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The differential depiction of female athletes in judged and non-judged sport magazines
Body Image 3 (2006) 365–373 www.elsevier.com/locate/bodyimage
The differential depiction of female athletes in judged and non-judged sport magazines Rebecca L. Ginsberg *, James J. Gray American University, Washington, DC, United States Received 16 November 2005; received in revised form 3 May 2006; accepted 7 May 2006
Abstract Sports magazines portrayal of female athletes over the past ten years, in terms of body size, age, and race was examined. Using the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS), estimated body size was obtained for cover models on a set of judged and non-judged sport magazines. The frequency with which the full bodies of models were depicted on the covers of these magazines was also investigated. Cover models on judged sport magazines were rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines. Judged sport magazines also displayed a higher number of full-body images than non-judged sport magazines. These findings suggest that individuals who read judged sport magazines are more likely to be exposed to thin media images than those reading non-judged sport magazines. # 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Judged sports; Non-judged sports; Media; Body image; Female athletes
Introduction Anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) are complex eating disorders that can result in a range of physical consequences, including death (Mickley, 1994). Due to the potentially serious nature of these disorders, their high prevalence among American women is alarming (Cash & Henry, 1995; American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Garner, 1997; Nicholls, Chater, & Lask, 2000). It is important to discover why these potentially fatal disorders are so pervasive in certain populations, and what can be done to prevent their occurrence. Although the exact cause of eating disorders is unknown, evidence indicates that body image dissa* Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20016, United States. Tel.: +1 202 258 7139. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.L. Ginsberg). 1740-1445/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.05.003
tisfaction is a precursor for later eating problems (Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Cattarin & Thompson, 1994; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Recently, there has also been considerable focus on various media as possible factors in the development and maintenance of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction in women. It has been hypothesized that the role of media in the etiology of eating disorders occurs through the transmission of the idea that thin is ideal (Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002; Harrison, 2000; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Taylor et al., 1998; Turner, Hamilton, Angood, & Dwyer, 1997). An increase in eating dysfunction and body image disturbance has occurred simultaneously with increased cultural expectations of thinness as evidenced by the decreasing size of women appearing in popular media (Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980; Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986; Sypeck, Gray, & Ahrens, 2004; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992). While media are transmitting images of
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thinner women, the general population is getting bigger (Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). It has been theorized that the growing discrepancy in appearance between average women and media images of women may partially account for the prevalence of eating dysfunction and body image disturbance (Silverstein et al., 1986). More specifically, women may engage in unhealthy eating or exercise habits in an effort to achieve the thin ideal as portrayed in popular media. The impact of thin media images Studies have documented a relationship between thin media images and a decrease in body image satisfaction in both overweight and normal weight women. This research suggests that portrayals of the thin ideal are related to an increase in eating disordered behaviors and body image disturbance in both women and adolescents (Harrison, 2000; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Irving, 1990; Kalodner, 1997; Taylor et al., 1998; Turner et al., 1997). However, not all women exposed to media images portraying the thin ideal develop body image or eating disturbance. Social comparison theory has been used to explain a possible connection between thin media images and body image/eating disturbance. In particular, research suggests that individuals who engage in the comparison process with thin media images experience more body dissatisfaction and eating disordered behavior than individuals who do not engage in the comparison process (Botta, 2003; Cattarin, Thompson, Thomas, & Williams, 2000; Thompson et al., 1999). Body image disturbance and eating dysfunction in athletes Research regarding the prevalence of eating disturbance in female athletes has produced mixed results. Some research suggests that athletes are at an increased risk of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction as compared to the general population (Taub & Blinde, 1992), while other research indicates that female athletes may be protected against body image dissatisfaction due to increased levels of self-esteem (Bowker, Gadbois, & Cornock, 2003; Richman & Schaefer, 2000). The mixed results found regarding the prevalence of eating disorders and body image dissatisfaction in female athletes is likely due to differences in both the level of sport and the type of sport undertaken. Studies suggest that female athletes participating at a competitive level, and those involved in sports that promote leanness, are at a higher risk for developing an eating disorder and/or body image dissatisfaction (Brooks-Gunn, Burrow, & Warren,
1988; Davidson, Earnest, & Birch, 2002; Fulkerson, Keel, Leon, & Deor, 1997; Hully & Hill, 2001; Smolak, Murnen, & Ruble, 2000; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994b). In particular, it has been proposed that women who participate in ‘‘judged’’ sports might be at greater risk for eating and body image disturbance (Zucker, Womble, Williamson, & Perrin, 1999). Judged sports, defined as sports in which physical appearance influences performance evaluation, include gymnastics, ballet, sports dance, figure skating, and cheerleading (Zucker et al., 1999). Non-judged sports, on the other hand, have been defined as sports in which physical appearance has no influence on performance evaluation (Zucker et al., 1999). Unlike judged-sport athletes, athletes participating in non-judged sports appear to be either no worse off than non-athletic females, or may even be somewhat protected against body image dysfunction and eating disorders (BrooksGunn et al., 1988; Davidson et al., 2002; Johnson, Powers, & Dick, 1999; Rivaldi et al., 2003; Smolak et al., 2000; Warren, Stanton, & Blessing, 1990; Yates, Edman, Crago, & Crowell, 2003; Zucker et al., 1999). It is important to question why females who participate in judged sports appear to be at an increased risk of body image and eating dysfunction (Davidson et al., 2002; Ryujin, Breaux, & Marks, 1999; Smolak et al., 2000; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994a). In part, it is possible this discrepancy between judged sport and non-judged sport athletes is related to the differing media images these different groups of athletes may be exposed to. While empirical studies have shown a relationship between thin media images, increased body dissatisfaction, and eating disorders among women, research investigating portrayal of body size in athletes is limited. Therefore, the way in which magazines represent judged sport athletes and non-judged sport athletes were examined for this study. In particular, cover models on judged sport magazines were compared to cover models on non-judged sport magazines in terms of estimated body size. It was hypothesized that cover models on judged sport magazines would be rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines. If this hypothesis holds, the distinction between judged sports and non-judged sports would be supported. This finding would also support a possible role for popular media in influencing body image satisfaction and eating disturbance among female athletes. Method In order to determine if media represent judged sport athletes and non-judged sport athletes differently,
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estimated body size was obtained for magazine cover models on five judged sport magazines and four nonjudged sports magazines. Judged sports magazines included Pointe Magazine (Ballet), Dance Spirit, USA Gymnastics, Blades on Ice, and International Figure Skating Magazine. Non-judged sports magazines included Runner’s World, Golf for Women, Triathlete, and Swimming World. The determination of which magazines were to be included in the current analysis was obtained by selecting representative magazines with the highest circulation for the specific sport (Ulrich, 2004). The body size of the cover models was determined by rating all cover models on the nine female figure drawings from the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS) (Thompson & Gray, 1995). In the CDRS, each body size is rated with a number from 1 to 9, with one representing the thinnest figure and nine representing the heaviest figure. The body sizes are also rated in half steps (e.g., 4.5). Criteria for the suitability of the rating of the models were developed by Cusumano and Thompson (1997). All cover models were included in the analysis, regardless of body position, as long as at least 3/4th of the arms, upper torso, stomach or legs were showing as part of the body shot. All cover models on each magazine from the last ten years (or, if less, as long as the magazine has been published) that fulfilled the above criteria were rated and compared. In addition to determining the body size of the cover models, the percent of ratable female body covers from each magazine was also calculated. If a cover was determined to be ‘‘unratable,’’ raters recorded the reason for this. Raters were instructed that a cover should be considered unratable for any of the following reasons: if there was a man on cover, if the image was too small, if there were no people on the cover, if the image was obscured by baggy clothing, if a preadolescent or pregnant woman was on the cover, if there was not enough body showing, or if the body position was difficult to rate (e.g., only a side profile was shown, or the cover model was lying down). Raters also recorded the amount of body shown (e.g., full body or partial body), the race of the cover model, and the approximate age of the cover model. Finally, the change in body size of the cover models over time was explored in order to determine whether cover models on sports magazines are decreasing in size over time. Two female research assistants who were unaware of the hypotheses performed the ratings. Each rater rated approximately 60% of the covers. The individual magazine covers within each particular magazine were expected to be more similar to
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each other than to magazine covers from other magazines. Therefore, the statistical assumption of independence could not be met and a nested design was used. In particular, the individual magazine covers were nested within the specific magazines, which were subsumed within the magazine type. Because of the nested structure of the data, multi-level analysis (SAS PROC MIXED) was used to test the effect of magazine type. The main dependent variable for this study was the mean body size rating of the female images appearing on the covers obtained for each specific magazine. In addition, several preplanned contrasts were conducted to examine whether body size was portrayed differently across the different magazines. Results The data for this study were analyzed with the use of two personal-computer-based statistical software packages, SPSS (10.5) and SAS (8.02). Specifically, body size, ratability of the female cover model, and amount of body shown on the covers of popular sports magazines were investigated. In addition, differences in age and race of cover models were also examined. An alpha of .05 and 95% confidence intervals were used in all analyses. At least 85% of all covers were attainable for each magazine with the exception of International Figure Skating. Because several covers of this magazine were unobtainable despite an exhaustive search, covers of the second highest circulating skating magazine, Blades on Ice, were also rated. Although every specific magazine had enough covers with ratable female bodies to achieve adequate power, a x2 analysis of unobtainable covers indicated a significant difference in percentages of unobtainable magazines between judged sport and nonjudged sport magazines. Judged sport magazines had significantly more unobtainable magazines than nonjudged sport magazines (x2(1) = 27.90, p < .01). All of the magazines contained appropriate and useful data over a period of several years. USA Gymnastics had 26 ratable female body covers (42.6%) out of a possible 61, the figure skating magazines had 18 ratable female body covers (24.7%) out of a possible 73, and out of 88 dance magazines, 37 were ratable for estimated body size (42%). For the non-judged sports magazines, Golf for Women had 22 ratable female body covers (36.1%) out of a possible 61, Swimming World had 19 ratable female body covers (15.4%) out of a possible 123, out of 125 possible covers for Running World, 74 contained ratable female bodies (59.2%), and finally, out of a possible 117 covers of Triathlete, 29.9%
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Table 1 Mean estimated body size and standard deviation for all magazines Magazine
Mean estimated body size
SD
Coversa (%)
International Figure Skating Blades on Ice Dance Spirit Pointe USA Gymnastics Runner’s World Triathlete Golf for Women Swimming World
2.786 2.546 2.370 2.167 2.827 2.932 3.114 3.500 3.850
.5226 .5222 .5221 .5217 .5115 .4143 .5221 .5226 .5076
15 73 82 94 75 95 69 62 24
SD: standard deviation. a The percentage of overall full female body covers from all of the covers obtained for this study with female cover models.
displayed ratable female bodies. The means and standard deviation of the estimated body size are reported in Table 1. Reliability analysis A Pearson’s correlation was obtained on approximately 20% of the magazine covers in order to determine interrater reliability. The means of the two raters were also compared using a paired sample t-test. The two raters achieved adequate reliability rates (r = .81, p < .01). Furthermore, there was no significant difference between the means of the two raters (t = .37, p = .71). The Pearson’s correlation used to obtain interrater reliability for estimated age of the cover models was also adequate (r = .77, p < .001). However, a paired samples t-test revealed significant differences between the raters (t = 6.96, df = 161, p < .001). In particular, rater 2 was judging cover models to be approximately two years older than rater 1 was judging the cover models to be. Therefore results involving estimated age were obtained separately for each rater. Furthermore, cover models were placed into one of three categories based on their estimated age: under the age of 14 years, between the age of 14–17 years, and older than 17 years. When cover models were placed into these three categories, percent agreement on age category was 96.9%. Planned contrasts Body size The Contour Drawing Rating Scale was used to determine whether the different types of sports magazines present cover models of different sizes. For our 12 planned contrasts, we used Bonferonni’s to minimize the risk of Type I error and thus set our alpha level to .05/12 = .004. As hypothesized,
differences on the CDRS were found between judged sport magazine covers and non-judged sport magazine covers (t(7) = 3.76, p < .01). Cover models on judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 2.54, while cover models on non-judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 3.33. However, the percentage of ratable female body covers from each magazine was highly variable. In order to ensure that the percent of ratable versus unratable female body covers did not bias the judged sport or nonjudged sport sample toward any particular magazine, a second analysis using a stratified random sample was conducted. In particular, 15 random covers from each magazine were selected and compared. Findings using this data confirmed that cover models on judged sport magazines were rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines (t(7) = 3.27, p = .0136). Using the stratified sample, cover models on judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 2.48, while cover models on non-judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 3.34. Taken together, these findings indicate that cover models on judged sport magazines have a significantly lower estimated body size than cover models on nonjudged sport magazines. In order to address concerns regarding the homogeneity of body size within the non-judged sport category, contrasts were run comparing the magazines within this category. Indeed, cover models from Runner’s World and Triathlete were rated to be significantly thinner than cover models from Swimming World and Golf for Women (t(218) = 6.74, p < .01). Cover models from Runner’s World and Triathlete, however, were not significantly different from each other in terms of estimated body size (t(218) = 1.70, p = .09). Additional contrasts were run between each individual non-judged sport magazine and the judged sport magazines to ensure each magazine was rated to be
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significantly heavier than the judged sport magazines. Results revealed that cover models from all four nonjudged sport magazines were rated as significantly heavier than the judged sport magazine cover models (Runner’s World—t(218) = 4.31, p < .01; Swimming World—t(218) = 9.72, p < .01; Triathlete—t(218) = 5.18, p < .01; and Golf for Women—t(218) = 7.38, p < .01). However, not every non-judged sport magazine has cover models rated as significantly heavier than every judged sport magazine. In particular, Runner’s World cover models were not significantly different in terms of estimated body size from USA Gymnastics cover models (t(218) = .88, p = .38). In addition, although the difference approached significance in the expected direction, Runner’s World cover models were not rated as significantly different from cover models on the figure skating magazines in terms of estimated body size (t(218) = 1.90, p = .058). Each of the judged sport magazines was contrasted with the non-judged sport magazines in order to determine how each particular judged sport magazine compared with non-judged sports magazines. As predicted, cover models on all three types of judged sport magazines were rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines (figure skating (t(218) = 5.06, p < .01), dance magazines (t(218) = 9.69, p < .01), and USA Gymnastics (t(218) = 4.62, p < .01). Ratability A large amount of variance in cover ratability on the CDRS was found among the different magazines (see Fig. 1). Overall, 36% of the 222 judged sport covers
Fig. 1. Percent of covers with ratable female bodies as a function of magazine.
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contained female bodies that were ratable on CDRS, while 35.3% of 433 non-judged sport covers displayed ratable female bodies. Full body depictions Percentage of covers depicting a cover model’s full body as a function of magazine type can be found in Fig. 2. All covers, including covers without ratable female bodies were included in this analysis. A large amount of variance in number of full body depictions was found among the different magazines (Fig. 2). Seventy-two percent of judged sport covers obtained for this study depicted full body shots, whereas full body depictions accounted for 65.2% of non-judged sport covers. No significant difference in the proportion of full body shots was found between judged sport and non-judged sport magazines (x2(1) = 2.22, p = .14). Age and race Of all of the cover models used in this study, only one was judged to be under the age of 14. This cover was excluded from all analyses. Twenty-seven percent of judged sport cover models, compared to only 3% of non-judged sport cover models, were estimated to be under the age of 18. A Fisher’s Exact test revealed that the judged sport magazines contained significantly more cover models under the age of 18 than did nonjudged sport magazines ( p < .01). Due to the significant differences between the ages of cover models, contrasts looking at body size for the two types of magazines were re-run, excluding all cover models estimated to be under the age of 18. Significant results were again found based on magazine type.
Fig. 2. Percentage of full body depiction by magazine.
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Differences on the CDRS were found between judged sport magazine covers and non-judged sport magazine covers, with estimations that judged sport cover models are thinner (t(7) = 3.38, p < .01). Of the 223 cover models evaluated for race, 84.2% were Caucasian, 6.7% were African American, 2.6% were Hispanic, 6.7% were Asian, and .2% were placed in the ‘‘other’’ category. Change in body size over time In order to assess change in body size over time, a linear regression analysis was performed. Results indicated that cover models on judged sport magazines and non-judged sport magazines are not changing in size over time (F(1,78) = .007, p = .932; F(1,148) = .087, p = .768, respectively). The only individual magazine that had cover models that significantly decreased in size over time was Golf for Women (F(1,20) = 5.065, p = .036). In addition to performing a linear regression analysis, we squared the date variable and included that in the model (along with the linear effect) in order to test for any curvilinear relationships. No curvilinear effect approached significance for any of the magazines ( p > .15). Therefore, with the exception of the golf magazine, cover models on the judged and non-judged sport magazines examined for this study did not get significantly thinner between 1994 and 2004. Discussion In terms of estimated body size, results support the hypothesis that cover models on judged sport magazines are thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines. This finding was robust, with the nonjudged cover models being almost a full step higher on the CDRS than the judged sport cover models. These results suggest that popular media may influence body image dissatisfaction and eating behaviors among readers of judged-sport magazines (Brooks-Gunn et al., 1988; Davidson et al., 2002; Smolak et al., 2000; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994a; Zucker et al., 1999). In particular, the current study suggests that athletes who seek out media related to judged-sports are exposed to thinner images than individuals reading non-judged sport magazines. One possible exception to this finding is runners. The average CDRS score for cover models on Runner’s World is only 2.9, thinner than any of the other nonjudged sport magazines. Although the average CDRS score for Runner’s World is greater than the average CDRS score of any of the judged sport magazines, the
relatively low score CDRS score of 2.9 suggests that individuals who read Runner’s World may be exposed to the thin ideal more frequently than individuals who read other non-judged sport magazines. Although the results of this study generally support a distinction between judged sports and non-judged sports, the findings regarding Runner’s World imply the thin ideal presented in certain specific judged sports magazines may not be completely distinct from the thin ideal presented in non-judged sport magazines. In the literature, the distinction between judged and nonjudged sports is relatively new. Some researchers suggest a more useful distinction may be between ‘‘lean’’ and ‘‘nonlean’’ sports. Nevertheless, whether sports are split into categories based on the judged nature of the sport or based on body type, it is clear that athletes who participate in certain sports are more likely to be exposed to thin media images. Experiments suggest that thin media images may influence body image disturbance and eating disordered behaviors in women. In particular, it has been suggested that women who compare their bodies to thin media images are more likely to develop body image disturbance and eating disorders (Cusamano & Thompson, 1997; Thompson et al., 1999). Research on social comparison theory suggests people want to know how they compare to those with whom they identify or feel a bond (Miller, Turnbull, & McFarland, 1988). It therefore seems possible that athletes who purchase sport-specific magazines compare themselves to the athletes seen in these magazines and aspire to physically look like the cover models. While both judged sport and non-judged sport athletes who read sport-specific magazines are likely to engage in the social comparison process, athletes reading judged sport magazines are exposed to thinner images than those reading non-judged sport magazines. It is possible that exposure to these thin images may influence body esteem and disordered eating in individuals who read judged-sport magazines. However, it is additionally possible that the increased rates of eating disorders experienced by judged sport athletes are due to the demands of the particular sport. It may be that in order to compete successfully in judged sports, athletes must maintain a thinner frame, and thus, these individuals feel added pressure to be thin. Future studies should therefore attempt to directly determine the relationship between exposure to the magazines used in this study and body esteem/eating disorder symptomology in judged sport athletes. The next set of hypotheses focused on how many covers contained ratable female bodies in each magazine
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type. Percentage of ratable female cover models is one indication of the frequency with which readers are exposed to thin media images. Judged sport and nonjudged sport magazine covers had a similar percentage of covers depicting ratable female bodies. One reason for these somewhat unexpected results may be that many covers from both magazine types either featured men or athletes in positions that were difficult to rate. The last set of hypotheses focused on the frequency with which full body images were presented on the magazine covers. As hypothesized, judged sport magazines depicted more full body images than nonjudged sport magazines; however, the difference was not significant. These results may be due to the large amount of variance in number of full body depictions found among the different magazines. Examination of the approximate age of the cover models revealed that judged sport magazines were significantly more likely to have younger cover models than non-judged sport magazines. It therefore seems likely that these magazines appeal more to adolescent readers. In light of the fact that the cover models on these magazines are rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines, judged sport magazines may be more likely than non-judged sport magazines to influence body image in adolescent females. Because research shows that certain magazines have presented the female body as thinner over time (Garner et al., 1980; Sypeck et al., 2004; Wiseman et al., 1992), we evaluated the possibility that the changing shape of cover models over time confounded the current results. With the exception of cover models from Golf for Women, however, the cover models from both judged and non-judged sport magazines do not appear to be getting thinner over time. Thus, it is unlikely that the different time frames from which the magazines were collected altered the results of this study. It is important to note that the majority of women depicted in the covers analyzed for this study are Caucasian. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that non-Caucasian women may be affected differently by exposure to these magazines. Future research should include experiments evaluating whether these magazines affect non-Caucasian female athletes in the same way they affect Caucasian female athletes. Limitations One limitation with magazine research was securing the covers for analysis. Although most of the covers needed for this study were obtainable, some covers were either unobtainable or did not depict ratable female
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body images. There is a possibility that the unobtainable covers from the analysis would change the results of the study. Although it is preferable to have the complete set of covers, enough covers depicted ratable female images in order to achieve adequate power. Another limitation of the current research involves the Contour Drawing Rating Scale. Although this scale is reliable and valid (Thompson & Gray, 1995), there are methodological limitations involved in the use of silhouettes to measure body size (Gardner, Friedman, & Jackson, 1998). For example, information regarding body size, a continuous variable, might be lost when a ‘‘course’’ response scale such as the CDRS is used to rate body size (Gardner et al., 1998). In particular, Gardner et al. (1998) point out that Likert-type rating scales such as the CDRS may force raters to alter their response in order to match a figure on the scale. In addition, the use of the CDRS with female athletes has not been widespread. Because the figures on the CDRS are not designed to be muscular, rating athletes with this scale was sometimes difficult. Use of a rating scale designed specifically to assess athletes’ body size would likely improve the robustness of the current study. However, currently, no known reliable and valid rating scale of muscularity exists for women (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). A related limitation of the current study is that only two raters were used to confirm the validity of the study findings. Although the study would be strengthened by including more raters, the two raters used in this study achieved high interrater reliability. Furthermore, previous research has demonstrated adequate reliability and validity for the CDRS (Thompson & Gray, 1995). Finally, it is necessary to note that it can be difficult to rate ethnicity based on highly stylized photos. However, in the current study, the two raters agreed on the ethnicity of 93 of 96 cover models rated by both raters. The 97% agreement of the two raters suggests that ethnicity was assessed in a highly reliable manner. Conclusions The results of this study provide insight into how print media depict female athletes. Overall, cover models on non-judged sport magazines were estimated to be significantly heavier than cover models on judged sport magazines. Therefore, it appears that female athletes who read judged-sport magazines are exposed to the thin ideal more frequently than individuals reading non-judged sport magazines. This study highlights the need for continued research into body dissatisfaction and eating disorders in
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athletes. While it is possible that that exposure to thin media images contributes to the increased rate of eating dysfunction seen in judged sport athletes, it is also possible that the judged sport athletes suffer from a higher rate of eating disorders because of the demands of their particular sport(s). Future research should therefore focus on the potentially unique impact thin media images may have on athletes. References American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (text revision, 4th ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. Attie, I., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1989). Development of eating problems in adolescent girls: A longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 25, 70–79. Botta, R. A. (2003). For your health? The relationship between magazine reading and adolescents’ body image and eating disturbances. Sex Roles, 48, 389–399. Bowker, A., Gadbois, S., & Cornock, B. (2003). Sports participation and self-esteem: Variations as a function of gender and gender role orientation. Sex Roles, 49, 47–58. Brooks-Gunn, J., Burrow, C., & Warren, M. P. (1988). Attitudes toward eating and body weight in different groups of female adolescent athletes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 7, 749–757. Cafri, G., & Thompson, J. K. (2004). Evaluating the convergence of muscle appearance attitude measures. Assessment, 11, 224–229. Cash, T. F., & Henry, P. E. (1995). Women’s body images: The results of a national survey in the USA. Sex Roles, 33, 19–28. Cattarin, J. A., & Thompson, J. K. (1994). A three-year longitudinal study of body image, eating disturbance, and general psychological functioning in adolescent females. Eating Disorders, 2, 114– 125. Cattarin, J. A., Thompson, J. K., Thomas, C., & Williams, R. (2000). Body image, mood, and televised images of attractiveness: The role of social comparison. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 220–239. Cusumano, D. L., & Thompson, J. K. (1997). Body image and body shape ideals in magazines: Exposure, Awareness, and Internalization. Sex Roles, 3, 701–721. Davidson, K. K., Earnest, M. B., & Birch, L. L. (2002). Participation in aesthetic sports and girls’ weight concerns at ages 5 and 7 years. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 312–317. Fulkerson, J. A., Keel, P. K., Leon, G. R., & Deor, T. (1997). Eatingdisordered behaviors and personality characteristics of high school athletes and nonathletes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 73–79. Gardner, R. M., Friedman, B. N., & Jackson, N. A. (1998). Methodological concerns when using silhouettes to measure body image. Perceptual and Motor Development, 86, 387–395. Garner, D.M. (1997). The 1997 body image survey results. Psychology Today, 30, 30–44, 75–80, 84. Garner, D. M., Garfinkel, P. E., Schwartz, D., & Thompson, M. (1980). Cultural expectations of thinness in women. Psychological Reports, 47, 483–491. Groesz, L. M., Levine, M. P., & Murnen, S. K. (2002). The effect of experimental presentation of thin media images on body
satisfaction: A meta-analytic review. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 31, 1–16. Harrison, K. (2000). The body electric: Thin-ideal media and eating disorders in adolescents. Journal of Communication, 119–143. Harrison, K., & Cantor, J. (1997). The relationship between media consumption and eating disorders. Journal of Communication, 47, 40–67. Hully, A. J., & Hill, A. J. (2001). Eating disorders and health in elite women distance runners. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 30, 312–317. Irving, L. (1990). Mirror images: Effects of the standard of beauty on the self- and body-esteem of women exhibiting varying levels of bulimic symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 9, 230–242. Johnson, C., Powers, P. S., & Dick, R. (1999). Athletes and eating disorders: The national collegiate athletic association study. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 26, 179–188. Kalodner, C. R. (1997). Media influences on male and female noneating-disordered college students: A significant issue. Eating Disorders, 5, 47–57. Mickley, D. W. (1994). Medical aspects of anorexia and bulimia. In B. P. Kinoy (Ed.), Eating disorders: New direction in treatment and recovery (pp. 7–14). New York: Columbia University Press. Miller, D. T., Turnbull, W., & McFarland, C. (1988). Particularistic and universalistic evaluation in the social comparison process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 908–917. Nicholls, D., Chater, R., & Lask, B. (2000). Children into DSM don’t go: A comparison of classification systems for eating disorders in childhood and early adolescence. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 28, 317–324. Richman, E. L., & Shaffer, D. R. (2000). If you let me play sports, how might sport participation influence the self-esteem of adolescent females? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 189–199. Rivaldi, C., Vannacci, A., Zucchi, T., Mannucci, E., Cabras, P. L., Boldrini, M., Murciano, L., Rotella, C. M., & Ricca, V. (2003). Eating disorders and body image among ballet dancers, gymnasium user and body builders. Psychopathology, 36, 247–254. Ryujin, D. H., Breaux, C., & Marks, A. D. (1999). Symptoms of eating disorders among female distance runners: can the inconsistencies be unraveled? Women and Health, 30, 71–83. Silverstein, B., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., & Kelly, E. (1986). The role of the mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. Sex Roles, 14, 519–532. Smolak, L., Murnen, S. K., & Ruble, A. E. (2000). Female athletes and eating problems: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 27, 371–380. Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1994a). Eating disorders in female athletes. Sports Medicine, 17, 188. Sundgot-Borgen, J. (1994b). Risk and trigger factors for the development of eating disorders in female elite athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 414–419. Spitzer, B. L., Henderson, K. A., & Zivian, M. T. (1999). Gender differences in population versus media body sizes: A comparison over four decades. Sex Roles, 40, 545–565. Sypeck, M. F., Gray, J. J., & Ahrens, A. H. (2004). No longer just a pretty face: Fashion magazines’ depictions of ideal female beauty from 1959 to 1999. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 36, 342–347. Taub, D. E., & Blinde, E. M. (1992). Eating disorders among adolescent female athletes: Influence of athletic participation and sport team membership. Adolescence, 27, 833–848.
R.L. Ginsberg, J.J. Gray / Body Image 3 (2006) 365–373 Taylor, C. V., Sharpe, T., Shisslak, C., Bryson, S., Estes, L. S., Gray, N., McKnight, K. M., Crago, M., Kraemer, H. C., & Killen, J. D. (1998). Factors associated with weight concerns in adolescent girls. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 24, 31–42. Thompson, M. A., & Gray, J. J. (1995). Development and validation of a new body-image assessment scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 64, 258–269. Thompson, J., Heinberg, K., Altabe, L. J., & Tantleff-Dunn, M. (1999). Exacting beauty: Theory assessment and treatment of body image disturbance. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Turner, S. L., Hamilton, M. J., Angood, L. M., & Dwyer, D. H. (1997). The influence of fashion magazines on the body satisfaction of college women: An exploratory analysis. Adolescents, 32, 603–614.
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Ulrich, C. F. (2004). Ulrich’s periodicals directory; a classified guide to a selected list of current periodicals foreign and domestic. Oxford, England: RR Bowker. Warren, B. J., Stanton, A. L., & Blessing, D. L. (1990). Disordered eating patterns in competitive female athletes. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 9, 565–569. Wiseman, C. V., Gray, J. J., Mosimann, J. E., & Ahrens, A. H. (1992). Cultural expectations of thinness in women: An update. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 11, 85–89. Yates, A., Edman, J. D., Crago, M., & Crowell, D. (2003). Eating disorder symptoms in runners, cyclists, and paddlers. Addictive Behaviors, 28, 1473–1480. Zucker, N. L., Womble, L. G., Williamson, D. A., & Perrin, L. A. (1999). Protective factors for eating disorders in female college athletes. Eating Disorders, 7, 207–218.
The differential depiction of female athletes in judged and non-judged sport magazines Rebecca L. Ginsberg *, James J. Gray American University, Washington, DC, United States Received 16 November 2005; received in revised form 3 May 2006; accepted 7 May 2006
Abstract Sports magazines portrayal of female athletes over the past ten years, in terms of body size, age, and race was examined. Using the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS), estimated body size was obtained for cover models on a set of judged and non-judged sport magazines. The frequency with which the full bodies of models were depicted on the covers of these magazines was also investigated. Cover models on judged sport magazines were rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines. Judged sport magazines also displayed a higher number of full-body images than non-judged sport magazines. These findings suggest that individuals who read judged sport magazines are more likely to be exposed to thin media images than those reading non-judged sport magazines. # 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Keywords: Judged sports; Non-judged sports; Media; Body image; Female athletes
Introduction Anorexia nervosa (AN) and bulimia nervosa (BN) are complex eating disorders that can result in a range of physical consequences, including death (Mickley, 1994). Due to the potentially serious nature of these disorders, their high prevalence among American women is alarming (Cash & Henry, 1995; American Psychiatric Association, 2000; Garner, 1997; Nicholls, Chater, & Lask, 2000). It is important to discover why these potentially fatal disorders are so pervasive in certain populations, and what can be done to prevent their occurrence. Although the exact cause of eating disorders is unknown, evidence indicates that body image dissa* Corresponding author at: Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20016, United States. Tel.: +1 202 258 7139. E-mail address: [email protected] (R.L. Ginsberg). 1740-1445/$ – see front matter # 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2006.05.003
tisfaction is a precursor for later eating problems (Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Cattarin & Thompson, 1994; Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Recently, there has also been considerable focus on various media as possible factors in the development and maintenance of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction in women. It has been hypothesized that the role of media in the etiology of eating disorders occurs through the transmission of the idea that thin is ideal (Groesz, Levine, & Murnen, 2002; Harrison, 2000; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Taylor et al., 1998; Turner, Hamilton, Angood, & Dwyer, 1997). An increase in eating dysfunction and body image disturbance has occurred simultaneously with increased cultural expectations of thinness as evidenced by the decreasing size of women appearing in popular media (Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980; Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986; Sypeck, Gray, & Ahrens, 2004; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992). While media are transmitting images of
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thinner women, the general population is getting bigger (Spitzer, Henderson, & Zivian, 1999). It has been theorized that the growing discrepancy in appearance between average women and media images of women may partially account for the prevalence of eating dysfunction and body image disturbance (Silverstein et al., 1986). More specifically, women may engage in unhealthy eating or exercise habits in an effort to achieve the thin ideal as portrayed in popular media. The impact of thin media images Studies have documented a relationship between thin media images and a decrease in body image satisfaction in both overweight and normal weight women. This research suggests that portrayals of the thin ideal are related to an increase in eating disordered behaviors and body image disturbance in both women and adolescents (Harrison, 2000; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Irving, 1990; Kalodner, 1997; Taylor et al., 1998; Turner et al., 1997). However, not all women exposed to media images portraying the thin ideal develop body image or eating disturbance. Social comparison theory has been used to explain a possible connection between thin media images and body image/eating disturbance. In particular, research suggests that individuals who engage in the comparison process with thin media images experience more body dissatisfaction and eating disordered behavior than individuals who do not engage in the comparison process (Botta, 2003; Cattarin, Thompson, Thomas, & Williams, 2000; Thompson et al., 1999). Body image disturbance and eating dysfunction in athletes Research regarding the prevalence of eating disturbance in female athletes has produced mixed results. Some research suggests that athletes are at an increased risk of eating disorders and body dissatisfaction as compared to the general population (Taub & Blinde, 1992), while other research indicates that female athletes may be protected against body image dissatisfaction due to increased levels of self-esteem (Bowker, Gadbois, & Cornock, 2003; Richman & Schaefer, 2000). The mixed results found regarding the prevalence of eating disorders and body image dissatisfaction in female athletes is likely due to differences in both the level of sport and the type of sport undertaken. Studies suggest that female athletes participating at a competitive level, and those involved in sports that promote leanness, are at a higher risk for developing an eating disorder and/or body image dissatisfaction (Brooks-Gunn, Burrow, & Warren,
1988; Davidson, Earnest, & Birch, 2002; Fulkerson, Keel, Leon, & Deor, 1997; Hully & Hill, 2001; Smolak, Murnen, & Ruble, 2000; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994b). In particular, it has been proposed that women who participate in ‘‘judged’’ sports might be at greater risk for eating and body image disturbance (Zucker, Womble, Williamson, & Perrin, 1999). Judged sports, defined as sports in which physical appearance influences performance evaluation, include gymnastics, ballet, sports dance, figure skating, and cheerleading (Zucker et al., 1999). Non-judged sports, on the other hand, have been defined as sports in which physical appearance has no influence on performance evaluation (Zucker et al., 1999). Unlike judged-sport athletes, athletes participating in non-judged sports appear to be either no worse off than non-athletic females, or may even be somewhat protected against body image dysfunction and eating disorders (BrooksGunn et al., 1988; Davidson et al., 2002; Johnson, Powers, & Dick, 1999; Rivaldi et al., 2003; Smolak et al., 2000; Warren, Stanton, & Blessing, 1990; Yates, Edman, Crago, & Crowell, 2003; Zucker et al., 1999). It is important to question why females who participate in judged sports appear to be at an increased risk of body image and eating dysfunction (Davidson et al., 2002; Ryujin, Breaux, & Marks, 1999; Smolak et al., 2000; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994a). In part, it is possible this discrepancy between judged sport and non-judged sport athletes is related to the differing media images these different groups of athletes may be exposed to. While empirical studies have shown a relationship between thin media images, increased body dissatisfaction, and eating disorders among women, research investigating portrayal of body size in athletes is limited. Therefore, the way in which magazines represent judged sport athletes and non-judged sport athletes were examined for this study. In particular, cover models on judged sport magazines were compared to cover models on non-judged sport magazines in terms of estimated body size. It was hypothesized that cover models on judged sport magazines would be rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines. If this hypothesis holds, the distinction between judged sports and non-judged sports would be supported. This finding would also support a possible role for popular media in influencing body image satisfaction and eating disturbance among female athletes. Method In order to determine if media represent judged sport athletes and non-judged sport athletes differently,
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estimated body size was obtained for magazine cover models on five judged sport magazines and four nonjudged sports magazines. Judged sports magazines included Pointe Magazine (Ballet), Dance Spirit, USA Gymnastics, Blades on Ice, and International Figure Skating Magazine. Non-judged sports magazines included Runner’s World, Golf for Women, Triathlete, and Swimming World. The determination of which magazines were to be included in the current analysis was obtained by selecting representative magazines with the highest circulation for the specific sport (Ulrich, 2004). The body size of the cover models was determined by rating all cover models on the nine female figure drawings from the Contour Drawing Rating Scale (CDRS) (Thompson & Gray, 1995). In the CDRS, each body size is rated with a number from 1 to 9, with one representing the thinnest figure and nine representing the heaviest figure. The body sizes are also rated in half steps (e.g., 4.5). Criteria for the suitability of the rating of the models were developed by Cusumano and Thompson (1997). All cover models were included in the analysis, regardless of body position, as long as at least 3/4th of the arms, upper torso, stomach or legs were showing as part of the body shot. All cover models on each magazine from the last ten years (or, if less, as long as the magazine has been published) that fulfilled the above criteria were rated and compared. In addition to determining the body size of the cover models, the percent of ratable female body covers from each magazine was also calculated. If a cover was determined to be ‘‘unratable,’’ raters recorded the reason for this. Raters were instructed that a cover should be considered unratable for any of the following reasons: if there was a man on cover, if the image was too small, if there were no people on the cover, if the image was obscured by baggy clothing, if a preadolescent or pregnant woman was on the cover, if there was not enough body showing, or if the body position was difficult to rate (e.g., only a side profile was shown, or the cover model was lying down). Raters also recorded the amount of body shown (e.g., full body or partial body), the race of the cover model, and the approximate age of the cover model. Finally, the change in body size of the cover models over time was explored in order to determine whether cover models on sports magazines are decreasing in size over time. Two female research assistants who were unaware of the hypotheses performed the ratings. Each rater rated approximately 60% of the covers. The individual magazine covers within each particular magazine were expected to be more similar to
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each other than to magazine covers from other magazines. Therefore, the statistical assumption of independence could not be met and a nested design was used. In particular, the individual magazine covers were nested within the specific magazines, which were subsumed within the magazine type. Because of the nested structure of the data, multi-level analysis (SAS PROC MIXED) was used to test the effect of magazine type. The main dependent variable for this study was the mean body size rating of the female images appearing on the covers obtained for each specific magazine. In addition, several preplanned contrasts were conducted to examine whether body size was portrayed differently across the different magazines. Results The data for this study were analyzed with the use of two personal-computer-based statistical software packages, SPSS (10.5) and SAS (8.02). Specifically, body size, ratability of the female cover model, and amount of body shown on the covers of popular sports magazines were investigated. In addition, differences in age and race of cover models were also examined. An alpha of .05 and 95% confidence intervals were used in all analyses. At least 85% of all covers were attainable for each magazine with the exception of International Figure Skating. Because several covers of this magazine were unobtainable despite an exhaustive search, covers of the second highest circulating skating magazine, Blades on Ice, were also rated. Although every specific magazine had enough covers with ratable female bodies to achieve adequate power, a x2 analysis of unobtainable covers indicated a significant difference in percentages of unobtainable magazines between judged sport and nonjudged sport magazines. Judged sport magazines had significantly more unobtainable magazines than nonjudged sport magazines (x2(1) = 27.90, p < .01). All of the magazines contained appropriate and useful data over a period of several years. USA Gymnastics had 26 ratable female body covers (42.6%) out of a possible 61, the figure skating magazines had 18 ratable female body covers (24.7%) out of a possible 73, and out of 88 dance magazines, 37 were ratable for estimated body size (42%). For the non-judged sports magazines, Golf for Women had 22 ratable female body covers (36.1%) out of a possible 61, Swimming World had 19 ratable female body covers (15.4%) out of a possible 123, out of 125 possible covers for Running World, 74 contained ratable female bodies (59.2%), and finally, out of a possible 117 covers of Triathlete, 29.9%
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Table 1 Mean estimated body size and standard deviation for all magazines Magazine
Mean estimated body size
SD
Coversa (%)
International Figure Skating Blades on Ice Dance Spirit Pointe USA Gymnastics Runner’s World Triathlete Golf for Women Swimming World
2.786 2.546 2.370 2.167 2.827 2.932 3.114 3.500 3.850
.5226 .5222 .5221 .5217 .5115 .4143 .5221 .5226 .5076
15 73 82 94 75 95 69 62 24
SD: standard deviation. a The percentage of overall full female body covers from all of the covers obtained for this study with female cover models.
displayed ratable female bodies. The means and standard deviation of the estimated body size are reported in Table 1. Reliability analysis A Pearson’s correlation was obtained on approximately 20% of the magazine covers in order to determine interrater reliability. The means of the two raters were also compared using a paired sample t-test. The two raters achieved adequate reliability rates (r = .81, p < .01). Furthermore, there was no significant difference between the means of the two raters (t = .37, p = .71). The Pearson’s correlation used to obtain interrater reliability for estimated age of the cover models was also adequate (r = .77, p < .001). However, a paired samples t-test revealed significant differences between the raters (t = 6.96, df = 161, p < .001). In particular, rater 2 was judging cover models to be approximately two years older than rater 1 was judging the cover models to be. Therefore results involving estimated age were obtained separately for each rater. Furthermore, cover models were placed into one of three categories based on their estimated age: under the age of 14 years, between the age of 14–17 years, and older than 17 years. When cover models were placed into these three categories, percent agreement on age category was 96.9%. Planned contrasts Body size The Contour Drawing Rating Scale was used to determine whether the different types of sports magazines present cover models of different sizes. For our 12 planned contrasts, we used Bonferonni’s to minimize the risk of Type I error and thus set our alpha level to .05/12 = .004. As hypothesized,
differences on the CDRS were found between judged sport magazine covers and non-judged sport magazine covers (t(7) = 3.76, p < .01). Cover models on judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 2.54, while cover models on non-judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 3.33. However, the percentage of ratable female body covers from each magazine was highly variable. In order to ensure that the percent of ratable versus unratable female body covers did not bias the judged sport or nonjudged sport sample toward any particular magazine, a second analysis using a stratified random sample was conducted. In particular, 15 random covers from each magazine were selected and compared. Findings using this data confirmed that cover models on judged sport magazines were rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines (t(7) = 3.27, p = .0136). Using the stratified sample, cover models on judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 2.48, while cover models on non-judged sport magazines received an average CDRS rating of 3.34. Taken together, these findings indicate that cover models on judged sport magazines have a significantly lower estimated body size than cover models on nonjudged sport magazines. In order to address concerns regarding the homogeneity of body size within the non-judged sport category, contrasts were run comparing the magazines within this category. Indeed, cover models from Runner’s World and Triathlete were rated to be significantly thinner than cover models from Swimming World and Golf for Women (t(218) = 6.74, p < .01). Cover models from Runner’s World and Triathlete, however, were not significantly different from each other in terms of estimated body size (t(218) = 1.70, p = .09). Additional contrasts were run between each individual non-judged sport magazine and the judged sport magazines to ensure each magazine was rated to be
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significantly heavier than the judged sport magazines. Results revealed that cover models from all four nonjudged sport magazines were rated as significantly heavier than the judged sport magazine cover models (Runner’s World—t(218) = 4.31, p < .01; Swimming World—t(218) = 9.72, p < .01; Triathlete—t(218) = 5.18, p < .01; and Golf for Women—t(218) = 7.38, p < .01). However, not every non-judged sport magazine has cover models rated as significantly heavier than every judged sport magazine. In particular, Runner’s World cover models were not significantly different in terms of estimated body size from USA Gymnastics cover models (t(218) = .88, p = .38). In addition, although the difference approached significance in the expected direction, Runner’s World cover models were not rated as significantly different from cover models on the figure skating magazines in terms of estimated body size (t(218) = 1.90, p = .058). Each of the judged sport magazines was contrasted with the non-judged sport magazines in order to determine how each particular judged sport magazine compared with non-judged sports magazines. As predicted, cover models on all three types of judged sport magazines were rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines (figure skating (t(218) = 5.06, p < .01), dance magazines (t(218) = 9.69, p < .01), and USA Gymnastics (t(218) = 4.62, p < .01). Ratability A large amount of variance in cover ratability on the CDRS was found among the different magazines (see Fig. 1). Overall, 36% of the 222 judged sport covers
Fig. 1. Percent of covers with ratable female bodies as a function of magazine.
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contained female bodies that were ratable on CDRS, while 35.3% of 433 non-judged sport covers displayed ratable female bodies. Full body depictions Percentage of covers depicting a cover model’s full body as a function of magazine type can be found in Fig. 2. All covers, including covers without ratable female bodies were included in this analysis. A large amount of variance in number of full body depictions was found among the different magazines (Fig. 2). Seventy-two percent of judged sport covers obtained for this study depicted full body shots, whereas full body depictions accounted for 65.2% of non-judged sport covers. No significant difference in the proportion of full body shots was found between judged sport and non-judged sport magazines (x2(1) = 2.22, p = .14). Age and race Of all of the cover models used in this study, only one was judged to be under the age of 14. This cover was excluded from all analyses. Twenty-seven percent of judged sport cover models, compared to only 3% of non-judged sport cover models, were estimated to be under the age of 18. A Fisher’s Exact test revealed that the judged sport magazines contained significantly more cover models under the age of 18 than did nonjudged sport magazines ( p < .01). Due to the significant differences between the ages of cover models, contrasts looking at body size for the two types of magazines were re-run, excluding all cover models estimated to be under the age of 18. Significant results were again found based on magazine type.
Fig. 2. Percentage of full body depiction by magazine.
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Differences on the CDRS were found between judged sport magazine covers and non-judged sport magazine covers, with estimations that judged sport cover models are thinner (t(7) = 3.38, p < .01). Of the 223 cover models evaluated for race, 84.2% were Caucasian, 6.7% were African American, 2.6% were Hispanic, 6.7% were Asian, and .2% were placed in the ‘‘other’’ category. Change in body size over time In order to assess change in body size over time, a linear regression analysis was performed. Results indicated that cover models on judged sport magazines and non-judged sport magazines are not changing in size over time (F(1,78) = .007, p = .932; F(1,148) = .087, p = .768, respectively). The only individual magazine that had cover models that significantly decreased in size over time was Golf for Women (F(1,20) = 5.065, p = .036). In addition to performing a linear regression analysis, we squared the date variable and included that in the model (along with the linear effect) in order to test for any curvilinear relationships. No curvilinear effect approached significance for any of the magazines ( p > .15). Therefore, with the exception of the golf magazine, cover models on the judged and non-judged sport magazines examined for this study did not get significantly thinner between 1994 and 2004. Discussion In terms of estimated body size, results support the hypothesis that cover models on judged sport magazines are thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines. This finding was robust, with the nonjudged cover models being almost a full step higher on the CDRS than the judged sport cover models. These results suggest that popular media may influence body image dissatisfaction and eating behaviors among readers of judged-sport magazines (Brooks-Gunn et al., 1988; Davidson et al., 2002; Smolak et al., 2000; Sundgot-Borgen, 1994a; Zucker et al., 1999). In particular, the current study suggests that athletes who seek out media related to judged-sports are exposed to thinner images than individuals reading non-judged sport magazines. One possible exception to this finding is runners. The average CDRS score for cover models on Runner’s World is only 2.9, thinner than any of the other nonjudged sport magazines. Although the average CDRS score for Runner’s World is greater than the average CDRS score of any of the judged sport magazines, the
relatively low score CDRS score of 2.9 suggests that individuals who read Runner’s World may be exposed to the thin ideal more frequently than individuals who read other non-judged sport magazines. Although the results of this study generally support a distinction between judged sports and non-judged sports, the findings regarding Runner’s World imply the thin ideal presented in certain specific judged sports magazines may not be completely distinct from the thin ideal presented in non-judged sport magazines. In the literature, the distinction between judged and nonjudged sports is relatively new. Some researchers suggest a more useful distinction may be between ‘‘lean’’ and ‘‘nonlean’’ sports. Nevertheless, whether sports are split into categories based on the judged nature of the sport or based on body type, it is clear that athletes who participate in certain sports are more likely to be exposed to thin media images. Experiments suggest that thin media images may influence body image disturbance and eating disordered behaviors in women. In particular, it has been suggested that women who compare their bodies to thin media images are more likely to develop body image disturbance and eating disorders (Cusamano & Thompson, 1997; Thompson et al., 1999). Research on social comparison theory suggests people want to know how they compare to those with whom they identify or feel a bond (Miller, Turnbull, & McFarland, 1988). It therefore seems possible that athletes who purchase sport-specific magazines compare themselves to the athletes seen in these magazines and aspire to physically look like the cover models. While both judged sport and non-judged sport athletes who read sport-specific magazines are likely to engage in the social comparison process, athletes reading judged sport magazines are exposed to thinner images than those reading non-judged sport magazines. It is possible that exposure to these thin images may influence body esteem and disordered eating in individuals who read judged-sport magazines. However, it is additionally possible that the increased rates of eating disorders experienced by judged sport athletes are due to the demands of the particular sport. It may be that in order to compete successfully in judged sports, athletes must maintain a thinner frame, and thus, these individuals feel added pressure to be thin. Future studies should therefore attempt to directly determine the relationship between exposure to the magazines used in this study and body esteem/eating disorder symptomology in judged sport athletes. The next set of hypotheses focused on how many covers contained ratable female bodies in each magazine
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type. Percentage of ratable female cover models is one indication of the frequency with which readers are exposed to thin media images. Judged sport and nonjudged sport magazine covers had a similar percentage of covers depicting ratable female bodies. One reason for these somewhat unexpected results may be that many covers from both magazine types either featured men or athletes in positions that were difficult to rate. The last set of hypotheses focused on the frequency with which full body images were presented on the magazine covers. As hypothesized, judged sport magazines depicted more full body images than nonjudged sport magazines; however, the difference was not significant. These results may be due to the large amount of variance in number of full body depictions found among the different magazines. Examination of the approximate age of the cover models revealed that judged sport magazines were significantly more likely to have younger cover models than non-judged sport magazines. It therefore seems likely that these magazines appeal more to adolescent readers. In light of the fact that the cover models on these magazines are rated as significantly thinner than cover models on non-judged sport magazines, judged sport magazines may be more likely than non-judged sport magazines to influence body image in adolescent females. Because research shows that certain magazines have presented the female body as thinner over time (Garner et al., 1980; Sypeck et al., 2004; Wiseman et al., 1992), we evaluated the possibility that the changing shape of cover models over time confounded the current results. With the exception of cover models from Golf for Women, however, the cover models from both judged and non-judged sport magazines do not appear to be getting thinner over time. Thus, it is unlikely that the different time frames from which the magazines were collected altered the results of this study. It is important to note that the majority of women depicted in the covers analyzed for this study are Caucasian. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that non-Caucasian women may be affected differently by exposure to these magazines. Future research should include experiments evaluating whether these magazines affect non-Caucasian female athletes in the same way they affect Caucasian female athletes. Limitations One limitation with magazine research was securing the covers for analysis. Although most of the covers needed for this study were obtainable, some covers were either unobtainable or did not depict ratable female
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body images. There is a possibility that the unobtainable covers from the analysis would change the results of the study. Although it is preferable to have the complete set of covers, enough covers depicted ratable female images in order to achieve adequate power. Another limitation of the current research involves the Contour Drawing Rating Scale. Although this scale is reliable and valid (Thompson & Gray, 1995), there are methodological limitations involved in the use of silhouettes to measure body size (Gardner, Friedman, & Jackson, 1998). For example, information regarding body size, a continuous variable, might be lost when a ‘‘course’’ response scale such as the CDRS is used to rate body size (Gardner et al., 1998). In particular, Gardner et al. (1998) point out that Likert-type rating scales such as the CDRS may force raters to alter their response in order to match a figure on the scale. In addition, the use of the CDRS with female athletes has not been widespread. Because the figures on the CDRS are not designed to be muscular, rating athletes with this scale was sometimes difficult. Use of a rating scale designed specifically to assess athletes’ body size would likely improve the robustness of the current study. However, currently, no known reliable and valid rating scale of muscularity exists for women (Cafri & Thompson, 2004). A related limitation of the current study is that only two raters were used to confirm the validity of the study findings. Although the study would be strengthened by including more raters, the two raters used in this study achieved high interrater reliability. Furthermore, previous research has demonstrated adequate reliability and validity for the CDRS (Thompson & Gray, 1995). Finally, it is necessary to note that it can be difficult to rate ethnicity based on highly stylized photos. However, in the current study, the two raters agreed on the ethnicity of 93 of 96 cover models rated by both raters. The 97% agreement of the two raters suggests that ethnicity was assessed in a highly reliable manner. Conclusions The results of this study provide insight into how print media depict female athletes. Overall, cover models on non-judged sport magazines were estimated to be significantly heavier than cover models on judged sport magazines. Therefore, it appears that female athletes who read judged-sport magazines are exposed to the thin ideal more frequently than individuals reading non-judged sport magazines. This study highlights the need for continued research into body dissatisfaction and eating disorders in
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