual can mentally accept and w h a t they are expected to accept.
Conclusion With speculation, it is possible that we can be less concerned with the perceptions of university female athletes, of sport psychologists. However, sport psychology does need to portray itself with a particular image, that sets it apart from the role and image of the mental health professions. Sport psychologists do need to be aware of how they want to be perceived, in order to educate consumers and the public a b o u t their roles in a simple way to avoid any confusion. Future research could examine how these psychology professions see themselves and others, whilst continuing to explore in more depth the barriers that exist to using a sport psychologist and any conceptions athletes and other support staff have a b o u t the role.
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Derogation of Student FemaleAthletes who Consult a Sport Psychologist... Bull S.J. (1991). Personal and situational influences on adherence to mental skills training. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 13: 121-132. Damon, W. (1988). The moral child. Free Press, NY. deFranscesco, C., & Cronin, J.J. (1988). Marketing the sport psychologist. The Sport Psychologist 2: 28-38. Gould, D., Murphy, S., Tammen, V., & May, J. (1991}. An evaluation of U.S. Olympic sport psychology consultant effectiveness. The Sport Psychologist 5:111-127. Kreiner- Phillips, K., & Orlick, T. (1993). Winning after winning: The psychology of on-going excellence. The Sport Psychologist 7: 31-48. Linder, D.E., Brewer, B.W., Van Raalte, J.L., & De Lange, N. (1991}. A negative halo for athletes who consult sport psychologists: Replication and extension. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 13: 133-148. Linder, D.E., Pillow, D.R., & Reno, R.R. (1989). Shrinking jocks: Derogation of athletes who consult a sport psychologist. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 11: 270-280. Meichenbaum, D., & Turk, D.C. (1987). Facilitating treatment adherence: A practitioner's guidebook. Plenum Press, NY. Murstein, B.I., & Fontaine, P.A. (1993). The public's knowledge about psychologists and other mental health professionals. American Psychologist 48: 839-845. Nunnally, J.C. Jr. (1961). Popular conceptions of mental health. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, NY. Orllck, T., & Partington, J. (1987). The sport psychology consultant: Olympic coaches views. The Sport Psychologist 1: 95-101. Rajecki, D.W. (1990). Attitudes. Sinauer Associates, NY. Sullivan, J., & Hodge, K.P. (1991). A survey of coaches and athletes about sport psychology in New Zealand. The Sport Psychologist 4: 63-76. Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Brewer, D.D., & Linder, D.E. (1992}. NCAA division II college football players' perceptions of an athlete who consults a sports psychologist. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 14: 273-282. Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, D.B., Matheson, H., & Brewer, B.W. (1996). British athlete's perceptions of sport and mental health practitioners. The Sport Psychologist 8:102-108. Yambor, J., & Connelly, D. (1991). Issues confronting female sport psychology consultants working with male student athletes. The Sport Psychologist 5: 304-312.
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