E-jet 3D printed drug delivery implants to inhibit growth and metastasis of orthotopic breast cancer

Journal Pre-proof E-jet 3D printed drug delivery implants to inhibit growth and metastasis of orthotopic breast cancer Yikun Yang, Xiaoyin Qiao, Ruiying Huang, Haoxiang Chen, Xuelei Shi, Jian Wang, Weihong Tan, Zhikai Tan PII:

S0142-9612(19)30717-3

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2019.119618

Reference:

JBMT 119618

To appear in:

Biomaterials

Received Date: 30 January 2019 Revised Date:

31 October 2019

Accepted Date: 10 November 2019

Please cite this article as: Yang Y, Qiao X, Huang R, Chen H, Shi X, Wang J, Tan W, Tan Z, E-jet 3D printed drug delivery implants to inhibit growth and metastasis of orthotopic breast cancer, Biomaterials (2019), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2019.119618. This is a PDF file of an article that has undergone enhancements after acceptance, such as the addition of a cover page and metadata, and formatting for readability, but it is not yet the definitive version of record. This version will undergo additional copyediting, typesetting and review before it is published in its final form, but we are providing this version to give early visibility of the article. Please note that, during the production process, errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

E-jet 3D printed drug delivery implants to inhibit growth and metastasis of orthotopic breast cancer

Yikun Yang1,2*, Xiaoyin Qiao1*, Ruiying Huang1, Haoxiang Chen1, Xuelei Shi1, Jian Wang1,2, Weihong Tan1, and Zhikai Tan1,2

* The authors contributed equally to the work; Corresponding author: Dr. Zhikai Tan, Email: [email protected]; 1. College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha, Hunan, China, 410082. 2. Shenzhen Institute, Hunan University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, China, 518000.

Abstract Drug-loaded implants have attracted considerable attention in cancer treatment due to their precise delivery of drugs into cancer tissues. Contrary to injected drug delivery, the application of drug-loaded implants remains underutilized given the requirement for a surgical operation. Nevertheless, drug-loaded implants have several advantages, including a reduction in frequency of drug administration, minimal systemic toxicity, and increased delivery efficacy. Herein, we developed a new, precise, drug delivery device for orthotopic breast cancer therapy able to suppress breast tumor growth and reduce

pulmonary

metastasis

using

combination

chemotherapy.

Poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid scaffolds were fabricated by 3D printing to immobilize 5-fluorouracil and NVP-BEZ235. The implantable scaffolds significantly reduced the required drug dosages and ensured curative drug levels near tumor sites for prolonged period, while drug exposure to normal tissues was minimized. Moreover, long-term drug release was achieved, potentially allowing one-off implantation and, thus, a major reduction in the frequency of drug administration. This drug-loaded scaffold has great potential in anti-tumor treatment, possibly paving the way for precise, effective, and harmless cancer therapy.

TOC. Schematic illustrations of three-dimensional drug-loaded scaffolds for orthotopic breast tumor mouse treatment model.

Keywords: Breast tumor; Drug delivery; Controlled release; Combination chemotherapy; 3D printing.

1. Introduction As one of the most devastating diseases, cancer has become a major health problem worldwide [1]. Breast cancer is the most often diagnosed cancer type in women, often causing cancer-related deaths [2]. Chemotherapy is currently one of the mainstream therapeutic strategies for most cancers [3]. Despite considerable progress in cancer therapy, many undesirable side effects remain unresolved, including violent systemic toxicity or even death caused by the frequent use of medications at maximum endurable dosage[4], restricted distribution of chemotherapeutic agents into tumors[5], and serious toxicities following radiotherapy [6]. Thus, novel treatment strategies able to overcome these limitations have been a significant focus of cancer research in recent years. Combination chemotherapy, using two or multiple drugs, is a common clinical method for treatment of malignant tumors, resulting in a significant upsurge in survival rates due to the synergistic effect of medications involved [7, 8]. Five-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a commonly used drug in breast cancer treatment, with the capability to suppress the synthesis of nucleic acids and induce apoptosis in cancer cells [9]. NVP-BEZ235 is a reversible PI3K/mTOR inhibitor that has shown a significant decrease in tumor growth [10]. The combination therapy using 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 has been shown to induce PUMA (p53 upregulated modulator of apoptosis) -dependent tumor suppression in both in vitro and in vivo studies [11]. To improve the efficiency of medicines and reduce their related side effects, multi-agent delivery systems containing dual or multiple drugs exerting altered therapeutic effects,

have attracted increasing attentions due to their distinctive benefits in combination therapy [12, 13]. Well-organized multi-release systems have been developed for the precise control of drug delivery using materials such as hydrogels [14, 15], polymer scaffolds [16], polymeric

micelles

[17],

hydrogel/polymer

micelle

composites

[18],

and

stimuli-responsive materials[19] . However, these carriers need to be injected into the body in order to reach the target site and its cellular content, with intraperitoneally delivered carriers displaying certain deficiencies, particularly quick clearance from blood circulation and subsequent over-accumulation in non-target tissues [20, 21]. To address this problem, a localized delivery system for solid tumors is the preferred approach. Compared with the injection of drugs into the systemic circulation, a precisely localized delivery system would ensure curative bioavailability levels close to the tumor area for a prolonged period, while preserving low systemic drug exposure [22]. It can ensure good therapeutic effect [23], and improve the quality of life of patients [24]. Currently, the major challenge of precisely localized drug delivery is the lack of control in drug release and distribution to tumor cells [24]. Herein, we developed a novel implantable multi-drug delivery system with time-programmed release based on electro-hydrodynamic jet (E-jet) three-dimensional (3D) printing. The E-jet printing technique has been used to construct various 3D scaffolds with defined structures [25]. The present study uses poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) as carrier scaffolds to immobilize 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 for the treatment of orthotopic breast cancer.

PLGA is biocompatible and biodegradable-eventually degrading to produce glycolic acid and lactic acid monomers, making it a popular choice as a rate-controlling additive [26]. It has been widely used in the fields of bone regeneration [27], wound dressing [28], and soft tissue repair [29] amongst others. Using a mouse model, we not only explore the structural effects of the scaffolds on drug release but also the advantages of a sustained-release implant, with the results showing great potential to inhibit breast cancer growth and reduce distant metastasis. The physicochemical properties of the prepared PLGA drug-loaded scaffolds, the effect of scaffold pore size on drug release, and their anti-tumor effects both in vitro and in vivo were thoroughly investigated. The developed implantable drug-loaded scaffolds may provide a new modality for localized drug delivery with improved performance, including high treatment therapeutic efficiency, low toxicity, and reduced therapeutic expenses. Additionally, these scaffolds may be potentially implanted near the tumor sites or at the surgical resection margins to achieve cancer chemotherapy of solid tumors [23, 30, 31].

2. Materials and methods 2.1. Materials PLGA (molecular weight = 5 × 105 Da, with an L-lactide/glycolide ratio of 75:25) powder was obtained from Daigang (Jinan, China). N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and 5-FU were bought from Sangon (Shanghai, China). NVP-BEZ235 was bought from Selleck Chemicals. Calcein AM and Annexin V-PE/7-AAD apoptosis detection

kits were purchased from Yeasen Bio. (Shanghai, China). Trypsin, heparin sodium, RPMI

1640,

penicillin,

streptomycin,

and

3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) were all obtained from Aladdin Chemicals (Shanghai, China). Fetal bovine serum, antibodies against Ki67, and caspase-3 were purchased from Cell Signaling (China). 2.2. Preparation of the blend solution The PLGA/5-FU/NVP-BEZ235 (PFN) blend was prepared by initially dissolving 0.5 mg of NVP-BEZ235 powder in 5 mL of DMF and stirring to obtain a 0.2 mM NVP-BEZ235 solution. Similarly, 120 mg of 5-FU granules were dissolved in 10 mL of DMF to obtain a 92 mM 5-FU solution. The two solutions were then mixed (0.25 mL of NVP-BEZ235 solution and 2.5 mL of 5-FU solution), and made up to 5 mL by the addition of 2.25 mL of DMF. Finally, 0.5 g of PLGA powder was added to produce the PFN blend. 2.3. Fabrication of drug-loaded scaffolds The PFN scaffolds were manufacture using a custom-built E-jet 3D printing system consisting of a 3D collection platform, a solution feeding part, a high voltage power supply, and an observation system (Fig. 1A) [32]. The PFN blend mixture was fed into a syringe (5 mL) with a blunt-ended nozzle (30G). The gap between the nozzle and the collection platform was fixed to 3 mm, the pump (SPLab01, Easypump, China) extrusion flow rate was set to 0.16 mL/h, and a high voltage (2.8 kV) was applied to the nozzle. Variously scaffolds can be prepared by controlling the movement of the collection platform. The aperture sizes of scaffolds were designed to be 50 × 50 µm,

100 × 100 µm, 150 × 150 µm, and 200 × 200 µm. The macroscopic scaffold shape was 1×1×0.06 cm in size. Following the printing process, the fabricated scaffolds were relocated into a lyophilizer, and dried for 2 days to remove any remaining DMF. 2.4. Characterization of PFN scaffolds 2.4.1. Aperture sizes and surface elemental analysis The PFN scaffold structures and aperture sizes were characterized using a field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM; Hitachi S-4800) and a micro-CT (SkyScan-1278, Bruker, Belgium). Prior to SEM imaging, the scaffolds were coated with gold. Energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis (JXA-8230, JEOL, Japan) was then used to perform elemental analysis of the PFN scaffold surfaces to assess the degree of encapsulation of 5-FU/NVP-BEZ235 by PLGA. 2.4.2. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy FTIR spectrometric analysis, using a spectrometer (Nicolet Nexus 670, U.S.) in the range 4000–500 cm–1 with a resolution of 2 cm–1, was used to assess the extent of embedding of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 within the PLGA scaffold. The spectra were further processed by the Opus software and plotted using Origin Pro 9.1. 2.4.3. X-ray diffraction (XRD) XRD patterns of 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, PLGA, and PFN were measured with a Panalytical X'pert Pro diffractometer (Cu anode tube of wavelength Kα1 = 1.541 Å and Kα2 = 1.544 Å; Panalytical, Netherlands). The scanning range was 5–50° using a step rate of 0.04°/s over 2 s duration for each step. 2.4.4. Drug distribution within scaffolds

To further explore the distribution of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 within the PLGA scaffolds, the two drugs were labelled with differently colored fluorophores. 5-FU was labelled with BODIPY segments using a general ester synthesis technique as previously described [33], and observed by green fluorescence at 488 nm. NVP-BEZ235 was labelled with Bf2 segments, and observed by red fluorescence at 635 nm using a Olympus confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM, FV1000, Japan). 2.4.5. Mechanical properties and degradation assessment Tensile testing was accomplished using a Hengyi tensile tester (HY-0230, China) set with a 100 N loaded cell. We represent degradation rates in terms of weight loss, and a static immersion test was performed on the samples which were immersed in PBS solution. The temperature was kept at 37 ± 0.5 °C, and the samples were measured on the seventh day. Weight loss was calculated as the difference between the initial and final weights of the samples [34]. 2.4.6. Porosity measurement The liquid intrusion method was used to estimate the porosity of PFN scaffolds [5]. Totally dry samples were weighed first, then immersed into ethanol for two hours. We wiped the samples gently to remove any excess ethanol, and weighed the scaffolds again. The porosity of a PFN scaffold was calculated as follows [35]: Veth = (Wwet – Wdry)/Deth; Vs = Wdry/Ds; Scaffold porosity = Veth/(Vs+Veth) × 100%;

Where Veth represents the volume of ethanol trapped in the sample, Vs is the volume of the scaffold; Wdry and Wwet represent the dry and wet weights of the sample, respectively; Deth represents the density of ethanol, and Ds is the density of the scaffold materials. 2.5. Characterization of drug loading and encapsulation efficiency in PFN scaffolds The concentration of 5-FU/NVP-BEZ235 in PFN scaffolds was determined with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) (Waters 2998, USA). Dry PFN scaffolds were dissolved in DMF for 1 min and centrifuged at 1 × 104 r/min for 10 min. The mobile phase was 0.14 M acetonitrile and acetic acid, with gradient elution (10% acetonitrile to 90% acetonitrile after 25 min) being applied to separate 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235. 5-FU was identified with the wavelength of 226 nm and NVP-BEZ235 was detected with the wavelength of 272 nm. The standard curve for 5-FU was plotted within 50–300 µg/mL with regression eq. Y1 = 4.84227X1 – 0.06378 and the correlation coefficient R1 = 0.9996, and that for NVP-BEZ235 was plotted within 20– 120 µg/mL with regression eq. Y2 = 4.3324X2 – 0.00384 and the correlation coefficient R2 = 0.9997. The loading efficiency (LE%) and encapsulation efficiency (EE%) were calculated using the following equations: LE% = (W1/W) × 100% EE% = (W1/W2) × 100% Where W1 represents the drug mass in PFN scaffolds, W2 represents the theoretical amount of drug in the centrifuge tube, and W is the total mass of PFN scaffolds.

2.6. In vitro drug release profiles In vitro drug release studies for all PFN scaffolds were achieved in PBS (pH 7.4). Scaffolds were dispersed into a 5 mL centrifuge tube with 3 mL of PBS, the tube was then kept at 37 °C with shaking at 100 r/min. A 50 µL aliquot of medium was removed and an equal volume of fresh PBS solution was added as replacement every day. We can get the accurate results by correcting the drug concentration measured every day. The amount of drug on the day was added to the total amount of drug consumed in the previous period to give the actual total drug release, then divided by the solution volume (3mL) to get the exact drug concentration. And the drug release percentage (DR%) was calculated using the following equation to generate a time-dependent accumulative release curve: DR% = Rt/L0 × 100% Where L0 represents the initial amount of drug loaded and Rt is the cumulative amount of drug released at time t. 2.7. Cell culture The human triple-negative breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB-231) with enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) was provided by Prof. Yongjun Tan’s laboratory (Hunan University) and NIH 3T3 fibroblast cell line was from the Type Culture Collection of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Shanghai, China). All cells were cultured in RPMI 1640 medium comprising 10% fetal bovine serum and a 1% antibiotic solution of penicillin and streptomycin. Cells were cultured in a 5% CO2 incubator at 37 °C.

2.8. Cytotoxicity assay To assess the toxicity of the PLGA scaffolds, a cytotoxicity assay was performed using MDA-MB-231 cells and NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. Cells of both cell types were cultured using 48-well plates with a density of 1 × 104 cells/well. When the cells adhered and spread in plates, the scaffolds were immersed into the culture medium. To prevent the scaffolds from physically touching the bottom of the wells, glass rings were placed under the scaffolds. The MTT assay was performed on days 1, 4, and 7. Briefly, 50 µL of MTT reagent was added to each well and incubated at 37 °C for 4 h prior to the addition of dimethyl sulfoxide. The absorbance of the MTT reagent was read using an ELISA microplate reader (EnSpire, PerkinElmer, USA) at 590 nm. The culture medium was replaced every other day. The survival of cell were measured using untreated cells as the control. For imaging, NIH 3T3 fibroblasts were stained with 1 µM Calcein AM and observed using a Olympus confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) (FV1000, Japan). MDA-MB-231 cells were directly observed using CLSM, without Calcein AM staining, due to their eGFP. 2.9. In vitro anti-tumor activity The in vitro anti-tumor activities of PFN scaffolds compared with those of 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, and the dual drugs (5-FU/NVP-BEZ235) were based on the MTT assay using MDA-MB-231 cells. The initial cell density was 1 × 104 cells/well, and experimental procedures were the same as mentioned in the cytotoxicity assay above. 5-FU was administered at a dosage of 92 µM and NVP-BEZ235 at 20 nM, mirroring the dual drug dosage within the PFN scaffolds. Sufficient culture medium was added

to ensure that cells survive for up to 7 days. In order to observe the therapeutic effect, MDA-MB-231 cells were seeded in confocal culture dishes at a density of 1 × 105 cells/dish. Following cell attachment, 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, dual drugs (5-FU/NVP-BEZ235), and PFN scaffolds were added at equivalent dosages into the dishes. Following incubation for 1, 4, and 7 days, MDA-MB-231 cells were observed by CLSM at 488 nm. 2.10. Apoptosis analysis of MDA-MB-231 cells Flow cytometry was used to assess the therapeutic effect of samples in a cell apoptosis assay. Apoptosis was performed using the Annexin V-PE/7-AAD apoptosis detection kit (dual staining). Briefly, MDA-MB-231 cells were seeded in 6-well plates at a density of 1 × 105 cells/well and treated with 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, dual drugs (5-FU/NVP-BEZ235), and PFN scaffolds at an equivalent concentration of 5-FU (92 µM) and NVP-235 (20 nM) following cell attachment. The cells were then stained and used for flow cytometry (Gallios, Beckman Coulter, USA). Cells treated using PBS were used as the control. 2.11. Establishment of orthotopic breast cancer model Female nude BALB/c mice (4 weeks old) were obtained from the Hunan SJA Laboratory Animal Co., Ltd. (Changsha, China) and kept at pathogen-free conditions. All animal experiments were approved by the Committee on the Ethics of Animal Experiments of Hunan Provincial Laboratory Animal Center (Permit No.: SYXK (Xiang) 2013–0001). An MDA-MB-231 cell suspension (0.2 mL, 5 × 107 cells/mL) was injected into the

inguinal (4th from top) right mammary fat pad of female nude mice to establish an orthotopic breast tumor model which was further characterized by the spontaneous development of lung metastasis. Following injection, the tumor growth was assessed daily using a vernier caliper to measure the width and length of the tumor, and the tumor volume was calculated as follows [36]: 4   
  ( ) =      = 0.52   3 2 2 

Where W and L are the width and length of the tumor, respectively. 2.12. Hemolysis assay Samples were mashed into powder and immersed into a NaCl aqueous solution (0.9%) for half an hour at 37 °C. Fresh mouse blood was diluted in NaCl solution, and 3 mL of the solution was then added to the samples and the PLGA concentrations in the solution were adjusted to 1, 3, 5, and 7 mg/mL, respectively. Following incubation for 60 min, the specimens were centrifuged for 5 min at 200 rpm, and their absorbance was measured at 545 nm using a micro-plate reader (BIO-RAD Benchmark Plus). As a negative control, 3 mL of NaCl solution were added to 60 µL of diluted blood; and distilled water was used as the positive control. The hemolysis rate (HR%) was calculated as follows [37]: (%) =

 −  ! − 

Where AS is the absorption value of samples, AN represents the absorption value the negative control, and AP is the absorption value of the positive control. 2.13. Therapeutic efficacy study When tumor volume reached approximately 150 mm3, mice bearing MDA-MB-231

tumors were randomly assigned to five groups of five mice each. The mice of the control group were not administered a drug treatment. Three control groups were administered an intraperitoneal injection of drugs every 3 days of 5-FU at 12 mg/kg, NVP-BEZ235 at 2 mg/kg, or dual drugs (same concentrations), respectively. The remaining mice were the experimental group, into which PFN scaffolds, with a dual drugs dosage of 12 mg/kg (5-FU) and 2 mg/kg (NVP-BEZ235), were implanted near the tumors. Mice were anesthetized by receiving an intraperitoneal injection of chloral hydrate solution (10%). The wounds were sutured using surgical stitches and treated with iodine to protect mice from infection. Physiological indices, such as tumor size, weight of mice, and survival time, were recorded every day following the initial treatment. To further measure the exact tumor size in each nude mouse and exclude the effect of the implants, fluorescence images of tumors were also taken using a small animal multi-mode imaging system (IVIS Lumina XR, USA). 2.14. Histopathologic examination Four weeks following treatment with the implanted scaffolds, tumors and organs of mice were explanted, immersed into formaldehyde (4%), then embedded in paraffin following dehydration with gradient ethanol. Hematoxylin/eosin (H&E) were used to stain

tissue

sections.

The

Caspase-3/Ki67

antibody

was

used

for

immunohistochemical staining of breast tumors. 2.15. Statistical analysis Quantitative data were collected from at least five samples. Data are shown as means ± SE, as noted in the text. After meeting assumptions for normality (tested with the

Shapiro-Wilk test), the statistical significance of differences between datasets (p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant) was evaluated using one-way ANOVA with post hoc Tukey’s multiple comparisons test in GraphPad Prism (GraphPad Software Inc.).

3. Results 3.1. Fabrication of PFN scaffolds Herein, we attempted to embed 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 in PLGA scaffolds (producing PFN scaffolds) using E-jet 3D printing. The addition of drugs within the E-jet printing solution had no influence on the printing process (Fig. 1A). After applying a suitable high electric field, the charged solution was subjected into the shape of fine filaments, which were collected by the device steadily. Compared to pure PLGA scaffolds, the optical images of PFN scaffolds showed no obvious difference (Fig. 1C).

Fig. 1. Fabrication of PLGA and PFN scaffolds. (A) The set up and workflow of the E-jet 3D printing system; (B) Simulation diagram of PLGA (i) and PFN (ii) scaffolds; (C) Optical images of pure PLGA (i) and PFN scaffolds (ii). 3.2. Drug distribution in PFN scaffolds The XRD patterns of 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, PLGA, and PFN scaffolds (Fig. 2A) showed clearly visible peaks for the drugs, whereas the PLGA scaffolds were amorphous. Further, the addition of drugs into the PFN scaffolds did not yield any XRD peaks, indicating that the drugs were at least partially dissolved within the polymer and/or dispersed in an amorphous state. The FTIR spectra of 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, PLGA, and PFN scaffolds (Fig. 2B)

showed the molecular structure of the samples and possible chemical interactions within the constituents of the PLGA scaffolds and 5-FU/NVP-BEZ235. The FTIR spectrum of 5-FU showed a broad band at 3133 cm−1, attributed to N−H stretching, as well as other clear absorption peaks at 1723 cm−1 (ketoimine ring structure), 1659 cm−1 (enolic form), and 1401 cm−1 (C−N stretching vibration), all of which are characteristic absorption bands for 5-FU [38]. The FTIR spectrum for NVP-BEZ235 showed characteristic absorption peaks at 1703 cm−1 and 1503 cm−1, attributed to C=O and C=C stretching vibrations, respectively. The FTIR spectrum of PLGA showed characteristic absorption bands at approximately 1759 cm−1 for the stretching vibration of C−O bonds, as well as bands at 1130 cm−1 and 1452 cm−1, attributed to the C−O and methyl group C−H bonds of PLGA, respectively [39]. The characteristic absorption bands of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 were also clearly observed in the spectrum of PFN scaffolds at 1659 cm−1, 1503 cm−1, and 1401 cm−1. CLSM was used to directly visualize the distribution of the encapsulated 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 within the PFN scaffolds (Fig. 2C). The green and red fluorescence indicating the presence of respectively labelled 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 showed that the both drugs were uniformly distributed within the scaffolds. Furthermore, we used the analysis function of CLSM to observe and confirm the encapsulation of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 within the PFN scaffold (Fig. S1).

Fig. 2. Characterization and distribution of 5-FU/NVP-BEZ235 within PFN scaffolds. (A) XRD patterns of (a) 5-FU, (b) NVP-BEZ235, (c) pure PLGA scaffolds, and (d) PFN scaffolds. (B) FTIR spectra of (a) 5-FU, (b) NVP-BEZ235, (c) pure PLGA scaffolds, and (d) PFN scaffolds. (C) (a) Bright field image of PFN scaffolds, (b–d) fluorescence images of PFN scaffolds, green fluorescence represents 5-FU (b), red fluorescence represents NVP-BEZ235 (c), and the merged fluorescence image of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 (d) in scaffolds.

3.3. Porosity of PFN scaffolds Previous experiments have shown that drug release is dependent on the porosity of

scaffolds [40]. Therefore, we assessed the porosity of PFN scaffolds with different aperture sizes. The porosity–aperture size relationship (Table 1) showed a positive correlation, as porosity increased with increasing aperture size. Therefore, the inner structure of scaffolds had a direct effect on porosity. Table 1. Porosity of PFN scaffolds of varying aperture size Aperture size 50

100

150

200

Mdry (g)

0.0152

0.0133

0.0118

0.0092

Mwet (g)

0.0179

0.0169

0.0168

0.0162

Veth (mL)

0.0034

0.0045

0.0063

0.0076

21

29

39

55

(µm)

Porosity (%)

3.4. Mechanical properties of PFN scaffolds The mechanical properties of PFN scaffolds of varying aperture sizes were assessed using tensile and typical stress–strain measurements (Table 2). The results showed that the scaffolds differed notably in elongation, wherein an increased aperture size led to a decrease in elongation and tensile strength. In order to act as efficient implants, scaffolds must possess certain mechanical properties [41]. The results showed that, compared with human skin [41, 42], scaffolds with an aperture size of 200 µm had a low mechanical performance; therefore, only scaffolds with an aperture size of 50 µm, 100 µm, and 150 µm were used in further experiments.

Table 2. Mechanical properties of PFN scaffolds of varying aperture size Aperture size

5

(µm)

0

Ultimate tensile

1.3

strength (Mpa)

25

Elongation (%)

22

100

150

200

0.546

0.264

0.164

194

164

130

6

3.5. Morphological analysis Various porous scaffolds were fabricated using the E-jet 3D printing technique (Fig. 3). A computer-simulated diagram was designed for the comparison of microstructure between the different scaffolds (Fig. 3A). Interestingly, there were no significant surface morphology differences between the pure PLGA and PFN scaffolds (Fig. 3C and D, respectively), indicating that most of the drugs were embedded within the scaffolds rather than on its surface. To further substantiate this conclusion, we performed surface elemental analysis of the PFN scaffolds, which showed the presence of only C and O, at an atomic percentage of 17% and 82%, respectively (Fig. S2). F and N elements, present in 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235, were not detected, indicating that the drugs were not located on the PFN scaffold surface.

Fig. 3. Varied porous scaffolds fabricated using the E-jet 3D printing system. (A) The simulated diagram of scaffolds with aperture sizes of 50, 100 and 150 µm. (B) Optical microscopy images showing varied aperture sizes. (C) The FE-SEM images of pure PLGA scaffolds. (D) The FE-SEM images of PFN scaffolds. Scale bar = 400 µm.

3.6. Drug loading (LE%) and encapsulation efficiencies (EE%) Prior to assessing the release behaviors of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 from PFN scaffolds with different aperture sizes, the LE% and EE% were calculated by measuring the concentration of unbound drugs in the medium. The EE% of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 were 99.4% and 99.1%, respectively. According to the drug dosage required for in vitro and in vivo experiments, we controlled the LE% of the two drugs at 6% (5-FU) and 0.005% (NVP-BEZ235), respectively.

Fig. 4. 5-FU (A) and NVP-BEZ235 (B) release profiles of PFN scaffolds of varying aperture size ((a) 150 µm, (b) 100 µm, (c) 50 µm) over 7 and 30 days

3.7. In vitro drug release The release profiles of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 from PFN scaffolds were recorded (Fig. 4; to facilitate observation, the release curves of the two drugs were shown separately). Both 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 underwent a burst release from the PFN scaffolds during the first week, followed by a slow release stage and a faster release stage. Additionally, with the increase in aperture size, the release rates of the two drugs were accelerated. The observed burst release occurred primarily within the first 24 h, with approximately 50% of both 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 having been released within the first 7 days. Therefore, the results indicated that drug release was related to aperture size rather than drug type. Finally, the effect of drug release on the scaffold

macrostructure was assessed by freeze-drying and SEM observation of the scaffolds following immersion in PBS at 37 °C for 7 days. The PFN scaffolds retained their original macroscopic state after a week of immersion, yet the fibrils showed material degradation and the formation of pores.

3.8. In vitro anti-tumor effect The in vitro anti-tumor activity of PFN scaffolds was evaluated with the MTT assay using MDA-MB-231 tumor cells. Free 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, and dual drugs (5-Fu+NVP-BEZ235) were added into the medium at the incubation beginning point, whereas the PFN scaffolds were placed as mats on a glass ring (Fig. 5B). Enough culture medium was added to ensure cell survival for the entire incubation period of 1 week. The viability of MDA-MB-231 cells treated with varied samples reduced with the incubation time (Fig. 5A). After one day, the dual drug group showed a lower cell survival rate compared to remaining groups, a trend which persisted up to 4 days. However, following incubation for 7 days, and with the gradual release of drugs from the scaffolds, the reduction in cell viability was greatest in the PFN scaffold group than in the dual drug group. CLSM images of treated MDA-MB-231 cells showed a significant difference in the number of cells on the 7th day (Fig. 5C). Thus, compared with the remaining groups, the PFN scaffold group showed the most obvious therapeutic effect. These results were verified by the Annexin V-PE/7-AAD cell apoptosis assay after 7 days’ incubation (Fig. 6). The total induction of apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells by PFN scaffolds was 37.83%, considerably higher than that of

the control (2.37%), 5-FU (15.19%), NVP-BEZ235 (7.66%), and dual drugs (21.47%) groups. Therefore, the implantable PFN scaffolds showed the greatest anti-tumor efficiency among the tested groups.

Fig. 5. In vitro anticancer efficiency assay. (A) Survival of MDA-MB-231 cells incubated with 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, dual drugs (5-FU/NVP-BEZ235), and PFN scaffolds at equivalent 5-FU (92 µM) and NVP-235 (20 nM) concentrations. (B) Schematic diagram of the cell incubation. (C) Fluorescence images of MDA-MB-231 cells incubated with varied drug protocols. Cells were all stained using Calcein AM. Scale bar = 200 µm.

Fig. 6. Cell apoptosis of MDA-MB-231 cells induced by 5-FU, NVP-BEZ235, dual drugs (5-FU/NVP-BEZ235), and PFN scaffolds at equivalent 5-FU (92 µM) and NVP-235 (20 nM) concentrations after 7 days’ incubation and stained using Annexin V-PE/7-AAD for flow cytometry.

3.9. Toxicity of PLGA scaffolds The toxicity of PLGA scaffolds was also investigated. The PLGA scaffolds were added in the way as shown in Fig. 5B and the NIH 3T3 fibroblasts and MDA-MB-231 cells were cultured in the wells severally. After 1, 4, and 7 days, activities were evaluated with the MTT assay (Fig. S4A). Results showed that with the addition of PLGA scaffolds, the cell growth status had not been affected and the CLSM images are in agree with these results (Fig. S4B). 3.10. Hemocompatibility of fabricated scaffolds Hemocompatibility is one of the most important traits for biomaterials in contact with blood in clinical use [43]. Prior to PFN scaffold implantation in mice, a hemolytic assay at a concentration range from 1 to 7 mg/mL, for 1 h, was performed to explore the feasibility of their implantation (Fig S5). According to the guide for evaluation of biological materials [44], materials must exhibit a hemolysis rate of less than 5%. The results herein showed a minimal cytotoxicity for red blood cells following incubation with PFN scaffolds. Furthermore, the hemolysis rate increased with increasing concentrations, reaching a maximum of 1.21%, far lower than the safe limits (5%). 3.11. In vivo anti-tumor effect The anti-tumor effects following intraperitoneal drug injection or implantation of PFN scaffolds in MDA-MB-231 tumor-bearing Balb/c nude mice were evaluated (Fig. 7). The growth of tumors in nude mice after 4 weeks of therapy is shown in Fig. 7A. The treatment effect of the dual drug group was better than those for 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 groups alone. Additionally, compared with the control groups, the

treatment effect on tumors of the PFN scaffold group was highly effective, with the mean tumor volume being smaller than that for the intraperitoneally delivered drug formulation groups. Due to the strong fluorescence signal in tumor cells, the tumor site could be clearly observed by IVIS (Fig. 7B), providing an indication of in vivo tumor size according to the intensity and size region of the signal. Additionally, this imaging method provided an accurate characterization of tumor size whilst excluding the effect of fat near the tumor instead of removal fat after execution. The results indicated that PFN scaffold implantation near tumors had a better therapeutic effect than intraperitoneal injection of drugs. Statistical information of the various detection indices in the MDA-MB-231 mouse orthotopic breast cancer model (Fig.7C−F) showed that minimal body weight changes were observed in all treatment groups (Fig. 7C), further supporting that the combined therapy is well tolerated by mice. Following treatment, tumor tissues were excised for comparative analysis. Interestingly, PFN scaffold implantation significantly enhanced the tumor inhibitory effect compared with intraperitoneal injection (Fig. 7D). Of note, following the 4 weeks of treatment, the mean tumor volumes of the blank and single drug intraperitoneal injection groups were above 1400 mm3, and much larger than tumor volumes in the dual drug intraperitoneal injection group (900 mm3)and particularly so compared to the PFN scaffold group (< 600 mm3).

Fig. 7. In vivo antitumor efficacy of PFN scaffolds at 4 weeks post-implantation in MDA-MB-231 orthotopic breast tumor-bearing nude mice. (A) Photographs of nude mice following 4 weeks of treatment. (B) The in vivo fluorescence images of nude mice corresponding to images in A. (C) Body weight changes of nude mice following

different treatments at 4 weeks. (D) Changes of the tumor volumes for varied groups. (E) Photographs of tumors collected from varied treatment groups after 4 weeks. (a) Control (b) 5-FU, (c) NVP-BEZ235, (d) dual drugs (5-FU/NVP-BEZ235), (e) PFN scaffolds. (F) Survival curves of nude mice in different treatment groups within 60 days.

The formation of metastases in the lungs of BALB/c nude mice was also examined since this is a preferential metastasis site for MDA-MB-231 breast tumors [45, 46]. The lungs were assessed both macro- and microscopically followed by H&E staining (Fig. 8). Macroscopically, minimal differences were observed. However, H&E staining results suggested that the PFN scaffolds visibly reduced the amount of metastatic foci in lungs, likely reflecting better inhibition of primary tumor growth, whereas obvious metastases were detected in other groups. Consistent with these results, treatment with the PFN scaffolds to provide localized chemotherapy extended the survival period of MDA-MB-231 primary tumor-bearing mice (Fig. 7F). Furthermore, the implantation of PFN scaffolds caused serious necrosis within the tumor tissues as observed by H&E staining (Fig. 9). Additionally, staining images indicated that all experimental groups had negligible side effects to the liver, spleen, kidney, and heart (Fig. S6).

Fig. 8. PFN scaffolds reduced metastasis of murine orthotopic breast tumors. Representative entire lung photos and images of H&E-stained lung sections collected from the mice after the therapy (blue circles indicate the lung metastasis sites). Scale bar = 200 µm.

The expression of Caspase-3 and Ki67 in tumor sections was measured to further evaluate possible tumor apoptosis. Images showed that tumor tissues from mice treated by PFN scaffold implantation had the highest protein expression of Caspase-3 and lowest protein expression of Ki67 (brown) compared to the blank control and drug intraperitoneal injection groups, indicating that the PFN scaffolds highly suppressed tumor cell proliferation (Figs. 9&S7). These results demonstrate that our implantable PFN scaffolds may also be applied as an improved therapeutic approach to remedy primary tumors.

Fig. 9. Histological analysis of tumors. H&E and immunohistochemical images of tumor slices stained using anti-Caspase-3 and anti-Ki67 antibodies. Brown color represents positive staining of Caspase-3 or Ki67 protein. Scale bar = 200 µm.

4. Discussion In the present study, an E-jet 3D printing technique was used to fabricate drug-loaded scaffolds and assess the effects of these structures on drug release and tumor therapy. Controlled release drug-loaded scaffolds with varied aperture sizes were prepared for the treatment of orthotopic breast cancer using 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 chemotherapeutic drugs. XRD patterns exhibited no drug diffraction peaks when encapsulated within the PFN scaffolds. Indeed, the drugs were changed into an amorphous state and/or embedded within the polymer. FTIR spectra indicated that PLGA and the drugs (5-FU and NVP-BEZ235) were bound to each other, with N−H and C−N absorption peaks (5-FU) and C=O and C=C peaks (NVP-BEZ235) being observed in the PFN scaffolds. The NVP-BEZ235 peak (1703 cm–1) was somewhat shifted toward lower wave numbers, but remaining within the carbonyl group range.

Additionally, the carbonyl group of NVP-BEZ235 overlapped with the carboxyl group of PLGA molecules in PFN scaffolds, suggesting that the PLGA scaffolds effectively encapsulated 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235. These findings were corroborated by the CLSM images showing the distribution of the two drugs inside the scaffolds as identified by their respective fluorescent labels [47, 48]. To explore the effects of the scaffold structure on release rates, we tested and selected PFN scaffolds of varying aperture sizes (50, 100, and 150 µm). The drug LE% has been shown to be associated with the dosage, while EE% can be applied to assess the quality and feasibility of the fabrication method [49]. The EE% of 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 were both over 99% for all scaffold apertures. The drug release behavior from the PFN scaffold occurred first through a burst release, followed by a slow release, and finally a fast release. This behavior may be attributed to the degradation process of PLGA, which follows a complex series of physicochemical processes [50-53]. Specifically, upon contact with aqueous media, water penetration into the scaffolds and hydrolytic polymer chain cleavage occurs randomly and more slowly compared to water penetrates within the system [54, 55]. Therefore, PLGA scaffolds endure a burst release. Subsequently, the degradation rates stabilize, leading to a slower release process. However, short chain water-soluble acids (and alcohols) formed due to PLGA ester bond cleavage diffuse out of the scaffolds, increasing the rate of acidic hydrolysis versus neutralization, thus increasing the degradation of the scaffolds and the drug release rate [56]; this process is also known as the autocatalytic effect [57, 58]. PFN scaffolds, which are porous scaffolds, allowed for quicker

dispersion of acids and bases (through water-filled pores), thus normally exhibiting less obvious autocatalytic effects. These behaviors lead to a slow release stage lasting for up to 2 weeks. A cytotoxicity test was performed to investigate the effect of the PLGA scaffolds themselves in the in vitro and in vivo models. The MTT proliferation assay demonstrated that the PLGA scaffolds themselves did not exert any cytotoxic effects on cells. Therefore, PLGA can be used as a suitable drug carrier for drug release in vivo. During the in vitro anti-tumor experiment, the MTT proliferation assay, CLSM images, and flow cytometry analysis of MDA-MB-231 cells all indicated that the dual drug group was superior to the individual dosing group, and that the PFN scaffold implantation group showed the best treatment effect after 7 days of treatment. This was mainly attributed to the fact that combination of 5-FU and anti-cancer drugs (such as NVP-BEZ235) exerts a better therapeutic effect [59, 60]. In relevant clinical trials, Goss et al. proved that the combination of two drugs has a better effect on breast cancer treatment [61]. Finally, given the drug release and accumulation patterns observed, the PFN scaffolds group displayed the lowest cell viability at days 1 and 4. The scaffolds were also shown to have a potential advantage during long-term tumor treatment, with obvious tumor growth inhibition being observed in in vivo experiments compared to intraperitoneal injection. This was attributed to an enrichment of the released drugs and the degradation of scaffolds near the tumor ensuring

therapeutic

drug

levels

for

prolonged

time

[17].

Additionally,

intraperitoneally delivered free 5-FU and NVP-BEZ235 exhibited weaker anticancer

efficacy, mainly owing to the small drug dose and the quick clearance within the blood circulation. It is worth noting that, despite intraperitoneal delivery of dual drug formulations taking place every 3 days and PFN scaffolds being implanted only once for the anti-tumor treatment, the implantable scaffolds group still demonstrated comparable anti-cancer treatment potential. Furthermore, lung metastasis showed a similar treatment effect. Therefore, these results further indicated that the precisely localized drug delivery system could reduce drug loss inside the reticuloendothelial system [20, 62]. To further explore the anti-tumor efficacy of the PFN scaffolds, tumors were excised from nude mice and sectioned for histopathological analyses after treatment. H&E staining showed highly significant necrosis of tumor tissues in the PFN scaffold treatment group compared with the other groups. Moreover, the cancer cell proliferative activities in vivo, as measured by caspase-3 and Ki67 antibody staining, showed that PFN scaffold-treated mice manifested a highly suppressed proliferation, while other groups did not. In summary, compared with the traditional delivery approach of repeated systemic injections of combination cancer therapy, this 3D printed implantable scaffold significantly reduced the drug dosages needed, while maintaining effectiveness. Its therapeutic potential has advantages over traditional intraperitoneal injections, with the delivery system having the capability to ensure therapeutic drug levels at the tumor site for prolonged periods of time, while maintaining low systemic drug exposure to healthy tissues. Moreover, this implantable device system requires

one-time implantation and ensures long-term drug release, greatly reducing the frequency of drug administration. Therefore, our implantable PFN scaffolds constructed by E-jet 3D printing have excellent anti-tumor effects for orthotopic breast cancer.

5. Conclusion This study successfully developed a novel, precisely localized drug delivery device for orthotopic breast cancer therapy shown to suppress breast tumor growth and reduce pulmonary metastasis by incorporation of a combination chemotherapy system into implantable PLGA scaffolds. Despite certain limitations for this new implantable system, such as the need for surgery to implant the scaffolds, it is a promising tool, especially in the treatment of complex cancer cases requiring a range of therapeutic approaches. In particular, this release system has great advantages in controlling the drug release rate and establishes an exciting methodology for enhancing the efficacy of combination therapy in the treatment of tumors. This technic provides great potentials for developing multifunctional implantable devices for efficient and harmless cancer therapy.

Acknowledgements This study was financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31600782), Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province (2019JJ40018), Science and Technology Research and Development Foundation of Shenzhen

(JCYJ20170818112151323), and Hunan University (53112102). The authors would like to thank Dr. Christos Kotanidis for proofreading the manuscript.

Data availability The raw/processed data required to reproduce these findings cannot be shared at this time due to technical or time limitations.

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Declaration of interests ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. ☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: