Developments in air pollution caused by highway traffic in the Federal Republic of Germany : Effects and preventive measures

The Science of the Total Environment, 93 (1990) 21-42

21

Elsevier

DEVELOPMENTS IN AIR POLLUTION CAUSED BY HIGHWAY TRAFFIC IN TEE FEDERAL REPUBLIC GF GERMANY : ~'~'ECTS AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES

N. G o r i 8 e n

Federal Environment Agency Bismarckplatz

I, D-1000 B e r l i n 33

Summary

NO x e m i s s i o n s

c a u s e d by h i g h w a y traffic are increasing.

Even

f o l l o w i n g the i n t r o d u c t i o n of c l o s e d - l o o p c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t ers levels c o n t i n u e to rise due to i n c r e a s e s in h e a v y d u t y v e h i c l e t r a f f i c as a result of the single E u r o p e a n market. N o n - t e c h n i c a l m e a s u r e s are p r o p o s e d in o r d e r to a t t a i n 30% r e d u c t i o n of all NO x e m i s s i o n s b e t w e e n 1985 and 1998.

i. The d e v e l o p m e n t of the h i g h w a y n e t w o r k and h i q h w a 7 traffic in the F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y

Between

1 J a n u a r y 1966 and 1 J u l y 1989, the F e d e r a l G e r m a n

h i g h w a y n e t w o r k e x p a n d e d s t e a d i l y from 3,372 km 8,735 km

(fig.

0048-9697/90/$03.50

2) - an i n c r e a s e of over 250%

© 1990 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

(fig.

[i].

I) to

23

BUNDESREPUBLIK DEUTSCHLAND NETZ DER BUNDESAUTOBAHNEN STAND, 3 0 . 8 . 1 9 8 9

'~

=~ .

,~ .

,~

, ,~

(,.,,*,.*p*

I-b*h.~h. ,.~

i

.L-.

umm

:%--

_.__

l-bob., o

osso

,

let

O.i.*"

los

eTls

17

3e*

.

.,--

*

*

riO0

"

Nll|l|LJmou

'"'7'

III~KmATISCN[

IICN||N|IIOW4||e

Fig.

2: Federal

German Highway Network 30.06.89

24

At approximately 1.7%, the highway network currently represents merely a very small proportion of the entire road network.

This proportion has, however,

also increased steadily

from 0.6% in 1966 and has doubled as a result of the rapid expansion of the highway network. The increase in the volume of traffic, highways,

has, however,

particularly on the

overtaken the rate of expansion of

the highway network. Because of this, the burden of traffic on the highways in the period between 1966 and 1988 expressed in terms of the "average daily traffic

(ADT)"

(i.e. the average number of

motor vehicles which pass a monitor over a period of 24 hours) has increased sharply. tween 1966 and 1988 (fig. 3)

It too more than doubled be-

[2,3,4].

FIG.3: AVERAGEDAILYTRAFFIC(ADT)ONGERMANHIGHWAYS vehicles m 24 hours 40T 35T 30T

iiii

25T

i ! i

iiii i il°! i!i i

O'

i!

Im

The outcome of this expansion of the highway network and the burden of traffic on it is an almost sixfold increase in mileage

(the sum of kilometres driven by motor vehicles on

the highway)

between 1966 and 1988. If a differentiation is

made between passenger cars and heavy duty vehicles it b e -

25 comes clear that it is above all the passenger cars which are responsible highways.

for the high mileage and increases on the

Passenger car mileage increased more than sixfold

between 1966 and 1988 - from approximately 17 thousand million km (1966) to more than 100 thousand million km (1988). Mileage for heavy duty vehicles on highways has "only" undergone a fourfold increase since 1966, i.e. it has increased from approximately 4.5 thousand million km to approximately 16.5 thousand million km in 1988. To enable comparison,

fig. 4 presents the development in the increase in

mileage for all motor vehicles on all types of roads and fig. 5 compares the differentiated increase in mileage figures,

taking 1966 as 100%. This shows that whilst mileage

for all motor vehicles on all roads is by far the highest ('fig. 4), the increase in mileage for passenger cars and heavy duty vehicles on Federal German highways is exceptionally high

(fig. 5). An even higher increase in mileage is

shown by foreign lorries, although in this case few recorded benchmark

figures are available.

This is an indication of

the significant effect which the planned single European market will have on highway traffic

FIG.4: MII,F.GEVAL ON

[2,3].

TYPES1966 - 1998 billion km

400

• o o° .....

350 ~.o~.

o. o° "..~''°'"

300 250

o ,o°

200 150 lO0 ~

50

I " ~

0

--

pc on highways

--

hdv on highways

- - - all vehicles on all roads

26

FIG.5: NORMAI,IZI MILEAGEVALUES1966-1998 1966 = 1007o 700 !

/..

600 i

5001

~..""

'

I

....

- . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. - . ° -

100

. . . . pc on highways

-- hdv on highways

--- all vehicles on all roads

2. H i q h w a y speed R e p r e s e n t a t i v e surveys of speeds of p a s s e n g e r cars on G e r m a n h i g h w a y s are o n l y a v a i l a b l e for 1984 and 1985. No s t u d y of this n a t u r e is k n o w n for lorries. However,

a c e r t a i n t r e n d has b e e n r e v e a l e d t h r o u g h i n t e r m i t -

tent s t u d i e s by the Bundesanstalt

ffir StraBenwesen,

which

since 1978 h a v e been u n d e r t a k e n s y s t e m a t i c a l l y at 15 m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s and a f t e r e l i m i n a t i n g s p e e d - r e d u c i n g factors such as o b s t r u c t i o n c a u s e d b y road works, w e a t h e r conditions.

t r a f f i c or

In the case of p a s s e n g e r cars it has

b e e n s h o w n at t h e s e 15 m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s that since 1981 t h e r e has b e e n a s t e a d y annual rise of 1.1 k m / h to an a v e r a g e speed of 128.6 k m / h

(fig. 6) in a u t u m n 1988.

27

FIG.6:TRENDINAVERAGEEED OFPA NG

ONHIGHWAYS

in km/h 130 f..,. J

12S

/

,~..~* .-.,I~I

126

/

.

124 /_..~-"

122 f .~"-~.

/

\

/

120 I18

1978 1979 1980 1961 1982 l~i

An even s h a r p e r

increase

19~

I~6

l~

in speeds was o b s e r v e d

cars in free flowing traffic in front)

19~

IM

in p a s s e n g e r

(no o b s t a c l e caused by v e h i c l e s

and here the d i s t r i b u t i o n

range of the speeds

greater,

i.e. w h e n e v e r p o s s i b l e h i g h e r speeds are b e i n g

reached.

As a result the n u m b e r of p a s s e n g e r

faster than the r e c o m m e n d e d registered proximately works,

speed of 130km/h

at the 15 m e a s u r i n g

is

cars t r a v e l l i n g w h i c h was

points has risen from ap-

33% ten years ago to over 45%. Due to road

and the high v o l u m e of traffic,

speed of p a s s e n g e r

cars on highways

the actual a v e r a g e

is p r o b a b l y s o m e w h a t

lower. A steady increase

An a v e r a g e

served at the 15 m o n i t o r i n g

speed of lorries was also obstations;

an annual

from 0.4 km/h to a speed of 87km/h in autumn tered.

Since then the average

constant average

at this level

(fig.

speed of lorries

than this,

as speeds

increase

1986 was regis-

speed for lorries has r e m a i n e d 7). The actual r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

is p r o b a b l y only m a r g i n a l l y

in lorries are less i n f l u e n c e d

lower by traf-

28

fic v o l u m e and bad w e a t h e r

conditions.

Individual

have shown that foreign lorries are p a r t i c u l a r l y their high speeds [ 5, 6].

studies noted for

FIG.7:TRENDINAVERAGE SPEEDOFHEAVYDUTYVm ONHIGHWAYS in kra/h 8rio 87,0 ..~.

•

//

86,0

/ /-.,--~,

~

1980

19~1

B5,0 B4,0

A

/

i ,.,"

,/"

%

\

~. -"~. i -,

/ \ / v

/

/ \/' /

B3,0 82,0

197B

The general

1979

increase

could be e x p l a i n e d

!98E

19~

1984

19~

IL~

19~

in h i g h w a y speeds of p a s s e n g e r

cars

for the main part by lower fuel costs and

the trend towards more powerful vehicles. power of p a s s e n g e r

1987

The a v e r a g e

cars in the Federal Republic

engine

of G e r m a n y

rose from 50 kW in 1978 to 59 kW in 1988. Engine p o w e r in lorries

is also i n c r e a s i n g

proportion

w h i c h are used p a r t i c u l a r l y

of trailers,

s i v e l y in l o n g - d i s t a n c e

h i g h w a y travel,

steadily.

The exten-

with m o r e than 148

kW rose from 40% in 1978 to over 60% in 1988. An i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r of v e h i c l e s introduced in power,

it was,

fuel c o n s u m p t i o n sure,

in the 320 kW class are c u r r e n t l y being

into circulation.

Despite this enormous

increase

h o w e v e r p o s s i b l e to reduce the rates of

[2,7]. As a result of strong e c o n o m i c pres-

lack of s u r v e i l l a n c e

of speed limits and high engine

29 p o w e r w i t h d e c r e a s i n g fuel c o n s u m p t i o n , lorries on h i g h w a y s

the a v e r a g e speed of

is far in excess of the legal limit of

80 km/h.

3. The i n c r e a s e in

NO x e m i s s i o n s

from h i q h w a y traffic.

A m a j o r r o l e is p l a y e d by NO x e m i s s i o n in the c o n t r o l of air purity,

e.g.:

It shares a large p a r t of the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for the d e a t h of the forests,

the i n t r o d u c t i o n of NO x into the N o r t h Sea and the Baltic Sea,

and c o n t r i b u t e s to the f o r m a t i o n of o z o n e in the lower a t m o s p h e r e and c o n s e q u e n t l y to the g r e e n h o u s e effect.

In 1986 the s o u r c e of tionary plants

NO x e m i s s i o n was d i v i d e d b e t w e e n sta-

(power stations,

small c o n s u m e r s ) an o v e r v i e w of

industry,

h o u s e h o l d s and

at 40% and t r a f f i c at 60%. Fig.

8 contains

NO x e m i s s i o n b e t w e e n 1966 and 1986.

FIG. 8: ANNUALNOX - EMISSIONSIN THE FJLG. 1966 - 1986 in 1000 t NOx/a

2001 8O01 400

.,--

]

0001

.,f"

./...t.

. . . . ./

6oOl,

!!!l

....

f~m

. . . . all sources

--

t o t a l traffic

- - - highway traffic

30

Klassen

der

Dichte-

Emissionsdichte

T o n n e n Je k m 2 1)

% d e ~ MittelwertesL.~

kJa~se [mS [---I

~ 1

•

o -

+,?

+,7 -

2.4

• ~h4

o -

is

Is -

~o

-

3,3

>

-

28

• 3,3 -

4,6

•

28 -

38

~ 4,5 -

e,=

>

30

-

5 3

•

8,6

>

53

-

v3

is

•

2=

•l,O-

6.2

~

-

12-

i

-16-

Hal

> 22-

PlO

I) We,~, ¢wundet 2) A r ~ ~

L

•

• ~

20

too-

;,1o ,.o

190-

~'800

Fkhe,,
B E R U N NVestl

~nantei~ -

Gesamt~che

Idaael

r-n

r-1 m m m m m

in % an Geeam~m~sek~nen

J' 'L +

I

m m

IV,a m , l a b 1 : 4 o o o o o q Quelle:

Fig.

Urmveltbundesarnt Emi~slo~skatastor EMUKAT

20 0 I I I UTM~Ra~er~j~tem

20 I

4~

10 km x I 0 km

9" Total N O x e m i s s i o n f o r 1986 in the F e d e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y

~

I~L I j ~ ~ n

31 It is evident that the increase caused by highway traffic.

in

N~

emission is largely

High speeds on the highways mean

that greater engine power is required. comparatively

levels of NO x emission spark-ignition

for conventional

engines

for passenger

loop 3-way catalytic

converters

20g N~/km.

Thus,

1.5 g NOx/km and

engines and closed

approximately

on motorways

N~

0.4 g NOx/km.

emission

the levels of

N~

from highway traffic are higher than corresponds mileage.

Figure 9 shows the distribution

the Federal Republic

Figs.

to actual

NO x emission

and residential

emerge as clearly identifiable

with otherwise

is ap-

emission for

of Germany in 1986 in a grid [8]. As

well as the high density industrial the highways

cars with

5 g NOx/km, for

cars approximately

cars with spark-ignition

For heavy duty vehicles

the average

passenger

is approximately

diesel powered passenger

proximately

This in turn leads to

high levels of NO x emission;

centres,

sources

in areas

low levels of emission.

10 and 11 show the steady increase

in NO x emission

caused by highway traffic as compared with all other sources and total traffic all N ~

emission

originated

since 1986.

In 1986 approximately

£rom the highways

- in 1966 it was less than 10%.

FIG.10:.HICIAY PARTOFTHETOTALNOX-EMISSIONS 1966-1998 in Yo

35 \\x

30

\\,,

25 20

15

\\\

10 5 196B

25% of

in the Federal Republic of Germany

1970

1974

[~passenger cars on highways

1978

1982

1986

1998

[ ] h e a v y duty vehicles on highways

32 In 1966 e m i s s i o n from t r a f f i c on all roads a c c o u n t e d for 20% of total NO x emissions;

by 1986 this figure had r i s e n to al-

m o s t 45%.

FIG.II:HIGHWAYPARTOF THETOTALTRAFFICNOX- EMIIONS in % 50{

-.-..--,

1978 passengercarson highways

1982

1988

1998

[] heavydutyvehicleson highways

The r e a s o n for this i n c r e a s e in s i g n i f i c a n c e of h i g h w a y t r a f f i c is, on the one hand, the h i g h w a y s ;

the h i g h rate of e x p a n s i o n of

a far s m a l l e r i n c r e a s e has b e e n r e g i s t e r e d i n

the n u m b e r of s t a t i o n a r y plants. a v e r a g e r a t e of N ~

On the o t h e r hand, the

e m i s s i o n per km d r i v e n by p a s s e n g e r cars

has r i s e n in the past as a r e s u l t ofz

1.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n of l e g i s l a t i o n for e m i s s i o n s

f r o m pas-

s e n g e r car e x h a u s t s w h i c h p l a c e d r e s t r i c t i o n s on CO and HC e m i s s i o n s and as a r e s u l t of the l e a n e r c a r b u r e t t o r m i x t u r e s e m p l o y e d caused s p e c i f i c NO x e m i s s i o n s to rise. 2.

The s t e a d y i n c r e a s e in h i g h w a y speed.

33 Legislation

for emissions

from lorry exhausts, which was

passed and is enforced in all EC countries,

has not hitherto

led to any perceptible reduction in emissions. It is expected that NO x emission caused by highway traffic will continue to rise in the future. The distribution here will, however,

be different.

Whereas up to now passenger

cars were the main cause of this increase,

it is likely that

in the future lorries will become more important in this contextz The measures

introduced for industrial installations

(Regulation on Industrial and Commercial Furnaces, Technical

Instructions on Air Quality Control) will

soon result in a significant reduction in NO x emissions from stationary plants. As a result of this, NO x produced by highway traffic will be of greater significance

(fig. i0).

Even if mileage continues to increase,

the introduction

of closed loop 3-way catalytic converters,

which con-

vert nearly 90% of NO x emissions, will lead to a significant decrease in NO x emission from passenger cars, also on the highways. A greater increase in heavy duty vehicle traffic is expected on completion of the European single market. There is, however, ment of technical

at present no sign of the developsolutions comparable to the closed

loop 3-way catalytic converter to help reduce the high rates of specific N ~

emissions from the direct injec-

tion diesel engines of heavy duty vehicles. therefore,

be assumed that specific N ~

It must,

emissions

from

heavy duty vehicles will not decrease significantly. The reduction of emissions from heavy duty vehicles can, therefore,

be identified as an important element

in current and future clean air policy.

34 4. Future perspective In autumn 1988, the Federal Environment Agency examined the possibility of achieving a 30% reduction in N ~

emissions by

the year 1998 [9]. The major findings indicated that in the area of stationary plants, tained.

a reduction of 50% could be at-

In the area of traffic,

however,

it was revealed

that the introduction of technical measures to vehicles would bring about little more than a 20% reduction, tribution of highway traffic being minimal

the con-

(fig. 12).

FIG.12: NOX-EMISSIONSIN THEF.RG. 1986 and 1998 in 1000[ N0x/a 3200 zsoo

2000 1.6oo

1200 800

~~1

400 0

.1998teehncs

1986

]~ all sources

[ ] totaltraffic

~ stationaryplants ff]~]iota]highva)'traffic

This prognosis was based on the following fundamental assumptions: The mileage increase for private passenger vehicles from 1986 to 1998 will be one of

17.5

%

-

an estimation

which has already been exceeded by current developments;

following resolutions passed by the EC Council

of Environmental Ministers and the tax incentive recently passed by the Federal Government,

use of

35

catalytic converters will reach a level approaching 100%; there will be no change in the proportion of diesel vehicles before 1998; Mileage of heavy duty vehicles on the highways will increase sharply due to the influence of the EC single market and as a result of a major increase in long distance goods traffic

(liberalisation of the EC traffic

market, major effects of international division of labour, economic growth cf.

[10];

The application from 1994 onwards of EC prescribed levels of 9g N ~ / k W h ,

in accordance with ECE R 49,

which by 1998 will affect 50% of the vehicles on the highways

(long distance freight traffic);

the reduction

achieved through the implementation of the new prescribed

levels

will, however be partially negated

by the effects of the increase in engine power and increased speeds in long distance traffic,

so that there

will only be a minimal reduction of NO x emission in relation to kilometres driven.

FIG.13:TRAFFICNOX- EMISSIONSIN THEF~G. 1986 and 1998 in lO00 t NOx/a 2.000 1.600

1200

400°° 0

1986

1998 only t~hnics

36 Fig.

13 i l l u s t r a t e s the p o s s i b l e c o u r s e of events b e t w e e n

1986 and 1998.

E m i s s i o n s from n o n - h i g h w a y t r a f f i c w i l l

d e c r e a s e by m o r e than 30% m a i n l y as a r e s u l t of the introd u c t i o n of the c l o s e d loop c a t a l y t i c converters.

As o p p o s e d

to this the levels of NO x e m i s s i o n from h i g h w a y t r a f f i c w i l l s h o w little reduction. cates an a p p r o x i m a t e

The d i f f e r e n t i a t e d o b s e r v a t i o n

indi-

50% r e d u c t i o n in NO x e m i s s i o n f r o m pas-

s e n g e r cars but an a p p r o x i m a t e 50% i n c r e a s e in N ~ from h e a v y d u t y v e h i c l e s on highways.

emissions

A l t o g e t h e r the NO x

emissions

c a u s e d by traffic will be r e d u c e d by o v e r 20%.

Emissions

f r o m p a s s e n g e r cars will, however,

c o n t i n u e to

fall a f t e r the y e a r 2000 as the p r o p o r t i o n of v e h i c l e s without catalytic converters

c o n t i n u e s to d e c r e a s e to the

p o i n t of e l i m i n a t i o n .

The F e d e r a l E n v i r o n m e n t A g e n c y has d e c i d e d to s u g g e s t further n o n - t e c h n i c a l m e a s u r e s to e n s u r e the a t t a i n m e n t of the 30% r e d u c t i o n b e i n g a i m e d at. The a n a l y s i s of p o s s i b l e developments

i n d i c a t e s that in o r d e r to reduce NO x e m i s s i o n

c a u s e d by h i g h w a y t r a f f i c m e a s u r e s m u s t a b o v e all be t a k e n in the a r e a of long d i s t a n c e traffic.

The f o l l o w i n g m e a s u r e s

for long d i s t a n c e t r a f f i c w e r e q u a n t i f i e d in v i e w of t h e i r e f f i c a c y b y the F e d e r a l E n v i r o n m e n t Agency:

S h a r p e r s u r v e i l l a n c e of speed of lorries on highways. If 60% of lorries w e r e to o b s e r v e the m a x i m u m speed of 80 km/h,

NO x e m i s s i o n s c a u s e d by h e a v y d u t y v e h i c l e s on

the h i g h w a y s could be r e d u c e d by 7%. T r a n s f e r of 90 m i l l i o n t of t r a n s p o r t v o l u m e goods t r a n s p o r t e d by road in 1987)

(= 18% of

from the roads to

rail w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d s to a p p r o x i m a t e l y 18 t h o u s a n d m i l l i o n tkm. This w o u l d cause a r e d u c t i o n of 60,0000 t of N ~

e m i t t e d which,

however,

can o n l y be a c h i e v e d

t h r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o n of several m e a s u r e s :

37 Increase in the variable costs in goods transport by road --

Improvement of international rail transport Alignment of implementation of safety and "social" regulations

(e.g. concerning working conditions

for long-distance

lorry drivers)

for road and rail

transport Organisational and economic improvement of the rail service Transfer of a part of long distance passenger travel from road to rail. An additional 400 km of rail travel pro capita would lead to a reduction of 30.000 tonnes of NO x emitted.

Possible measures to attain this goal

could include,

for example~

Increase in the variable costs of transport by passenger car Better

(in terms of the range and frequency of

service)

In fig.

and more attractive rail service

14 the emission levels which could be reached as a

result of the implementation of the outlined measures are compared with what could be achieved through technical measures alone, on the basis of conditions in 1986 and projected conditions

for 1998.

38

FIG,14:REDUCTION MEASURESFORTRAFFICNOX-EMISSIONS in I000 t NOx/a 8O(

70(

~_

soc

:_~

400

_-~--~~b~ -

300

~ :<,,

200

.2. ___

-_~-Z

1986

total highway traffic

Even by t r a n s f e r r i n g rail,

1996technics

199Btechnics+ trafficmanagem.

[ ] pc on highways

~

hdv on highways

18 t h o u s a n d m i l l i o n tkm from r o a d to

it w o u l d not be p o s s i b l e to p r e v e n t an i n c r e a s e in N ~

emissions

from long d i s t a n c e h i g h w a y h a u l a g e as c o m p a r e d

w i t h 1985

(reference y e a r for Sofia R e d u c t i o n A g r e e m e n t of

30%). However,

a p e r c e p t i b l e r e d u c t i o n in N ~

emission from

h i g h w a y t r a f f i c can be a t t a i n e d s i m p l y by i m p l e m e n t i n g the measures Fig.

to t r a n s f e r t r a n s p o r t s e r v i c e s from r o a d to rail.

15 i l l u s t r a t e s the p e r c e n t i l e r e d u c t i o n in r e l a t i o n to

the e n t i r e N ~

e m i s s i o n s in 1986.

It is shown that a r e d u c -

t i o n of m o r e than 30% in e n t i r e N ~

e m i s s i o n s - t a k i n g into

a c c o u n t a g r e a t e r than p r e d i c t e d i n c r e a s e in t r a f f i c - can o n l y be a t t a i n e d w i t h c e r t a i n t y if t h e r e is a t r a n s f e r f r o m road to rail.

39

FIG.15: REDUCTIONMEASURESFORTRAFFICNOX-EMtSSIONS in % (all sources !985: 100%)

30

-:

6O

~----

40

~ :

)-

o

HIIIlh 1998 Lechnics

i9~$5

~l~rc~

199BLeehnic$+ trafficmanagem.

[ ] bdvonhighways

[ ] hi~hnytraffic ~]]] pccnhi[hnp

[] tot~Lr~fic

5. Conclusion The possibilities

for reduction

an exemplary quantification measures.

represented

here are merely

of future clean air policy

More precise information will only be available

following more thorough research which concerns all with the following Prognosis

of future traffic developments

goods transport) fluences

(passenger and

particularly with regard to the in-

of the single European market

Examination by road

itself above

issues=

of important basic data on goods transport

(data on short distance goods transport,

mileage of different

categories

and data on the utilisation transport by road)

of heavy duty vehicle

of load capacity in goods

40 Measures

to influence

particularly

the model split of goods traffic,

the m e d i u m and long term p o t e n t i a l

t r a n s f e r of goods t r a n s p o r t sary m e a s u r e s Effects

from road to rail,

for the neces-

to attain such goals

of changes

in p e r i p h e r a l

economic

conditions

on

traffic The Federal

E n v i r o n m e n t A g e n c y has a l r e a d y c o m m i s s i o n e d

research projects

to improve the data a v a i l a b l e

and d r i v i n g b e h a v i o u r

for p a s s e n g e r

on e m i s s i o n s

cars and lorries

(including m o d e r n engine design concepts). The e n v i r o n m e n t a l

pollution

been i l l u s t r a t e d

exclusively

caused by h i g h w a y traffic has in terms of N ~

well as this, vast q u a n t i t i e s

emission.

of other gaseous

such as CO, u n b u r n e d hydrocarbon,

and p a r t i c l e s

As

contaminants are also

emitted. The CO 2 e m i s s i o n s their d e c i s i v e house effect. reduced

are p a r t i c u l a r l y

contribution

The CO 2 emissions

if fuel c o n s u m p t i o n

reduced.

Precipitation

catalytic

converters,

fective r e d u c t i o n through measures lined here for N ~ strategies

important b e c a u s e of

to the h e i g h t e n i n g from traffic

can o n l y be

and/or traffic v o l u m e is

technology,

such as filters or

is not a v a i l a b l e

of CO 2 emission to control

of the green

traffic.

provide orientation

to reduce CO 2 [ii].

for CO 2 so that ef-

can only be a c h i e v e d The p o s s i b i l i t i e s for p o s s i b l e

out-

41 References i.

Bundesminister

fur Verkehr

(Abteilung StraSenbau,

24): Netz der Bundesautobahnen, 2.

Bundesminister Verkehr stitut

3.

fur Verkehr

fur Wirtschaftsforschung fur StraSenwesen

Stra~enverkehrszAhlungen,

4.

Schmidt,

1985 - 1988 in der Bundesrepublik

und in einigen europAischen

in:

Hotop,

Analyse des Verkehrsablaufes

R.: Periodische

(Entwicklung des Geschwindigkeits- Fortschreibung

edited by the Bundesanstalt Bergisch Gladbach Hotop,

zu

Schmidt Verlag,

Lkw in

Stuttgart

Daten zur Umwelt

in: Lastauto

1988

1988/89,

Erich

Berlin 1989

Friedrich,

verkehrsbedingter

Gori~en:

Entwicklung

NOx-Emissionen

zu ihrer Minderung, 1990

,

Heft 5/1988

Heft 12/1988,

Umweltbundesamt:

-

(BAST),

den Bundesautobahnen,

Auf die Dauer hilft oft Power,

und Omnibus,

Ahrens,

auslAndischer

deutschen L k w a u f

Stra~enverkehrstechnik, Zeitzen:

Herbst 1988

fur Stra~enwesen

im

und

1989

R.: Geschwindikeiten

Vergleich

9.

Staaten,

Heft 3/1989

Abstandsverhaltens)

8.

(BaSt):

Heft 38/1986 and previous

Stra~enverkehrstechnik

Autobahnnetz

7.

Bonn 1988

G.: Quo Vadis Stra~enverkehr?

Deutschland

6.

(DIW) Berlin,

In-

from this series

Verkehrsentwicklung

5.

(ed.):

in Zahlen 1988, produced by the Deutsches

Bundesanstalt issues

StB

Bonn 1989

1985/1998;

GIT Supplement-Umwelt,

(in preparation)

Ma~nahmen FrUhJahr

42 i0.

Rothengatter:

Vortrag in Rahmen der Anh6rung

"Klimarelevanter Emissionen und Energieeinsatz des Verkehrssektor

sowie MaBnahmen zur Reduktion yon

Schadstoffen und Energieeinsatz" Enquete-Kommissin ErdatmosphMre"

am 26./27.06.1989 in Bonn

(Wortprotokoll), ii.

der Bundestags-

"Vorsorge zum Schutz der

Umweltbundesamt:

Bonn 1989 Stellungnahme

zur Anh6rung

"Klimarelevante

Emissionen und Energieeinsatz des

Verkehrssektors

sowie MaBnahmen zur Reduktion von

Schadstoffen und Energieeinsatz" Enquete-Konunission ErdatmosphMre",

der Bundestags-

"Vorsorge zum Schutz der

Kommissionsdrucksache

11/86,

1989